CHAPTER 1

Basic Principles of Kinesiology

  Chapter Outline
Kinematics Fundamental Movements Between Line of Pull
Terminology Joint Surfaces Line of Pull About a Medial-Lateral
Osteokinematics Functional Considerations Axis of Rotation
Planes of Motion Line of Pull about an Anterior-
Kinetics Posterior Axis of Rotation
Anatomic Position
Axis of Rotation Torque Line of Pull About a Vertical Axis of
Degrees of Freedom Biomechanical Levers Rotation
Fundamental Movements Three Classes of Levers Vectors
Osteokinematics: It’s All Relative Biomechanical Levers: Designed for
Force, or Speed and Range of Motion? Summary
Arthrokinematics

 Objectives
• Define commonly used anatomic and kinesiologic termi-
nology.
• Describe the common movements of the body.
• Differentiate between osteokinematic and arthrokinematic
movement.
• Describe the arthrokinematic principles of movement.
• Analyze the planes of motion and axes of rotation for com-
mon motions.
• Describe how force, torque, and levers affect biomechanical
movement.
• Describe the three biomechanical lever systems, and ex-
plain their advantages and disadvantages.
• Analyze how muscular lines of pull produce specific biome-
chanical motions.
• Explain how muscular force vectors are used to describe
movement.

Key Terms dorsiflexion internal rotation prone

eversion internal torque protraction
abduction extension inversion proximal
active movements external force kinematics radial deviation
adduction external moment arm kinesiology resultant force
anatomic position external rotation kinetics retraction
anterior external torque lateral rotation
arthrokinematics flexion leverage sagittal plane
axis of rotation force line of pull superficial
caudal frontal plane medial superior
center of mass horizontal abduction midline supination
cephalad horizontal adduction open-chain motion supine
circumduction horizontal (transverse) origin torque
closed-chain motion plane osteokinematics translation
congruency inferior passive movements ulnar deviation
deep insertion plantar flexion vector
degrees of freedom internal force posterior
distal internal moment arm pronation

1
2 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology

T he word kinesiology has its origin in the Greek words

kinesis, “to move,” and ology, “to study.” Essentials of
Kinesiology serves as a guide to kinesiology by focusing on the
Movement of the entire human body is generally described
as a translation of the body’s center of mass, or center of
gravity (Fig. 1.3). An activity such as walking results from
anatomic and biomechanical interactions within the muscu- forward translation of the body’s center of mass, thus the
loskeletal system. entire body. It is interesting to note, however, that movement
The primary intent of this book is to provide physical ther-
apist assistant students and clinicians with a fundamental
understanding of the kinesiology of the musculoskeletal sys-
tem. A detailed review of the musculoskeletal system, includ-
ing innervation, is presented as a background to the structural
and functional concepts of normal and abnormal movement.
The discussions within this text are intended to provide
insight and provoke thoughtful dialogue about commonly
used therapeutic models and treatments.

Kinematics
Kinematics is a branch of biomechanics that describes the
motion of a body without regard to the forces that produce
the motion. In biomechanics, the word body is used rather
loosely to describe the entire body, particular segments such
as an individual bone, or an area of the body such as the arm.
In general, two types of motion exist: translation and rotation.
Translation occurs when all parts of a “body” move in
the same direction as every other part. This can occur in a Fig. 1.2  Rotation of the forearm around the axis of rotation of the elbow.
straight line (rectilinear motion), for example, sliding a book (From Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: founda-
tions for physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.3.)
across a table, or in a curved line (curvilinear motion), such
as the arc of a ball being tossed to a friend. Fig. 1.1 illustrates
the curvilinear motion that occurs during walking, reflecting
the normal up-and-down translation of the head as the entire
body moves forward.
Rotation describes the arc of movement of a “body” about
an axis of rotation. The axis of rotation is the “pivot point”
about which the rotation of the body occurs. Fig. 1.2 illus-
trates rotation of the forearm around the axis of rotation of
the elbow.

