Metal Forming & Cutting

Analysis

Lab Manual

Course Teacher: Dr. Mirza Jahanzaib

Department: Industrial Engineering

Session: 2K11

University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila

Sr.# Name of Experiment
To study and observe through demonstration the metal forming process
1 (Rolling process)

2 To study and analyze the process of open die forging

3 Estimation of power and cutting forces required in turning process

4 To analyze tool life at different machining variables

To study the non-conventional machining with demonstration of Electro

5 Discharge Machining (EDM)

6 To study and analyze the process of metal extrusion process

7 To analyze the process of Closed die Forging

To study and observe various stages of casting through demonstration of

8 Sand Casting Process.

To study and observe the welding process through demonstration and

9 practice. (Spot welding)

To study and observe the welding process through demonstration and

10 practice. (Electric Arc Welding)

To study and demonstration on CNC machining and understanding CNC

11 Coding

12 Lab Project
 Lab Exercise No. 01
Objective:

To study and observe through demonstration the metal

forming process (Rolling).
Theory:

Definition of Rolling:

Schematic Diagram of Rolling

Rolling is the process of plastic deformation of metals by squeezing action as it passes through
the pair of rotating rolls, either plane or grooved. The process may be carried out hot or cold.
.

i. Hot Rolling:

Hot rolling is a metal working process that

occurs above the re-crystallization
temperature of the material. Hot rolling is
used mainly to produce sheet metal or
simple cross-sections, such as rail tracks.
 ii. Cold Rolling:

Cold rolling occurs with the metal

below its re-crystallization
temperature (usually at room
temperature) which increases the
strength via strain hardening up to
20%.

The most common rolling mill is the two high rolling mills, which consist of two rolls usually
mounted horizontally in bearings at their ends and vertically above each other.

Procedure of Rolling Process:

a) Rolls will be drive through couplings at their ends by spindles, which are coupled to
pinions (or gears), which transmit the power from the electric motor.
b) To control the relative positioning of rolls, a roll positioning system is employed on the
mill stand, in small mills, RPS called “Mill Screw” is hand driven while in commercial
mills are motor driven.
c) The two high mills could be reversing or non-reversing type, the direction of motion of
rolls can be reversed and therefore work can be fed into mill from both sides by reversing
the direction of rotating of rolls.
d) For rolling to take place the rolls separation or rolls gap must be less than in going size of
stock.
e) After rolling, the height of stock is reduced and length is increased. The difference in
height of ingoing and outgoing is called “Draught”.`
f) In the figure, a flat piece of metal of thickness h0 is passed through a pair of radius R.
The AC is called “Arc of contact”.
g) The angle Ø subtended at the roll center by the arc of contact is called the “Angle of
contact” and can be evaluated from the following equation;
 h  h1 
Cos  1  0
 2 R 
Role of Elastic Deflection:

a) If there is no elastic deflection occurs of rolls during rolling, the final thickness of metal
h1 is same as the roll gap.
b) If elastic deflection of rolls occur, the final thickness of the metal after rolling h1 is
greater than the roll gap fixed before rolling.

When metal is introduced into roll gap two situations can occur:

1. The metal is gripped by the rolls and pulled along into the roll gap.
2. The metal slips over the roll surface.

Frictional Forces:
The process of rolling depends upon the frictional forces between the surface of the roll and the
metal. Condition of gripping of metal is;

  tan 
Maximum value of Ø is:
max  tan 1 
It is also called “Angle of bite”.

The average co-efficient of friction is;

  tan max
Basic Forms of Rolling:

Roll bending. Ring Rolling. Flat Rolling.

Defects of Rolling Process:

In hot rolling, if the temperature of work piece is not uniform, the flow of material will occur
more in warmer parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature difference is great enough
cracking and tearing can occur, as well as defects occur in flatness & shape, and profile. There
are six surface defects, which are given below;

1. Lap.
2. Mill Shearing.
3. Rolled in Scale.
4. Scabs.
5. Seams.
6. Slivers.

Conclusion:
Through the above demonstration of rolling it is concluded that

1. Different types of rolling can be carried out with associated advantages and
disadvantages.
2. It is a useful method for plastic deformation of metals according to desired shape.
 Lab Exercise No. 02
Objective:

To Analyze the Process of open die forging

Equipment and Material:
 Hydraulic press machine.
 Brass and aluminum.
 Vernier calliper.

Theory:

Forging:

Forging primarily consists of a work piece material and dies, which is of a predetermined shape
by applying compressive load. Forging may be done in open or closed dies.

Open Die Forging:

Open die forging are nominally struck between two flat surfaces
Close Die Forging:
Close die forging is done in die cavities. It is the forming of complex shapes parts from a metal
semi product between two engraved tools by hammering or pressing with close die forging press.

Procedure:
We know that the true strain experienced by the work piece during the process can be determined
by;

ϵ = In ----------------------- (1)

Where = starting height of work piece in inches (mm) and h=height at some intermediate
point in process. At the end of compression stroke, h=final value of hf and the true strain reaches
its maximum value.

Flow Stress:
The force required to continue the compression at any given height h during the process can be
obtained by multiplying corresponding cross sectional area by the flow stress;

F= . A-------------------- (2)

Where F = force in lb (N); A = cross sectional area of the part square inches/square mm, =
flow stress corresponding to the strain in lb/square inches (MPa). A shape factor is applied to the
previous force equation to account for effects of the D/h ratio and friction as;
F= . A ------------- (3)

Where A  d 2 and is the forging factor defined as;
4
= ------------ (4)

Where = Coefficient of friction; D = work part diameter in inches/mm; h = height in

inches/mm.
Hydraulic Press:

 A hydraulic press is a machine using a

hydraulic cylinder to generate a
compressive force.

 It uses the hydraulic equivalent of a

mechanical lever.

 The hydraulic press depends upon

“Pascal Principle” the pressure through
a close system is constant.

Readings and Calculations:

For Solid:
Initial height h0  12.66mm  0.498inch  0.5inch
Initial diameter d 0  18.98mm  0.747 inch   0.1 & n  0.17
Flow curve K  50,000 lb
inch 2
Forging force=? at 0.488inch & 0.485inch respectively.

Step 1:
Volume of work part V  h  d 2
4
 3.14 
 0.498  (0.747 )
2

 4 
 0.2181inch 3
Step 2:
At the start of yielding, “h” is slightly less than 0.498inch and we assume that

ϵ = 0.002
At which flow stress is Y f  K . n
 50,000 (0.002 ) 0.17
 17384 lb
Step 3: inch 2

The diameter is approximately 0.747inch and then area will be


A  d2
4
3.14
 (0.747 ) 2
4
 0.4380 inch 2

Step 3:
For these conditions the adjustment factor Kf is computed using equation.

 1
0.40.10.747 
0.498
 1.06

And forging force is computed by using the equation given below.