5
4 A
5 cm 3
2
1
0
B

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Fig. 1.1 A point on the top of the head is shown translating upward
and downward in a curvilinear fashion while walking. (From Neumann DA: Fig. 1.3  A, Center of mass of the entire body. B, Center of mass of
Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for physical reha- the thigh. (From Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system:
bilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.2.) foundations for physical rehabilitation, St Louis, 2002, Mosby, Fig. 4.1.)
 C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 3

Origin

Superior

Insertion

Medial Midline
Translation
Axis of rotation Lateral

Inferior
Proximal

Rotation

Distal

Deep
Superficial

Fig. 1.4  Forward translation of the body resulting from rotation of the
lower extremities.

or translation of the entire body is powered by muscles that

rotate the limbs. This concept is illustrated in Fig. 1.4, which Fig. 1.5  Anatomic terminology.
shows an individual running (anterior translation of the cen-
ter of mass) as a result of muscles rotating the legs around
the axis of rotation of each hip. It is important to note that the
functional movement of nearly all joints in the body occurs •  Anterior: Toward the front of the body
through rotation. •  Posterior: Toward the back of the body
Regardless of the type of body movement, a movement can Midline: An imaginary line that courses vertically through
• 
be classified as either active or passive. Active movements the center of the body
are generated by stimulated or “active” muscle; for example, •  Medial: Toward the midline of the body
when an individual raises his or her arm overhead, this is •  Lateral: Away from the midline of the body
considered an active movement. Passive movements, on •  Superior: Above, or toward the head
the other hand, are generated by sources other than muscu- •  Inferior: Below, or toward the feet
lar activation, such as gravity, the resistance of a stretched •  Proximal: Closer to, or toward the torso
ligament, or a push from another person. For example, when •  Distal: Away from the torso
a clinician provides the force to move an individual’s limb •  Cephalad: Toward the head
through various ranges of motion, this is considered a passive •  Caudal: Toward the feet (or “tail”)
movement—thus the common clinical term passive range of •  Superficial: Toward the surface (skin) of the body
motion. •  Deep: Toward the inside (core) of the body
•  Origin: The proximal attachment of a muscle or ligament
•  Insertion: The distal attachment of a muscle or ligament
Terminology
Prone: Describes the position of an individual lying face
• 
The study of kinesiology requires the use of specific terminol- down
ogy to describe movement, position, and location of anatomic Supine: Describes the position of an individual lying
• 
features. Many of these terms are illustrated in Fig. 1.5. face up 
4 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology

Osteokinematics Frontal plane: Divides the body into front and back sec-
• 
tions. Nearly all abduction and adduction motions occur in
Planes of Motion
the frontal plane.
Osteokinematics describes the motion of bones relative Horizontal (transverse) plane: Divides the body into
• 
to the three cardinal planes of the body: sagittal, frontal, and upper and lower sections. Nearly all rotational movements
horizontal (Fig. 1.6; Box 1.1). such as internal and external rotation of the shoulder or hip
Sagittal plane: Divides the body into left and right halves.
•  and rotation of the trunk occur in the horizontal plane. 
Typically, flexion and extension movements occur in the
sagittal plane. Anatomic Position
The anatomic position, illustrated in Fig. 1.6, serves as a
standard reference for anatomic descriptions, axis of rota-
SAGIT ONTAL PLANE tion, and planes of motion. For example, the action of a muscle
TAL PFR is based on the assumption that it contracts with the body in
LANE
the anatomic position. 

Axis of Rotation
The axis of rotation of a joint may be considered the pivot
point about which joint motion occurs. Consequently, the axis
of rotation is always perpendicular to the plane of motion.
Traditionally, movements of the body are described as occur-
ring about three separate axes of rotation: anterior-posterior,
HORIZONT
AL PLANE medial-lateral, and vertical—sometimes referred to as the
longitudinal axis (Fig. 1.7).
The anterior-posterior axis of rotation is oriented in an
anterior-posterior direction through the convex member of
the joint and allows movement to occur in the frontal plane,
such as in abduction and adduction of the hip.
The medial-lateral axis of rotation is oriented in a medial-
lateral direction through the convex member of the joint.
The medial-lateral axis of rotation allows motion to occur
in the sagittal plane, such as in flexion or extension of the
elbow.
The vertical (longitudinal) axis of rotation is oriented
vertically when in the anatomic position. However, if
motion occurs out of the anatomic position, it is often
Fig. 1.6  The three cardinal planes of the body are shown on an indi- described as occurring about the longitudinal axis; this
vidual in the anatomic position. (From Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the axis courses through the shaft of the bone. Motion about
musculoskeletal system: foundations for physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St the vertical or longitudinal axis of rotation occurs in the
Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.4.) horizontal (or transverse) plane. Typically these are called
rotational movements and are seen in rotation of the trunk
when twisting side to side or in internal and external rota-
Box 1.1  Common Osteokinematic Terms tion of the shoulder. A summary of these axes can be found
in Table 1.1. 
Sagittal Plane Frontal Plane Horizontal Plane
Degrees of Freedom
• Flexion and • Abduction and • Internal (­medial) Degrees of freedom refers to the number of planes of
­extension ­adduction and external motion allowed at a joint. A joint can have 1, 2, or 3 degrees of
• Dorsiflexion and • Lateral flexion (­lateral) rotation angular freedom, corresponding to the three cardinal planes
plantar flexion • Ulnar and radial • Axial rotation (see the earlier section on terminology). As depicted in
• Forward and deviation Fig. 1.7, for example, the shoulder has 3 degrees of freedom,
­backward • Eversion and meaning the shoulder can move freely in all three planes.
bending ­inversion The wrist, on the other hand, allows motion in two planes,
(From Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for so it is considered to have 2 degrees of freedom. Joints such
physical rehabilitation, St Louis, 2002, Mosby, Table 1.2.)
as the elbow (humeroulnar joint) allow motion in only one
Many of the terms are specific to a particular region of the body. The thumb,
for example, uses different terminology. plane and therefore are considered to have just 1 degree of
freedom. 
 C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 5