F= .A
 17384 1.06  0.4380

 8071 .04lbs.
Reading 2:
Now by using the above procedure, compute the force at h=0.488inch and 0.485inch by using
equation 1. h
 ln 0
h
0.498
 ln
0.488
 0.0183
Now we find stress
Y f  K . n
 50,000 (0.0183 ) 0.17
 25323 .85 lb
inch 2
Assuming a constant volume and neglecting other effects,

A
Volume   0.2181  0.4469 inch 2
Newheight  0.488
At diameter D=0.748 inch

 f  1
0.40.10.748 
0.488
 1.0613

And now we calculate the forging force

F= .A
 25323 .85  1.0613  0.4469
 12011 .10lbs.
Reading 3:
Now by using the above procedure, compute the force at h=0.485inch by using equation 1.
h
 ln 0
h
0.498
 ln
0.485
 0.02645
Now we find stress
Y f  K . n
 50,000 (0.02645 ) 0.17
 26964 .08 lb
inch 2
Assuming a constant volume and neglecting other effects,

A
Volume   0.2181  0.44969 inch 2
Newheight  0.485
At diameter D=0.7484 inch

 f  1
0.40.10.7484 
0.485
 1.0617

And now we calculate the forging force

F= .A
 26969 .08  1.0617  0.44969
 12873 .93lbs.
Observations & Calculations:
By considering height and forging force, observe trend b/w these one:

S.No Height (H in inches) Forging Force (F in Ibs)

1 0.498 8071.04
2 0.488 12011.10
3 0.485 12873.93

Ring Test:
In ring test, a specimen which is internally hollow, like a ring and tested under a hydraulic press
in order to analyze the process of open die forging. In this way, height verses diameter is
observed, that how variation occurs. By using different values of friction different behavior can
be observed.
Obervations and Calculations:

S.No Height(mm) Diameter(mm)

1 10.82 20.2 - -
2 10.6 20.7 0.0203 0.025
3 10.44 20.9 0.0153 0.0095
4 10.3 21.04 0.01341 0.0114

Conclusion & Analysis:

It is concluded that

1. By taking two different type of specimen, solid and ring, we observed that
deformation or change in height and diameter occurs more rapidly in ring than in
solid.
2. We observed by reducing the height and increasing the area, increase the forging
force upon specimen.
3. It is clearly observed that greater force is required for cold open die forging process
well it gives better surface finish.
4. Impact of lubrication is also important with lubrication less force required but without
it demands high force due to friction.
5. In case of ring specimen a large deformation is produced because there is much
higher distributed stress in ring specimen as compared to solid specimen.
6. Uniformity of deformation will be high in cold forging because in hot forging
residual stresses will disturb the uniformity.
 7. So in this way, we analyzed open die forging of these specimen.

By observing different parameters, suggest forging process

Parameter Cold Hot

Strength hardness of billet High Low
Ductility Low High
Force/Energy/Power High Low
consumption
Load on test die High Low
Tool wear Low High
Surface finish Better Worse
Uniformity of Deformation Better Worse
 Lab Exercise No. 03
Objective:

Estimation of power and cutting forces required in

turning.
Apparatus:
Lath machine
Vernier calliper
Steel Ruler
Specimen (Mild Steel)

Theory:

Turning:
It is a process in which cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a
rotating work piece to generate a cylindrical shape.

Turning Parameters:
The parameters involved in turning process are;

Tool geometry.
 Material removal rate.
Forces in cutting.
Tool material, feed, cutting speed.

Tool Geometry:
The main factors involved in tool geometry are

 Tool angles.
 Nose radius.
 Edge radius.
 Material.
 Hardness.
 Finishing & Coating

Rake Angle
It controls the direction of flow of chip and strength of tool tip. It can be positive or negative.
Positive Rake angle improves cutting speed/operation by reducing forces and temperature.
Negative Rake angle controls the direction of chip flow.

Relief Angle
It controls interference and rubbing at tool work piece interface.

Nose Radius Variations

During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the part.
The point is usually rounded to a certain radius called “Nose Radius”

Material Removal Rate

The following parameters are involved in material removal rate process;

 Speed (V)
 Feed (f)
 Depth of cut (d)
and no of revolutions. If N increases the time of contact between tool and work piece decreases
resulting an almost constant cutting force at different revolutions.
So the material removal rate is; MRR   .Davg . f .d .N
D0  D f
Davg. 
2
It is also observed that power consumption increases as MRR increases provided with remaining
conditions remain same.

Feed Rate:
f r  f .N
f =feed & N=Number of revolutions

Time of Turning is; T  L V   .D0 .N

f .N
& and L=Length of cut.
Basically two factors change the time of cut feed and no of revolutions. Both are inversely
proportional to time of cut.

Chip formation:
In this analysis process, we will change different parameters. Especially at high cutting speed,
high feed and depth of cut we get smooth surface with segmented chips. On the other hand At
low feed and depth of cut we got long twisted chips.

Schematic Illustration of Tool Geometry Views

Forces in Cutting:

The forces involved in cutting are;

 Cutting force ( Fc )
 Thrust force ( Ft )
 Radial force (Fr )

Cutting force ( Fc):

The force that acts downwards on the tool tip and tends to deflect the tool downward

Thrust force ( Ft ):
The force that acts in the longitudinal direction

Radial force ( Fr):

The force which pushes the tool away from the work piece

Tool Material:
Work piece Material Cutting Speed m/min
Aluminum 100-200
Steel 50-500
C.I gray 60-00

Tool material is an important factor to consider. Generally tool material is harder than work
piece material now the question arises how and why?
Normally a tool material can work at higher feeds but when high cutting speed have to be
worked than harder material are required. Following are the range of material according to
cutting speed.

 Uncoated Carbides
 Coated Carbides
 Ceramics
 Cubic boron nitride, Diamond

Procedures and Methods:

As our objective is basically analysis so we require certain calculations. Our main focus will be
on cutting conditions speed, feed and depth of cut. Any variation in these simultaneously or one
at a time will change the impact of forces and power consumption at output. We have to consider
their effects

Given Data:

 Length= 60mm
 Diameter= 24.8mm
 Material= Mild Steel
 Cutting speed= 50-500 mm/rev

Readings and Calculations:

Reading 01:
MRR   .Davg . f .d .N
 3.1416  24.65  0.37 1 50
3
 1431 .92 mm
min .
P    MRR
 4  1431 .92
 5727 .67
P  Torque  N
Power
Torque 
N
5727 .67
  114 .55
50
Fc  Davg.
T
2
Fc  9.294 N

Reading 02:
3
MRR  3.1416  23.95  1  0.37  50  1391 .96 mm
min .
Power  5567 .85
Torque  111 .357
Fc  9.299 N
Reading 03:
3
MRR  3.1416  23.2  0.37  1 50  1348 .37 mm
min
Power  5393 .498
Torque  107 .86
Fc  9.2991
Reading 04:
3
MRR  3.1416  22.85  0.5  0.5  310  5563 .38 mm
min
Power  22253 .52
Torque  71 .785
Fc  6.2832 N
Reading 05:
3
MRR  3.1416  22.6  0.5  0.62  310  6823 .11 mm
min .
Power  27292 .44

Reading 06: Torque  88 .040129

MRR Fc 3.1416

3
 22
7.7912 N .33  0.69  0.5  480  11617 .16 mm
min .
Power  46468 .64
Torque  96 .80966
Fc  8.67081 N
Reading 07:
3
MRR  3.1416  22.08  0.58  0.5  310  6236 .05 mm
min .
Power  24944 .203
Torque  80 .4651
Fc  7.2885 N
Reading 09:
3
MRR  3.1416  21.7  0.58  0.5  310  6128 .73 mm
min .
Power  24514 .91
Torque  79 .080

Fc  7.28851 N

Observations & Calculations:

S. N D F Diameter MRR Time Power Torque
No of cut

1 50 1 0.37 24.8 24.5 24.6 1431.92 3.243 5727.67 114.5 9.294

5
2 50 1 0.37 24.5 23.4 23.9 1391.96 3.243 5567.85 111.357 9.299
5
3 50 1 0.37 23.4 23.0 23.2 1348.37 3.243 5393.49 107.86 9.299
1
4 310 0.5 0.5 23.0 22.7 22.8 5563.38 0.387 22253.5 71.85 6.823
5 1
5 310 0.5 0.62 22.7 22.5 22.6 6823.11 0.312 27292.4 88.04 7.791
2
6 480 0.5 0.69 22.5 22.1 22.3 11617.1 0.181 46468.64 96.81 8.670
6 3 6 1 8
7 310 0.5 0.58 22.1 22.0 22.0 6236.05 0.333 24944.20 80.465 7.288
6 8 7 3 5
8 310 0.5 0.58 22.0 21.4 21.7 6128.7 0.333 24514.91 79.08 7.288
7 5
Graphs:

Feed v/s Cutting Force

10
Cutting Force(N)

4
Series1
2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Feed(mm)

Depth of Cut v/s Cutting Force

10
Cutting Force(N)

4
Series1
2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Depth of cut (mm)
 Feed v/s Time of cut
3.5
3
Time of cut (sec) 2.5
2
1.5
Series1
1
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Feed (mm)

Analysis &Conclusion:
For analysis purpose we will plot three relations

 Feed v/s Cutting Force

 Depth of cut v/s Cutting Force
 Cutting speed v/s Cutting Force
 Feed v/s Time of cut

It is observed that as feed increases the cutting force decreases, Reason for this is that the
contacting time for tool work piece interface decreases as feed rate increases.
Cutting speed also as a relation with feed. You will feel that tool post ( carriage) will
move fastly as feed increases because tool has to complete the given feed per revolution.
But it can increase a bit if depth increases
It is also observed that as the depth of cut increases the cutting force also increases
linearly because the friction at tool chip interface increases.
Now remaining is cutting speed. The cutting speed primarily depends on diameter and
number of revolutions. If the number of revolutions increases then time of contact
between tool and work piece decreases resulting an almost constant cutting force at
different revolutions.
Now consider time of cut. Two factors change the time of cut (feed) and number of
revolutions. Both are inversely proportional to time of cut.
In all observations we have over locked a factor (Diameter). We are continuously
changing it but for proper experimentation it should remain same.
Now we will discuss chip behavior. At high cutting speed and high feed and depth we got
some smooth surface with segmented chips and we got long twisted chips at low feed and
depth of cut.
It also observe that power consumption also increases as MRR increases provided the
remaining conditions remain same.
Through this experiment it is concluded that;
1. By varying the feed, the different behavior of cutting force is observed. But this
behavior also includes cutting speed, number of revolutions and material removal
rate.
2. Similarly we observed cutting time, which is mostly related to number of revolutions.
Greater the number of revolutions less cutting time and vice versa.
 Lab Exercise 4
Objective:

To analyze Tool Life at different machining Variables

Apparatus:
Milling M/c, Drill Bit, Specimen (Mild Steel)

Theory:
Introduction:
Tool Life
Factors Affecting Tool life in Machining Operations

Introduction:
1. Cutting tool life is important consideration in metal cutting processes
2. In machining operations, cutting conditions such as tool angles, cutting speeds and feed
rates are usually selected to give an economical tool life.
3. Conditions giving a short tool life are uneconomical because tool grinding and tool
replacement costs are high
4. Factors affecting tool life should be carefully monitored to minimize their consequences.

Tool Life:
The tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can be used.

Factors Affecting Tool life in Machining Operations:

 Cutting Tool Geometry
 Cutting Tool Material
 Cutting Tool Characteristics
 Cutting Conditions
 Workplace Material
 Cutting Fluid

Cutting Tool Geometry:

Geometry of cutting tool varies with following listed factors:
 Power & speed of Surface finish
machine requirements

Workpiece Type of operation

material being performed
Geometry
of cutting
tool varies
with

Cutting tool geometry directly affects the following factors:

Productivity of Machined
Machining surface quality

Distribution of
Chip control the thermal
energy

Cutting tool Temperature

Tool life
geometry is distribution in
directly the cutting
wedge
affects

Cutting Tool Material:

The following factors affecting selection cutting tool material:

 The cutting operation involved.

  Work piece material.
 Production requirements.
 Surface finish & accuracy requirements.
 Machine to be used.

Major qualities required in a cutting tool

 Resistance to heat (hot hardness).

 Resistance to mechanical impact thermal shock.
 Resistance to wear (hardness).
 Resistance to fracture (toughness).
 Chemical stability to the work piece material

Cutting Tool Characteristics:

Cutting tool characteristics to stand against high stress

 Pressure resistance
 Bending strength
 Edge strength
 High temperature strength
 Abrasion resistance
 Reproducible wear resistance
Cutting Conditions:

 Cutting speed.
 Feed rate.
 Depth of cut.

Cutting Speed:
a) Cutting speed has the greatest influence on tool wear and tool life.
b) Most materials can be machined over a wide range of speed.
c) When a shorter life is allowable the speed can be increased.

Relationship between tool life and cutting speed is expressed by Taylor’s equation for tool life

V =C
V= Cutting Speed

T=Time

n=Exponent depends upon cutting conditions

C= Constant

Each work piece, tool material and cutting condition has its own value of n and C.

Ranges of n:
  High speed steel – 0.08~0.2
 Cast Iron – 0.1~0.5
 Carbides – 0.2~0.5
 Ceramics – 0.5~0.7

Feed Rate
Feed rate changes have a less effect on tool life than cutting speed does.

Relationship between tool life and cutting conditions is expressed by modified Taylor equation

V . . =C
Realistically n= 0.15, x=0.15, y=0.6

T=

Depth of cut
Depth of cut has least effect upon tool life, so heaviest possible depth of cut should always be
used.
Here the different trend of cutting conditions with tool life has been observed.

Observations & Calculations:

Now as cutting speed and feed is not labeled on machine. They are not direct parameters.
Following steps should be done to find the unknown values.

1. We have to calculate (T) tool life in (min).

2. Let material to be removed is 1mm.
3. Length of cut in 1 pass = 50mm
 Spindle speed = 1200rpm
 Depth of cut = 0.25mm
 Feed rate = 125mm/rev
4. Cutting speed =
= 3.1416*10*1200
= 37680 mm/min.
5. Total cut required for 1mm MRR = Material to be removed

Depth of cut

= 1mm /0.25 = 4 cuts

6. Total travel length = length of cut in one pass*Total cut required

 = 50*4 = 200

7. Cycle Time = Total Length

Feed rate
= 200/125 = 1.6min
8. No of parts being made by one tool = Tool life
Cycle Time

Sr Spindle Feed Depth of Cutting Feed (f) T .cuts T.travel Cycle

no speed rate cut Speed mm required length= length Time=
(N) (FR) (DOC) ( = MRR of 1pass*total T. length
DOC cuts FR
(min)

01 280 63 0.1 8796.4 0.225 10 50*10=500 7.9

02 450 125 0.2 14137.2 0.227 5 50*5=250 2

03 710 250 0.3 22305.3 0.352 4 50*4=200 0.8

Now Tool Life = C = 200 for HSS

Now calculating tool life and parts

While x= 0.15 y= 0.6 n=0.15

T=

T=

Now repeat these calculations to get results against different parameters. Plot the results and do
the analysis.