Vertical axis

ML axis
Flexion

AP axis Extension

Fig. 1.8  Flexion and extension.

Fundamental Movements
For movements of the body, specific terminology is used to
help describe the motion at a joint or region of the body.

Flexion and Extension

The motions of flexion and extension occur in the sagit-
Fig. 1.7  The right glenohumeral (shoulder) joint highlights the axes of tal plane about a medial-lateral axis of rotation (Fig. 1.8).
rotation and associated planes of motion: Flexion and extension (green Generally, flexion describes the motion of one bone as it
curved arrows) occur about a medial-lateral (ML) axis of rotation; ab-
approaches the flexor surface of the other bone. Exten-
duction and adduction (purple curved arrows) occur about an anterior-
sion is considered a movement opposite that of flexion;
posterior (AP) axis of rotation; and internal rotation and external rotation
(blue curved arrows) occur about a vertical axis of rotation. (Modified
it is an approximation of the extensor surfaces of two
from Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: founda- bones. 
tions for physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.5.)
Abduction and Adduction
Abduction describes movement of a body segment in the
frontal plane, away from the midline, whereas adduction
describes a frontal plane movement toward the midline
(Fig. 1.9).
Exceptions to this definition occur in the hands and feet;
Table 1.1   Axes of Rotation and Associated these are described in the joint-specific chapters. 
Movements
Rotation
Plane of Rotation describes the movement of a bony segment (or seg-
Axis of Rotation Motion Examples of Movement ments) as it spins about its longitudinal axis of rotation. For
example, turning the head and turning the trunk side to side
Anterior-­posterior Frontal Hip abduction-adduction
are considered rotational movements (Fig. 1.10A). Motions
Shoulder abduction-adduction
of the extremities can be further classified into internal and
Medial-lateral Sagittal Elbow flexion-extension external rotation.
Knee flexion-extension Internal rotation describes the motion of a bony seg-
Vertical or Horizontal Shoulder internal-external ment that results in the anterior surface of the bone rotating
longitudinal ­rotation toward the midline. External rotation involves rotation of
Rotation of the trunk the anterior surface of a bone rotating away from the midline
   (Fig. 1.10B). 
6 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology

Abduction

Adduction

Abduction
Adduction

Fig. 1.9  Abduction and adduction.

A Neck rotation to right

Circumduction
of the wrist

Fig. 1.11  Circumduction of the wrist.

Protraction and Retraction

Protraction describes the translation of a bone away from
the midline in a plane parallel to the ground. Retraction,
conversely, is movement of a bony segment toward the mid-
line in a plane parallel to the ground. These terms are gener-
B Internal rotation External rotation ally used to describe motions of the scapula or jaw (Fig. 1.12). 
Fig. 1.10  (A) Rotation of the head and neck. (B) Internal and external
rotation of the shoulder. Horizontal Adduction and Abduction
These terms generally describe motions of the shoulder in the
horizontal plane (Fig. 1.13). With the shoulder in an abducted
Circumduction position (near 90 degrees), movement of the upper extremi-
Circumduction describes a circular motion through two ties that results in the hands being brought together is con-
planes; therefore joints must have at least 2 degrees of freedom sidered horizontal adduction. Movement of the upper
if they are to circumduct. A general rule is that if a joint allows a extremities away from the midline (in the horizontal plane) is
circle to be “drawn in the air,” the joint can circumduct (Fig. 1.11).  considered horizontal abduction. 
 C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 7

Supination

Protraction Pronation

Retraction
Fig. 1.14  Supination and pronation of the forearm.

Fig. 1.12  Protraction and retraction of the scapula.