Graphs:

 Cutting speed v/s Tool Life

 Feed v/s Tool Life
 Depth of cut v/s Tool Life

Now we will use design of experiment approach so = 27 combinations

SR NO Cutting Speed (V) Feed(F) Depth of cut (DOC) Tool Life No of parts
1 8796.4 0.22 0.1 0.17 1
2 8796.4 0.27 0.1 0.16 1
3 8796.4 0.35 0.1 0.15 1
4 8796.4 0.22 0.2 0.08 1
5 8796.4 0.27 0.2 0.08 1
6 8796.4 0.35 0,2 0.07 1
7 8796.4 0.22 0.3 0.05 1
8 8796.4 0.27 0.3 0.05 1
9 8796.4 0.35 0.3 0.05 1
10 14137.2 0.22 0.1 0.1 1
11 14137.2 0.27 0.1 0.1 1
12 14137.2 0.35 0.1 0.09 1
13 14137.2 0.22 0.2 0.05 1
14 14137.2 0.27 0.2 0.05 1
15 14137.2 0.35 0,2 0.04 1
16 14137.2 0.22 0.3 0.03 1
17 14137.2 0.27 0.3 0.03 1
18 14137.2 0.35 0.3 0.03 1
19 22305.3 0.22 0.1 0.06 1
20 22305.3 0.27 0.1 0.06 1
21 22305.3 0.35 0.1 0.06 1
22 22305.3 0.22 0.2 0.03 1
23 22305.3 0.27 0.2 0.03 1
24 22305.3 0.35 0,2 0.03 1
25 22305.3 0.22 0.3 0.02 1
26 22305.3 0.27 0.3 0.02 1
27 22305.3 0.35 0.3 0.02 1

Cutting speed v/s Tool Life

0.18
0.16
"Comb 1 at DOC 0.1"
0.14
"Comb 2 at DOC 0.1"
0.12
Tool Life (T)

"Comb 3 at DOC 0.1"

0.1
"Comb 4 at DOC 0.2 "
0.08
"Comb 5 at DOC 0.2"
0.06
Comb 6
0.04
"Comb 7 at DOC 0.3"
0.02
Comb 8
0 Comb 9
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Cutting speed (V)
 Feed v/s Tool Life
0.18

0.16

0.14 "Comb 1 at V= 8796.4"

0.12 "Comb 2"

"Comb 3"
Tool Life

0.1
"Comb 4 at V= 14137.2"
0.08
"Comb 5"
0.06
"Comb 6"
0.04 "Comb 7 at V= 22305.2"
0.02 "Comb 8"

0 "Comb 9"
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Feed

Depth of cut v/s Tool Life

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
Tool Life

0.1
"Comb 1 at V=8796.4"
0.08
"Comb 2 at V=14137.2"
0.06 "Comb 3 at V=22305.2"

0.04

0.02

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Depth of cut
Conclusion & Analysis:
From graphs it is evident that
a) As cutting speed increases the tool life decreases because feed and depth will increase.
b) As feed increases the cutting speed and tool life is somehow un affected but the
corresponding cutting speed and depth of cut values makes a difference.
c) As depth of cut increases the cutting speed decreases significantly due to greater flank
and crater wear.
 Lab Exercise no 5
Objective:
Demonstration Of Electro Discharge Machining
(EDM)
Introduction of EDM
 Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) is an electro-thermal non-traditional machining
process, where electrical energy is used to generate electrical spark and material removal
mainly occurs due to thermal energy of the spark.
 EDM is mainly used to machine difficult-to-machine materials and high strength
temperature resistant alloys. EDM can be used to machine difficult geometries in small
batches or even on job-shop basis.
 Work material to be machined by EDM has to be electrically conductive.

Principle of EDM

 In this process the metal is removing from the work piece due to erosion case by rapidly
recurring spark discharge taking place between the tool and work piece.
 Show the mechanical set up and electrical set up and electrical circuit for electro
discharge machining.
 A thin gap about 0.025mm is maintained between the tool and work piece by a servo
system.
 Both tool and work piece are submerged in a dielectric fluid .Kerosene/EDM
oil/deionized water is very common type of liquid dielectric although gaseous dielectrics
are also used in certain cases.
This fig.1.1 is shown the electric setup of the Electric discharge machining. The tool is cathode
and work piece is anode. When the voltage across the gap becomes sufficiently high it discharges
through the gap in the form of the spark in interval of from 10 of micro seconds. And positive
ions and electrons are accelerated, producing a discharge channel that becomes conductive. It is
just at this point when the spark jumps causing collisions between ions and electrons and
creating a channel of plasma. A sudden drop of the electric resistance of the previous channel
allows that current density reaches very high values producing an increase of ionization and the
creation of a powerful magnetic field. The moment spark occurs sufficiently pressure developed
between work and tool as a result of which a very high temperature is reached and at such high
pressure and temperature that some metal is melted and eroded. Such localized extreme rise in
temperature leads to material removal. Material removal occurs due to instant vaporization of the
material as well as due to melting. The molten metal is not removed completely but only
partially.

As the potential difference is withdrawn as shown in Fig. 1.2, the plasma channel is no longer
sustained. As the plasma channel collapse, it generates pressure or shock waves, which evacuates
the molten material forming a crater of removed material around the site of the spark.

Types of EDM:
 Basically, there are two different types of EDM:
Die-sinking
Wire-cut.

Die-sinking EDM:
In the Sinker EDM Machining process, two metal parts submerged in an insulating liquid are
connected to a source of current which is switched on and off automatically depending on the
parameters set on the controller. When the current is switched on, an electric tension is created
between the two metal parts. If the two parts are brought together to within a fraction of an inch,
the electrical tension is discharged and a spark jumps across. Where it strikes, the metal is
heated up so much that it melts. Sinker EDM, also called cavity type EDM or volume EDM
consists of an electrode and work piece submerged in an insulating liquid such as, more
typically, oil or, less frequently, other dielectric fluids. The electrode and work piece are
connected to a suitable power supply. The power supply generates an electrical potential between
the two parts. As the electrode approaches the work piece, dielectric breakdown occurs in the
fluid, forming a plasma channel, and a small spark jumps.

These sparks usually strike one at a time because it is very unlikely that different locations in the
inter-electrode space have the identical local electrical characteristics which would enable a
spark to occur simultaneously in all such locations. These sparks happen in huge numbers at
seemingly random locations between the electrode and the work piece. As the base metal is
eroded, and the spark gap subsequently increased, the electrode is lowered automatically by the
machine so that the process can continue uninterrupted. Several hundred thousand sparks occur
per second, with the actual duty cycle carefully controlled by the setup parameters.

Important parameters of EDM:

1) Spark On-time (pulse time or Ton):

The duration of time (μs) the current is allowed to flow per cycle. Material removal is directly
proportional to the amount of energy applied during this on-time. This energy is really controlled
by the peak current and the length of the on-time.

2) Spark Off-time (pause time or T off ):

The duration of time (μs) between the sparks (that is to say, on-time). This time allows the
molten material to solidify and to be wash out of the arc gap. This parameter is to affect the
speed and the stability of the cut. Thus, if the off-time is too short, it will cause sparks to be
unstable.