Horizontal
adduction

Horizontal
abduction

Wrist radial deviation Wrist ulnar deviation

Fig. 1.15  Radial and ulnar deviation of the wrist.

Fig. 1.13  Horizontal abduction and adduction of the shoulder.

Pronation and Supination

Pronation describes a rotational movement of the forearm
that results in the palm facing posteriorly (when in the ana-
tomic position). Supination describes the motion of turn-
ing the palm anteriorly (Fig. 1.14). Most often these motions
occur with the hands in front of the body to accommodate Plantar flexion Dorsiflexion
grasping and holding types of activities, so supination is con-
sidered turning the palm of the hand upward, and pronation is Fig. 1.16  Plantar flexion and dorsiflexion of the ankle.
considered turning the palm downward. Pronation and supi-
nation also describe complex motions of the ankle and foot Remember that all motions are described in the anatomic
and are described in detail in Chapter 11.  position. 

Radial and Ulnar Deviation Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion

Radial and ulnar deviation describes frontal plane motions Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion are sagittal plane motions of
of the wrist (Fig. 1.15). Radial deviation results in the the ankle (Fig. 1.16). Dorsiflexion describes the motion of
hand moving laterally—toward the radius. Ulnar devia- bringing the foot upward, whereas plantar flexion describes
tion results in the hand moving medially—toward the ulna. pushing the foot downward. 
8 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology
Inversion and Eversion
Inversion is a frontal plane motion of the foot that results
in the sole of the foot facing medially; eversion is the
opposite, resulting in the sole of the foot facing laterally
(Fig. 1.17).  motion is referred to as closed-chain or femoral-on-tibial
Osteokinematics: It’s All Relative
In general, the articulation of two bones constitutes a joint.
Movement at a joint therefore can be considered from two
perspectives, depending on which bone is moving. Movement
of the distal segment of bone about a relatively fixed proximal
segment is often referred to as an open-chain motion. Con-
versely, movement of the proximal segment of bone about a
relatively fixed, or stationary, distal segment is referred to as
a closed-chain motion.
Fig. 1.18 illustrates these two different movement per-
spectives for knee flexion. Fig. 1.18A illustrates tibial-on-
femoral flexion of the knee, indicating that the tibia (distal
Inversion Eversion
Fig. 1.17  Inversion and eversion of the ankle and foot.
Knee flexion
Proximal segment fixed Distal segment free
A Open-chain perspective
Fig. 1.18  Two different ways to flex the knee. (A) Open-chain or tibial-on-femoral flexion of the knee. (B) Closed-chain or femoral-on-tibial flexion of
the knee. (From Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.6.)
segment) is moving on a relatively fixed femur; this is con-
sidered open-chain knee flexion. Fig. 1.18B also illustrates
knee flexion, but in this case the femur (proximal segment)
is moving on a relatively fixed tibia (distal segment). This
flexion of the knee.
Although these two motions appear to be different, both
motions result in equal amounts of knee flexion. The only
differences involve which bone is moving and which bone
remains stationary. 
Consider this…
Open-Chain and Closed-Chain Motion
The terms open-chain and closed-chain are often used clinically
to describe which bone is moving during a joint motion. Open-
chain motion describes motion in which the distal segment of
bone is moving about a relatively fixed proximal segment (see
Fig. 1.18A). Closed-chain motion, on the other hand, indicates
movement of the proximal segment on a relatively fixed distal
segment of bone (see Fig. 1.18B).
Closed-chain exercises are widely used by physical thera-
pists and physical therapist assistants. These types of exercises
tend to be more functional in nature and capitalize on the bene-
fits of weight bearing and the natural biomechanical advantages
that closed-chain positions often provide. Open-chain motions,
although not nearly as functional, are widely used therapeuti-
cally. Open-chain exercises offer an increased ability to target
specific muscle groups and are easily performed through the
use of weights, elastic bands, or tubing.
  
Proximal segment free
Distal segment fixed
B Closed-chain perspective

Arthrokinematics
Arthrokinematics describes the motion that occurs
between the articular surfaces of joints. This concept dif-
fers from osteokinematics, which describes only the path
of the moving bones. Consider the analogy of a bone and
joint to a door and hinge. A door swings open in the horizon-
tal plane (osteokinematics) about the spinning of a hinge
(arthrokinematics).
Generally the articular surfaces of joints are curved,
with one surface being relatively concave and the other
relatively convex (Fig. 1.19). This concave-convex relation-
ship of joints improves joint congruency (fit) and stabil-
ity, thereby helping to guide motion between the bones. The
motion that occurs between the articular surfaces follows
specific rules depending on whether a concave articular
surface is moving on a fixed convex surface or vice versa
(see later discussion).
Fundamental Movements Between Joint Surfaces
Three fundamental movements can occur between joint sur-
faces: roll, slide, and spin, as follows:
1. Roll: Multiple points along one rotating articular surface
contact multiple points on another articular surface (Figs.
1.20A and 1.21A). Analogy: A tire rotating across a stretch
of pavement.
2. Slide: A single point on one articular surface contacts mul-
tiple points on another articular surface (Figs. 1.20B and
1.21B). Analogy: A stationary tire skidding across a stretch
of icy pavement.
3. Spin: A single point on one articular surface rotates on
a single point on another articular surface (Fig. 1.22).
rus
Hume
Articular capsule
Trochlea
(convex)
Trochlear notch
(concave)
Ulna
Fig. 1.19  The humeroulnar (elbow) joint displaying the concave-convex
relationship between articular surfaces. (From Neumann DA: Kinesiology
of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for physical rehabilitation, ed
2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.7.)
C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 9
Analogy: A rotating toy top spinning on one spot on the
floor.
Roll-and-Slide Mechanics
The arthrokinematic motions that occur between articular
surfaces follow specific rules. These movements, although
subtle, are a necessary and healthy component of normal joint
function.
Rule 1 Convex-on-Concave
When a convex joint surface moves on a concave joint surface,
the roll and slide occurs in opposite directions.
Fig. 1.20A illustrates a convex joint surface rolling atop a
fixed concave joint surface. Of note, however, is that the bone
has literally rolled out of the joint. Fig. 1.20B illustrates the
opposite direction slide that would normally accompany the
arthrokinematic roll. The combination of the roll and the
opposite direction slide maintains the articular stability of
the joint surfaces.
Rule 2 Concave-on-Convex
When a concave joint surface moves about a stationary convex
joint surface, the roll and slide occurs in the same direction.
Fig. 1.21A illustrates a concave joint surface rolling under
a relatively fixed convex joint surface without an arthrokine-
matic slide; again this results in joint dislocation. To maintain
firm contact between the articular surfaces, this motion must
be accompanied by a slide in the same direction. As illus-
trated in Fig. 1.21B this maintains proper joint alignment and
congruency. 
ROLL
SLIDE
A B
Fig. 1.20 Convex-on-concave arthrokinematics. The arthrokinema-
tic roll (A) and the arthrokinematic slide (B) occur in opposite direc-
tions. (From Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system:
foundations for physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby,
Fig. 1.8.)
10 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology

Spin Mechanics roll-and-slide arthrokinematics is the abducting shoulder (gle-

An arthrokinematic spin occurs about a central longitudinal
axis of rotation, regardless of whether a concave joint sur-
face is spinning about its paired convex member or vice versa
(see Fig. 1.22). An example of an arthrokinematic spin occurs
at the proximal humeroradial joint. During pronation and supi-
nation, the radial head spins about its own longitudinal axis of
rotation.  the consequences of a superior roll without an inferior slide.
Functional Considerations
Normally the arthrokinematic roll and slide between joint sur-
faces occurs naturally, without conscious effort, and is integral to
the proper functioning of a joint. However, for any number of rea-
sons, the normal arthrokinematic motion of a joint may become
dysfunctional. The classic example of the necessity for proper
nohumeral joint). Fig. 1.23 contrasts normal versus abnormal
arthrokinematic motions during glenohumeral abduction. Dur-
ing proper glenohumeral abduction (Fig. 1.23A), the superior roll
of the convex humeral head is accompanied by an inferior slide.
These two opposite motions maintain the humeral head soundly
within the concavity of the glenoid fossa. Fig. 1.23B illustrates
Without the offsetting inferior slide, the humeral head translates
(rolls) upward, impinging the delicate structures within the sub-
acromial space. This relatively common phenomenon is known
as impingement syndrome and often leads to tendonitis or bursi-
tis of the shoulder. 

SPIN
SPIN
E
ID
SL

ROLL

A B
Fig. 1.21 Concave-on-convex arthrokinematics. The arthrokinematic
roll (A) and the arthrokinematic slide (B) occur in the same direction. (From
Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for
physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.8.)
A B
Fig. 1.22  An illustration of an arthrokinematic spin. (From Neumann DA:
Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for physical reha-
bilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.8.)