3) Arc gap (or gap):

The Arc gap is distance between the electrode and work piece during the process of EDM. It may
be called as spark gap. Spark gap can be maintained by servo system (fig no.-1).

4) Discharge current (current Ip):

Current is measured in amp Allowed to per cycle. Discharge current is directly proportional to
the Material removal rate.

5) Duty cycle (τ):

It is a percentage of the on-time relative to the total cycle time. This parameter is calculated by
dividing the on-time by the total cycle time (on-time pulse offtime).

τ = Ton
Ton+Toff

6) (Voltage (V):

It is a potential that can be measure by volt it is also effect to the material removal rate and
allowed to per cycle. Voltage is given by in this experiment is 50 V.
7) Diameter of electrode (D):

It is the electrode of Cu-tube there are two different size of diameter 4mm and 6mm in this
experiment. This tool is used not only as a electrode but also for internal flushing.

8) Over cut :

It is a clearance per side between the electrode and the work piece after the
marching operation.

Characteristics of EDM

Mechanism of process Controlled erosion (melting and evaporation)

through a
series of electric spark

Spark gap 0.010- 0.500 mm

Spark frequency 200 – 500 kHz

Peak voltage across the gap 30- 250 V

Metal removal rate (max.) 5000 mm3/min

Specific power consumption 2-10 W/mm3/min

Dielectric fluid EDM oil, Kerosene liquid paraffin, silicon oil,

deionized water etc.
Tool material Copper, Brass, graphite, Ag-W alloys, Cu-W
alloys .

MRR/TWR 0.1-10

Materials that can be machined All conducting metals and alloys.

Shapes Microholes, narrow slots, blind cavities

Limitations High specific energy consumption, non

conducting materials can’t be machined

Dielectric fluid:

The dielectric fluid has the following functions:

 It helps in initiating discharge by serving as a conducting medium when ionized, and
conveys the spark. It concentrates the energy to a very narrow region.
 It helps in quenching the spark, cooling the work, tool electrode and enables arcing to be
prevented.
 It carries away the eroded metal along with it.
 It acts as a coolant in quenching the sparks.
 The electrode wear rate, metal removal rate and other operation characteristics are also
Influenced by the dielectric fluid.
 The dielectric generally fluid used are transformer on silicon oil, EDM oil, kerosene
(paraffin oil) and de-ionized water are used as dielectric fluid in EDM. Tap water cannot
be used as it ionizes too early and thus breakdown due to presence of salts as impurities
occur.
 Dielectric medium is generally flushed around the spark zone. It is also applied through
the tool to achieve efficient removal of molten material.
Flushing method

 Flushing is the most important function in any electrical discharge machining operation.
 Flushing is the process of introducing clean filtered dielectric fluid into the spark gap.
There are number of flushing methods used to remove the metal particles efficiently.
 Flushing of U-tube Cu electrode
Tool Material:

Tool material should be such that it would not undergo much tool wear when it is impinged
by positive ions. Thus the localized temperature rise has to be less by tailoring or properly
choosing its properties or even when temperature increases, there would be less melting. Further,
the tool should be easily workable as intricate shaped geometric features are machined in EDM.
Thus the basic characteristics of electrode materials are:
1) High electrical conductivity- Electrons are cold emitted more easily and there is less
bulk electrical heating.
2) High thermal conductivity -for the same heat load, the local temperature rise would be
less due to faster heat conducted to the bulk of the tool and thus less tool wear.
3) Higher density – for the same heat load and same tool wear by weight there would be
less volume removal or tool wear and thus less dimensional loss or inaccuracy.
4) High melting point – high melting point leads to less tool wear due to less tool material
melting for the same heat load.
5) Easy manufacturability.
6) Cost – cheap.

The followings are the different electrode materials which are used commonly in the
industry:
 Graphite
 copper
 Tellurium copper – 99% Cu + 0.5% tellurium
 Brass

Design variable
Design parameter, process parameter and constant parameter are following ones,

Design parameters –
 Material removal rate.
  Tool wear rate
 Over cut (OC
Machining parameter –
 Discharge current (Ip)
 Pulse on time (Ton)
 Diameter of U-shaped tool
Constant parameter-
 Duty cycle.
 Voltage
 Flushing pressure
 Polarity

Work piece material

It is capable of machining geometrically complex or hard material components, that

are precise and difficult-to-machine such as heat treated tool steels, composites, super alloys,
ceramics, carbides, heat resistant steels etc.There are different types of tool material are using the
EDM method. And the tool steel contains carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited
to be made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to
abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at elevated
temperatures (red-hardness). Tool steel is generally used in a heat-treated state. Tool steels are
made to a number of grades for different applications. In general, the edge temperature under
expected use is an important determinant of both composition and required heat treatment. The
higher carbon grades are typically used for such applications as stamping dies, metal cutting
tools, etc. In this experiment are using AISI P-20 plastic mould tool steel material.

Application of EDM :

 The EDM process is most widely used by the mould-making tool and die industries,
but is becoming a common method of making prototype and production parts,
especially in the aerospace, automobile and electronics industries in which production
quantities are relatively low.
 It is used to machine extremely hard materials that are difficult to machine like alloys,
tool steels, tungsten carbides etc.
 It is used for forging, extrusion, wire drawing, thread cutting.
 It is used for drilling of curved holes.
 It is used for internal thread cutting and helical gear cutting.
 It is used for machining sharp edges and corners that cannot be machined effectively
by other machining processes.
 Higher Tolerance limits can be obtained in EDM machining. Hence areas that require
higher surface accuracy use the EDM machining process.
 Ceramic materials that are difficult to machine can be machined by the EDM
machining process.
  Electric Discharge Machining has also made its presence felt in the new fields such as
sports, medical and surgical, instruments, optical, including automotive R&D areas.
 It is a promising technique to meet increasing demands for smaller components
usually highly complicated, multi-functional parts used in the field of micro-
electronics.

Advantages of EDM:

(a) Any material that is electrically conductive can be cut using the EDM process.
(b) Hardened work pieces can be machined eliminating the deformation caused by heat
treatment.
(c) X, Y, and Z axes movements allow for the programming of complex profiles using simple
electrode.
(d) Complex dies sections and molds can be produced accurately, faster, and at lower costs.
Due to the modern NC control systems on die sinking machines, even more complicated
work pieces can be machined.
(e) The high degree of automation and the use of tool and work piece changers allow the
machines to work unattended for overnight or during the weekends
(f) Forces are produced by the EDM-process and that, as already mentioned, flushing and
hydraulic forces may become large for some work piece geometry. The large cutting forces
of the mechanical materials removal processes, however, remain absent.
(g) Thin fragile sections such as webs or fins can be easily machined without deforming the
part.