Subacromial bursa
Supraspinatus pull
Subacromial bursa
N
TIO
ABDUC

ROLL
R O LL

S
L
I
D
E
Supraspinatus
Supraspinatus
pull
pull

A B
Fig. 1.23  Arthrokinematics of the glenohumeral joint during shoulder abduction. (A) Proper convex-on-concave arthrokinematic motion. The superior
roll of the humeral head is offset by an inferior slide. (B) Consequences of a superior roll occurring without an offsetting inferior slide. (From Neumann DA:
Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.9.)

Clinical insight
Joint Mobilization and Arthrokinematics
Clinicians often encounter patients who lack full range of motion
of a joint. Although there may be many reasons for this, improper
arthrokinematics may be a contributing factor. Joint mobilization
is a treatment technique used by many therapists as a way to
help restore normal joint motion.
Fig. 1.24 illustrates a physical therapist performing a joint
mobilization technique on an individual who lacks full shoulder
abduction. The pressure from the therapist’s hands is directed
inferiorly, near the proximal humerus, even though the goal of
the treatment is to increase shoulder abduction. The downward
pressure through the shoulder is an attempt to manually provide
the inferior slide that would normally accompany the superior roll
of an abducting humerus.
Fig. 1.24 A therapist performing a joint mobilization technique to
help improve shoulder abduction. Manual pressure provides the in-
ferior slide that should normally accompany the superior roll of the
humeral head. (From Shankman G: Fundamental orthopedic manage-
ment for the physical therapy assistant, ed 2, St Louis, 2004, Mosby,
Fig. 22.38.)
Kinetics
Kinetics is a branch of mechanics that describes the
effect of forces on the body. From a kinesiologic perspec-
tive, a force can be considered a push or pull that can pro-
duce, modify, or halt a movement. Forces therefore provide
the ultimate impetus for movement and stabilization of the
body.
With regard to body movement, forces can be classified as
internal or external (Fig. 1.25). Internal forces are forces
generated from within the body. Typically these are active
C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 11
Internal force
External force
Fig. 1.25  A sagittal plane view of the upper extremity illustrating the
internal force provided by the biceps and the external force provided
by gravity. (From Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal
system: foundations for physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010,
Mosby, Fig. 1.15A.)
forces generated by muscular contraction, but many times
passive internal forces such as tension generated from liga-
mentous or muscular elongation must be considered as well.
External forces are forces originating from outside the
body. Examples of this include gravity, an external load such
as a suitcase or a barbell, and a therapist applying resistance
to a movement.
Torque
Torque can be considered the rotational equivalent of force.
Because nearly all joint motions occur about an axis of rota-
tion, the internal and external forces acting at a joint are
expressed as a torque. The amount of torque generated across
a joint depends on two things: (1) the amount of force exerted,
and (2) the distance between the force and the axis of rota-
tion. This distance, called the moment arm, is the length
between the axis of rotation and the perpendicular intersec-
tion of the force. The product of a force and its moment arm
is equal to the torque (or rotational force) generated about an
axis of rotation.
Torques generated from internal forces such as muscle
are called internal torques, whereas torques generated
from external forces such as gravity are called external
torques (Fig. 1.26). Movement of the body or a body seg-
ment is the result of the competition between the internal
and external torques about a joint.
Force × Moment arm = Torque
Muscular force × Internal moment arm = Internal torque
External force × External momentarm = External torque  
12 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology
Internal force (IF)
D muscular forces act about an internal moment arm (IMA);
D1
Internal torque = IF × D
External torque = EF × D1
External force (EF)
Fig. 1.26  The internal and external torques produced about the medial-
lateral axis of rotation of the elbow. The internal torque is the product of the
internal force (provided by the biceps) multiplied by the internal moment
arm (D). The external torque is the product of the external force (gravity)
multiplied by the external moment arm (D1). (Modified from Neumann DA:
Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations for physical reha-
bilitation, ed 2, St Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.17.)
Consider this…
Strength
Measuring a person’s strength really measures an individual’s
torque production. Torque considers not only muscular force but
also the length of the moment arm used by a particular muscle
or muscle group. Both factors are equally important in determin-
ing an individual’s functional strength.
Clinicians often perform manual muscle tests to objectify an
individual’s strength. Because force production and the corre-
sponding internal moment arm of a muscle are highly dependent
on muscular length and joint angle, standard specific positions
(joint angles) are used to obtain more reliable measurements.
  
Biomechanical Levers
The interaction of internal and external forces ultimately
controls our movement and posture. As described earlier,
internal forces usually arise from muscular activation,
whereas external forces arise from gravity or other external
sources. These competing forces interact through a system
of bony levers, with the pivot point, or fulcrum, located at
the axis of rotation of our joints. Through these systems of
levers, internal and external forces are converted to internal
and external torques, ultimately causing movement—or rota-
tion—of the joints.
Three Classes of Levers
Three classes of levers exist: first, second, and third. Although
the concept of a lever was originally defined for the design of
tools, this concept applies to the musculoskeletal system as
well. Fig. 1.27 shows examples of the three types of lever sys-
tems used in the body.
First-Class Levers
The first-class lever is similar to a seesaw, with its axis of rota-
tion (or fulcrum) located between the internal and external
forces, as exemplified by the neck extensor muscle acting to
support the weight of the head (see Fig. 1.27A). Note that the
gravity (acting at the center of mass of the head), in contrast,
acts with an external moment arm (EMA). These moment
arms convert the forces into rotary torques. 
Second-Class Levers
Second-class levers have an axis of rotation located at one
end of the bony lever and always have an IMA that is longer
than the EMA. This lever system is often said to provide “good
leverage” because a relatively small force is able to lift a much
larger external load. Fig. 1.27B compares the plantar flexors
with a wheelbarrow as an example of a second-class lever
system. Because of the good leverage provided by the second-
class lever, the weight of the body is more easily elevated by a
relatively small force produced by the plantar flexor muscles.
Note that the consequence of the good leverage provided by
a second-class lever system is limited range of motion. For
example, when an individual raises up on tip-toes, the body is
only being elevated 4 to 6 inches upward. 
Third-Class Levers
Third-class levers also have an axis of rotation located at one
end of the bony lever. However, they always have an IMA that
is smaller than the EMA (Fig. 1.27C). In third-class biome-
chanical lever systems, gravity has more leverage than muscle.
In other words, a relatively large muscular force is required
to lift a relatively small external load. Although third-class
levers have poor leverage, they provide good speed and range
of motion with minimal muscular shortening. For example,
starting with your arm straight, quickly flex your elbow so
that you touch your shoulder with your hand. This requires
about 140 degrees of motion at the elbow, and typically takes
a small fraction of a second to complete. This concept will be
discussed further as the chapter progresses. 
Biomechanical Levers: Designed for Force, or Speed
and Range of Motion?
Musculoskeletal lever systems that have larger IMAs than
EMAs (e.g., second-class levers) are said to provide good lever-
age—or favor force—because small muscular (internal) forces
are able to move larger external loads. In contrast, levers that
have smaller IMAs than EMAs (e.g., third-class levers) favor
speed and distance, meaning that the distal end of the bone
(like the hand relative to the elbow) moves at a greater dis-
tance and speed than the contracting muscle. Any lever sys-
tem that favors speed and distance does so at the expense of
demanding increased muscle force. Conversely, any lever
system that favors force does so at the expense of decreased
 C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 13