Limitation of EDM :

1. The need for electrical conductivity – To be able to create discharges, the work piece has
to be electrically conductive. Isolators, like plastics, glass and most ceramics, cannot be
machined by EDM, although some exception like for example diamond is known.
2. Machining of partial conductors like Si semi-conductors, partially conductive ceramics
and even glass is also possible.
3. Predictability of the gap - The dimensions of the gap are not always easily predictable,
especially with intricate work piece geometry. In these cases, the flushing conditions and
the contamination state of differ from the specified one.
4. In the case of die-sinking EDM, the tool wear also contributes to a deviation of the
desired work piece geometry and it could reduce the achievable accuracy. Intermediate
measuring of the work piece or some preliminary tests can often solve the problems.
5. Low material removal rate- The material removal of the EDM-process is rather low,
especially in the case of die-sinking EDM where the total volume of a cavity has to be
removed by melting and evaporating the metal. With wire-EDM only the outline of the
desired work piece shape has to be machined. Due to the low material removal rate, EDM
is principally limited to the production of small series although some specific mass
production applications are known.
6. Optimization of the electrical parameters - The choice of the electrical parameters of the
7. EDM-process depends largely on the material combination of electrode and work piece
and EDM manufactures only supply these parameters for a limited amount of material
combinations. When machining special alloys, the user has to develop his own
technology.
 Lab Exercise no 6 :
Objective:
To Analyze the process of Extrusion
Apparatus:

Hydraulic Press
Die
Specimen( Teflon or Aluminum Alloy)
Procedure & Theory:
Extrusion:

It is the process by which a block/bullet of metal is reduced in cross section by forcing it to flow
through a die orifice under high pressure.
Classification of Extrusion Processes:
There are several ways to classify metal extrusion processes;
By Direction
 Direct/Indirect extrusion
 Forward/Backward extrusion.
By Operating Temperature
 Hot/cold extrusion.
By Equipment
 Horizontal and vertical extrusion.
Direct Extrusion:

1. The metal billet is placed in a container

and driven through the die by the ram.
2. The dummy block or pressure plate is
placed at the end of the ram in contact
with the billet.
3. Friction is at the die and container wall
requires higher pressure than indirect
extrusion.

Indirect Extrusion:

1. The hollow ram containing the die is

kept stationary and the container with
the billet is caused to move.

2. Friction at the die only (no relative

movement at the container wall)
requires roughly constant pressure.

3. Hollow ram limits the applied load.

 Schematic Illustration of Indirect Extrusion Process
Forward Extrusion:

1. Metal is forced to flow in the same

direction as the punch.
2. The punch closely fits the die cavity
to prevent backward flow of the
material

Backward Extrusion:

1. Metal is forced to flow in the

direction opposite to the punch
movement.
2. Metal can also be forced to flow into
recesses in the punch.

Hot Extrusion:

Hot extrusion is done at fairly high

temperatures, approximately 50 to 75% of the
melting point of the metal. The pressure can
range from 35-700 M Pa ( 5076-101,525 psi )
 The most commonly used extrusion process is
the hot direct process. The cross-sectional
shape of the extrusion is defined by the shape
of the die.

Due to high temperatures and pressures and its

detrimental effect on the die life as well as
other components, good lubrication is
necessary.

Cold Extrusion:

It is the process done at room temperature

or slightly elevated temperatures. This
process can be used for most materials –
subjects to designing robust enough tooling
that can withstand the stresses created by
extrusion.

Examples of parts that are cold extruded

are aluminum cans, cylinders etc

Extrusion equipment (Presses, dies and tools)

Presses:
Most extrusion are made with hydraulic presses.
 Horizontal Presses
 Vertical Presses
Extrusion dies
 Die design
 Die materials
Tools

Process Variables in Extrusion:

For Direct Extrusion:
a) The metal begins to flow through the die at the maximum pressure, the breakthrough
pressure.
b) As the billet extrudes through the die the pressure required to maintain flow progressively
decreases with decreasing length of the billet in the container.
 c) At the end of the stroke, the pressure rises up rapidly and it is usual to stop the ram travel
so as to leave a small discard in the container.
Extrusion pressure = extrusion force / cross sectional area
Step 1:

Extrusion ratio:

R is the ratio of the initial cross sectional area, of the billet to the final cross sectional area,
after extrusion.
=

Step 2: Step 3:

The true strain can be computed as: The pressure and flow stress can be computed
as:

= P=

= =
This hold good for direct extrusion. Here assume no friction is occurring.

For Indirect Extrusion:

Extrusion pressure is constant with increasing ram travel and represent the stress required to
deform the metal through the die.
As friction is occurring so additional pressure will be produced
So
 =
=

called as Shear Strength. (Mpa, Ib/ )

=
=
=

= .
frictional force we need to find pressure indirect extrusion process.

P= )
Through this formula we can find forces and pressure which are generally involved in extrusion
processes.
Now perform the calculations at different points and analyze frictional forces, normal force and
resulted flow stress behavior.
 Lab Exercise no 7
Objective:
To analyze the process of Closed die Forging
Apparatus:
Hydraulic press, vernier calliper, work piece (specimen)
Theory and Procedure:
We know that the true strain experienced by the work during the process can be determined by ϵ

= In ---- (1)
Where ho = starting height of work in inches (mm); h = height at some intermediate point in
process. At the end of the compression stroke, h = final value of ‘ and the true strain reaches
its maximum value. The force required to continue the compression at any given height h during
the process can be obtained by multiplying corresponding cross sectional area by the flow stress;
F= . A---- (2)
Where F = force in lb (N); A = cross sectional area of the part square inches/square mm, =
flow stress corresponding to the strain in lb/square inches (MPa).
A shape factor is applied to the previous force equation to account for effects of the D/h ratio and
friction as F = . A ---- (3)

and is the forging factor defined as = ---- (4)

Where = Coefficient of friction; D = work part diameter in inches/mm; h = height in

inches/mm

Observations & Calculations:

S. Height Diameter Strain Flow Area=

No (in) (in) stress Volume
In
(Ibs) New Height
1 0.53 0.54 0.90 0.90 0 0 0.002 1968.4 0.635
2 0.53 0.50 0.90 0.92 0.015 0.01 0.058 32620 0.67
3 0.53 0.48 0.90 0.95 0.025 0.025 0.099 34842 0.70
4 0.53 0.43 0.90 0.98 0.05 0.04 0.20 39275 0.78
5 0.53 0.40 0.90 1 0.065 0.05 0.28 41308 0.84

S. Final Diameter = √ √ Forging Factor= Forging Force=

No = F= .A
1 0.90 1.06 1324.9
2 0.92 1.071 23407
3 0.95 1.079 26316.1
4 0.98 1.09 33391.6
5 1 1.11 38515.5

Height v/s Forging Force

45000
40000
35000
Forging Force

30000
25000
20000 Height v/s Forging Force

15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Height
 Height v/s Diameter
0.06

Change in diameter
0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02 Height v/s Diameter

0.01

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Change in height

Now in this way perform the experiment until the desired height is obtained & perform then
experiment in lubrication and non lubrication states.
Compare and plot the results for Al, Cu, Mild Steel and Teflon in lubricated and non lubricated
states.

Analysis:
It is evident from graphs that forging force increase with decrease in height. One thing that
should be considered is that operation is performed in constrained atmospheres diameter will be
constrained due to die walls & higher force will be required for deformation.
 Experiment no 8
Objective:
To study and observe various stages of casting through
demonstration of Sand Casting Process
Casting:

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into

a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold
to complete the process.
Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after
mixing two or more components together;
Examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay.
Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult
or uneconomical to make by other methods.
Metal Casting
Metal casting is one of the most common casting processes. Metal patterns are more
expensive but are more dimensionally stable and durable. Metallic patterns are used
where repetitive production of castings is required in large quantities.
But the process which we adopted is sand casting:
Sand casting:
It also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as
the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand
casting process.
 Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all
metal castings are produced via a sand casting process.
 Sand casting is relatively cheap and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use. In
addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the
sand.
 The mixture is moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other substances, to
develop strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for
molding.
 The sand is typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes known as a flask.
 The mold cavities and gate system are created by compacting the sand around models,
or patterns, or carved directly into the sand.
Basic Processes:
There are six steps in this process:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

The important terms related to casting process is :

Solidification Time:

Pouring Temperature:

When metal is poured into the mould, the temperature will be as high as its inversion
temperature
Thermal Arrest:
It gets cooled when poured into the mould and molten metal in the liquid form will solidify. This
time is called local solidification time.

The solidified metal in the mould (called casting) gets cooled in the mould to the temperature of
the surroundings.

Observed Work pieces at Slow, Medium & Rapid Casting:

At Slow:

When the molten metal is solidified, then place this metal for cooling about 45 mins.

At Medium:

The molten metal after solidification, for cooling about 10mins.

At Rapid:

As solidification occurs, quenched the metal so it will cool down.

Different temperature adopted to observe the strength of work piece or metal

After testing under material testing machine Aluminium fractured in such a way:
 Lab Exercise No. 09
Objective
To study and perform the spot welding process
Introduction
Solid materials need to be joined together in order that they may be fabricated into useful shapes for
various applications such as industrial, commercial, domestic, art ware and other uses. Depending on
the material and the application, different joining processes are adopted such as, mechanical (bolts,
rivets etc.), chemical (adhesive) or thermal (welding, brazing or soldering). Thermal processes are
extensively used for joining of most common engineering materials, namely, metals. This exercise is
designed to demonstrate specifically: gas welding, arc welding, resistance welding, brazing.

WELDING PROCESSES
Welding is a process in which two materials, usually metals, and is permanently joined together by
coalescence, resulting from temperature, pressure, and metallurgical conditions. The particular
combination of temperature and pressure can range from high temperature with no pressure to high
pressure with any increase in temperature. Thus, welding can be achieved under a wide variety of
conditions and numerous welding processes have been developed and are routinely used in
manufacturing. To obtain coalescence between two metals following requirements need to be met: (1)
perfectly smooth, flat or matching surfaces, (2) clean surfaces, free from oxides, absorbed gases, grease
and other contaminants, (3e) metals with no internal impurities. These are difficult conditions to obtain.
Surface roughness is overcome by pressure or by melting two surfaces so that fusion occurs.
Contaminants are removed by mechanical or chemical cleaning prior to welding or by causing sufficient
metal flow along the interface so that they are removed away from the weld zone friction welding is a
solid state welding technique. In many processes the contaminants are removed by fluxing agents. The
production of quality welds requires (1) a satisfactory heat and/or pressure source, (2) a means of
protecting or cleaning the metal, and (3) caution to avoid, or compensate for, harmful metallurgical
effects.

Spot welding
Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5
to 3 mm (0.020 to 0.118 in) thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to
concentrate welding current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together.
Forcing a large current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of
spot welding is that a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately 10–
100 milliseconds).[2] That permits the welding to occur without excessive heating of the remainder of
the sheet.

The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the
electrodes and the magnitude and duration of the current.[3] The amount of energy is chosen to match
the sheet's material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little energy will not
melt the metal or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt too much metal, eject
molten material, and make a hole rather than a weld. Another feature of spot welding is that the energy
delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce reliable welds.

Applications
Spot welding is typically used when welding particular types of sheet metal, welded wire mesh or wire
mesh. Thicker stock is more difficult to spot weld because the heat flows into the surrounding metal
more easily. Spot welding can be easily identified on many sheet metal goods, such as metal
buckets. Aluminium alloys can be spot welded, but their much higher thermal conductivity and electrical
conductivity requires higher welding currents. This requires larger, more powerful, and more expensive
welding transformers.

Perhaps the most common application of spot welding is in the automobile manufacturing industry,
where it is used almost universally to weld the sheet metal to form a car. Spot welders can also
be completely automated, and many of the industrial robots found on assembly lines are spot welders
(the other major use for robots being painting).

Spot welding is also used in the orthodontist's clinic, where small-scale spot welding equipment is used
when resizing metal "molar bands" used in orthodontics.

Safety
It is common for a spray of molten metal droplets (sparks) to be ejected from the area of the weld
during the process.

While spot welding does not generate UV light as intensely as arc welding, eye protection is required.
Welding goggles with a 5.0 shade are recommended.
 Lab Exercise No. 10

Objective
To study and perform the electric arc welding process
Introduction

ARC WELDING
In this process a joint is established by fusing the material near the region of joint by means of an electric
arc struck between the material to be joined and an electrode. A high current low voltage electric power
supply generates an arc of intense heat reaching a temperature of approximately 3800oC. The electrode
held externally may act as a filler rod or it is fed independently of the electrode. Due to higher levels of
heat input, joints in thicker materials can be obtained by the arc welding process. It is extensively used in
a variety of structural applications.

There are so many types of the basic arc welding process such as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), submerged arc welding

Equipment and materials

Welding unit, consumable mild steel wire, mild steel flats (140 x 25 x 5 mm), protecting gas, Wire Brush,
Tongs etc.

Procedure
Clean the mild steel flats to be joined by wire brush
Arrange the flat pieces properly providing the gap for full penetration for butt joint (gap ½ thicknesses of
flats).
Practice striking of arc, speed and arc length control
Set the welding current, voltage according to the type of metal to be joined.
Strike the arc and make tacks at the both ends to hold the metal pieces together during the welding
process
Lay beads along the joint maintaining proper speed and arc length (Speed 100-150 mm/min).
Clean the welded zone and submit.

Report the following

1. Precautions to be taken during various arc welding processes.

2. Advantages of GMAW over MMAW.

3. Difference between consumable and non-consumable arc welding.

4. Limitations of arc welding.

5. What is the procedure of ultrasonic welding?

6. Is there any difference between resistance and ultrasonic welding?

 Lab Exercise No. 11

Objective
To study and demonstration on CNC machining and
understanding CNC Coding
CNC Machining

Introduction:
CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing sector that involves the use of computers to
control machine tools. Tools that can be controlled in this manner include lathes, mills, routers and
grinders. The CNC in CNC Machining stands for Computer Numerical Control.

On the surface, it may look like a normal PC controls the machines, but the computer's unique software
and control console are what really sets the system apart for use in CNC machining.

Under CNC Machining, machine tools function through numerical control. A computer program is
customized for an object and the machines are programmed with CNC machining language (called G-
code) that essentially controls all features like feed rate, coordination, location and speeds. With CNC
machining, the computer can control exact positioning and velocity. CNC machining is used in
manufacturing both metal and plastic parts.

First a CAD drawing is created (either 2D or 3D), and then a code is created that the CNC machine will
understand. The program is loaded and finally an operator runs a test of the program to ensure there are
no problems. This trial run is referred to as "cutting air" and it is an important step because any mistake
with speed and tool position could result in a scraped part or a damaged machine.

There are many advantages to using CNC Machining. The process is more precise than manual
machining, and can be repeated in exactly the same manner over and over again. Because of the precision
possible with CNC Machining, this process can produce complex shapes that would be almost impossible
to achieve with manual machining. CNC Machining is used in the production of many complex three-
dimensional shapes. It is because of these qualities that CNC Machining is used in jobs that need a high
level of precision or very repetitive tasks.

If you are considering a career in CNC Machining, it would be useful to have a background in
mathematics, industrial arts and mechanical drafting, as well as computer usage.
CNC Machine Lathes
Some view Lathes as the only universal machine tool because a lathe can make all of the parts needed for
another lathe. A lathe spins the work piece in a spindle while a fixed cutting tool approaches the work
piece to slice chips off of it. Because of this geometry, lathes are ideal for parts that have symmetry
around some axis that could be chucked up in the spindle.

CNC Lathes have at the very least the ability to drive the cutting tool under g-code control over 2 axes,
referred to as X and Z. They may have a considerable amount of other functionality as well, and there are
many variations on lathes such as Swiss Lathes.

The act of cutting a work piece on a lathe is called "Turning".

CNC Milling Machines

In a mill, the cutter is placed in the spindle where it rotates. The work piece then moves past the cutter so
that chips may be sliced off. The act of cutting a work piece on a mill is called "Milling".

CNC Mills have at the very least the ability to drive cut in 3 dimensions (some older machines may be
limited to 2 or 2 1/2 if there are limitations on when that 3rd dimension may be used) which are referred
to as the X, Y, and Z axes.

CNC Routers

A CNC Router is actually a type of CNC Mill, typically one that uses what's called a "gantry"
configuration. Typically they're called CNC Routers instead of CNC Gantry Mills when they're used to
cut wood, but this need not exclusively be the case.

Many think of CNC machines as being focused on cutting metal, but there is a huge market for CNC
woodworking machines of which the CNC Router is the principle example.

There are many more types of CNC machine than just these three most common types including CNC
presses of various kinds and so on.

ADVANTAGES
1. CNC machines can be used continuously 24 hours a day, 365 days a year and only need to be switched
off for occasional maintenance.
2. CNC machines are programmed with a design which can then be manufactured hundreds or even
thousands of times. Each manufactured product will be exactly the same.
3. Less skilled/trained people can operate CNCs unlike manual lathes / milling machines etc.. which need
skilled engineers.
4. CNC machines can be updated by improving the software used to drive the machines
5. Training in the use of CNCs is available through the use of ‘virtual software’. This is software that
allows the operator to practice using the CNC machine on the screen of a computer. The software is
similar to a computer game.
6. CNC machines can be programmed by advanced design software such as Pro/DESKTOP®, enabling
the manufacture of products that cannot be made by manual machines, even those used by skilled
designers / engineers.
7. Modern design software allows the designer to simulate the manufacture of his/her idea. There is no
need to make a prototype or a model. This saves time and money.
8. One person can supervise many CNC machines as once they are programmed they can usually be left
to work by themselves. Sometimes only the cutting tools need replacing occasionally.

9. A skilled engineer can make the same component many times. However, if each component is carefully
studied, each one will vary slightly. A CNC machine will manufacture each component as an exact
match.

DISADVANTAGES
1. CNC machines are more expensive than manually operated machines, although costs are slowly
coming down.
2. The CNC machine operator only needs basic training and skills, enough to supervise several machines.
In years gone by, engineers needed years of training to operate centre lathes, milling machines and other
manually operated machines. This means many of the old skills are been lost.
3. Less workers are required to operate CNC machines compared to manually operated machines.
Investment in CNC machines can lead to unemployment.
4. Many countries no longer teach pupils / students how to use manually operated lathes / milling
machines etc... Pupils / students no longer develop the detailed skills required by engineers of the past.
These include mathematical and engineering skills.

CNC G codes
G00 - Positioning at rapid speed; Mill and Lathe

G01 - Linear interpolation (machining a straight line); Mill and Lathe

G02 - Circular interpolation clockwise (machining arcs); Mill and Lathe

G03 - Circular interpolation, counter clockwise; Mill and Lathe

G04 - Mill and Lathe, Dwell

G09 - Mill and Lathe, Exact stop

G10 - Setting offsets in the program; Mill and Lathe

G12 - Circular pocket milling, clockwise; Mill

G13 - Circular pocket milling, counterclockwise; Mill

G17 - X-Y plane for arc machining; Mill and Lathe with live tooling
G18 - Z-X plane for arc machining; Mill and Lathe with live tooling

G19 - Z-Y plane for arc machining; Mill and Lathe with live tooling

G20 - Inch units; Mill and Lathe

G21 - Metric units; Mill and Lathe

G27 - Reference return check; Mill and Lathe

G28 - Automatic return through reference point; Mill and Lathe

G29 - Move to location through reference point; Mill and Lathe (slightly different for each
machine)

G31 - Skip function; Mill and Lathe

G32 - Thread cutting; Lathe

G33 - Thread cutting; Mill

G40 - Cancel diameter offset; Mill. Cancel tool nose offset; Lathe

G41 - Cutter compensation left; Mill. Tool nose radius compensation left; Lathe

G42 - Cutter compensation right; Mill. Tool nose radius compensation right; Lathe

G43 - Tool length compensation; Mill

G44 - Tool length compensation cancel; Mill (sometimes G49)

G50 - Set coordinate system and maximum RPM; Lathe

G52 - Local coordinate system setting; Mill and Lathe

G53 - Machine coordinate system setting; Mill and Lathe

G54~G59 - Workpiece coordinate system settings #1 t0 #6; Mill and Lathe

G61 - Exact stop check; Mill and Lathe

G65 - Custom macro call; Mill and Lathe

G70 - Finish cycle; Lathe

G71 - Rough turning cycle; Lathe

G72 - Rough facing cycle; Lathe

G73 - Irregular rough turning cycle; Lathe

G73 - Chip break drilling cycle; Mill

G74 - Left hand tapping; Mill

G74 - Face grooving or chip break drilling; Lathe

G75 - OD groove pecking; Lathe

G76 - Fine boring cycle; Mill

G76 - Threading cycle; Lathe

G80 - Cancel cycles; Mill and Lathe

G81 - Drill cycle; Mill and Lathe

G82 - Drill cycle with dwell; Mill

G83 - Peck drilling cycle; Mill

G84 - Tapping cycle; Mill and Lathe

G85 - Bore in, bore out; Mill and Lathe

G86 - Bore in, rapid out; Mill and Lathe

G87 - Back boring cycle; Mill

G90 - Absolute programming

G91 - Incremental programming

G92 - Reposition origin point; Mill

G92 - Thread cutting cycle; Lathe

G94 - Per minute feed; Mill

G95 - Per revolution feed; Mill

G96 - Constant surface speed control; Lathe

G97 - Constant surface speed cancel

G98 - Per minute feed; Lathe

G99 - Per revolution feed; Lathe

CNC M Codes

M00 - Program stop; Mill and Lathe

M01 - Optional program stop; Lathe and Mill

M02 - Program end; Lathe and Mill

M03 - Spindle on clockwise; Lathe and Mill

M04 - Spindle on counterclockwise; Lathe and Mill

M05 - Spindle off; Lathe and Mill

M06 - Toolchange; Mill

M08 - Coolant on; Lathe and Mill

M09 - Coolant off; Lathe and Mill

M10 - Chuck or rotary table clamp; Lathe and Mill

M11 - Chuck or rotary table clamp off; Lathe and Mill

M19 - Orient spindle; Lathe and Mill

M30 - Program end, return to start; Lathe and Mill

M97 - Local sub-routine call; Lathe and Mill

M98 - Sub-program call; Lathe and Mill

M99 - End of sub program; Lathe and Mill