distance and speed of the distal end of the lever. (Realize that First-class lever
first-class levers can function similarly to a second- or third-
class lever, depending on the precise location of the fulcrum.)
Table 1.2 compares the biomechanical advantages and disad-
vantages of first-, second-, and third-class lever systems.
Depending on mechanical need, certain joint systems of
the body are designed as first-, second-, or third-class levers.
Muscle and joint systems that require great speed and dis-
placement of the distal end of the bone are usually designed
as third-class levers (see Fig. 1.27C). In contrast, muscle
and joint systems that may benefit from a force advantage A IMA EMA
(as opposed to a speed and distance advantage) are usually
designed as second-class levers (see Fig. 1.27B). MF
An overwhelming majority of bony lever systems in the
body are designed as third-class levers when functioning in
an open-chain. This is necessary because it is usually essen-
HW
tial that the distal ends of our limbs move faster than our mus-
cles can physiologically contract. For example, the biceps may
be able to contract at a speed of only 4 inches per second, but Second-class lever
the hand would be vertically displaced at speeds greater than
2 feet per second. (The reverse situation is not only impracti-
cal but physiologically impossible.) Great speed and distance
of the hand and foot are necessary to impart large power or
thrust against objects, as well as to rapidly advance the foot MF
during walking and running.
As stated, because most biomechanical lever systems in
the body are third-class levers, most of the time a muscle must B
exert a force greater than the load being lifted. The muscle is
usually willing to pay a high “force tax” to favor speed and dis-
tance of the distal point of the lever. The joint, however, must
be able to tolerate the high force tax by being able to disperse
large muscular forces that are transferred through the articu-
lar and bony surfaces. This explains why most joints are lined
IMA
with relatively thick articular cartilage, have bursae, and con-
tain synovial fluid. Without these elements, the high forces EMA
BW
produced by most muscles would likely lead to excessive wear
and tear of the ligaments, tendons, and bones composing a Third-class lever
joint—possibly leading to joint degeneration or osteoarthritis. 
MF
Line of Pull
A muscle’s line of pull, sometimes called the line of force,
IMA
describes the direction of muscular force, typically repre-
EMA
sented as a vector. The relationship between a muscle’s line
of pull and the axis of rotation of a joint determines the action
or actions that a particular muscle can produce. The beauty C
of analyzing a muscle’s line of pull is that it allows the student EW
or clinician to figure out the various actions of any muscle in Fig. 1.27  Anatomic examples are shown displaying first-class (A), sec-
the body, instead of relying solely on memorization. Con- ond-class (B), and third-class (C) lever systems. Note that the small open
sider the following examples, which highlight muscles of the circles represent the axis of rotation at each joint. BW, body weight; EMA,
shoulder. external moment arm; EW, external weight; HW, head weight; IMA, internal
moment arm; MF, muscle force. (From Neumann DA: Kinesiology of the
Line of Pull About a Medial-Lateral Axis of Rotation musculoskeletal system: foundations for physical rehabilitation, ed 2, St
Muscles with a line of pull anterior to the medial-lateral axis Louis, 2010, Mosby, Fig. 1.23.)
of rotation of a joint will produce flexion in the sagittal plane.
Consider, for example, the anterior deltoid, depicted in red in
14 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology
Consider this…
Selecting the Best Muscle for the Job: Biceps Versus Brachioradialis
Even though most musculoskeletal lever systems in the body
function as third-class levers, the muscles that operate these
levers are uniquely different and therefore possess different sizes
of internal moment arms (IMAs). A certain muscle therefore may
be slightly better designed to favor force or speed and distance,
even though both are third-class levers.
Fig. 1.28 illustrates this concept by comparing two different
elbow flexors: the biceps and the brachioradialis. Both muscles
are shown supporting a 10-lb weight held 15 inches away from
the axis of the elbow. To support the weight, each muscle must
produce an internal torque of 150 inch-lb. Because the IMA of
the biceps is only 1 inch, the biceps must produce 150 lb of force
to support the weight (Fig. 1.28A). The larger, 3-inch IMA of the
brachioradialis, however, has a more favorable torque advan-
tage—requiring only 50 lb of force to support the same weight
(Fig. 1.28B).
%LFHSV
OE
RIIRUFH
OE
´
´
$
OE
RIIRUFH
%UDFKLRUDGLDOLV
OE
´
´
% B
Fig. 1.28  An illustration of two different elbow flexor muscles function-
ing as third-class levers but possessing internal moment arms (IMAs)
of different lengths. The small IMA of the biceps (A) requires 3 times
the amount of muscular force as the brachioradialis (B) to lift the same
external weight. The threefold force advantage of the brachioradialis is
based on its threefold greater length in IMA.
Fig. 1.29 further compares these two muscles with regard
to speed and distance. As illustrated, a 1-inch contraction of
the biceps results in a 15-inch lift of the hand (Fig. 1.29A),
whereas the brachioradialis (also contracting 1 inch) lifts the
hand just 5 inches—one-third the distance (Fig. 1.29B). If both
muscles were contracting at the same speed, the biceps would
be elevating the hand (and weight) three times faster than the
brachioradialis. Clearly the biceps muscle has the advantage
with regard to displacement and speed of the held object, and
the brachioradialis has the advantage in terms of requiring less
force.
It is interesting to note that the nervous system can determine
and activate the most efficient muscle for the job, depending on
whether force or speed and range of motion are most needed for
the task at hand.
Biceps
lb
10
1” shortening
15”
1”
10 lb
15”
A
Brachioradialis
1” shortening
10 lb
5”
3”
10 lb
15”
Fig. 1.29  This illustration highlights the difference in speed and distance
at the distal end of the forearm resulting from the same amount of shorten-
ing from two muscles with different moment arm lengths. (A) The 1 inch of
muscular shortening (contraction) of the biceps results in lifting the external
weight 15 inches upward. (B) In contrast, 1 inch of shortening of the bra-
chioradialis results in only a 5-inch lift of the external weight.
 C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 15

Table 1.2   Biomechanical Advantages and Disadvantages of Lever Systems

Lever Class Advantages Disadvantages Examples

First Mixed: Depends on placement
of axis
Second Allows functions to be carried
out with relatively small
amounts of muscle force
Third Favors greater displacement
(range of motion) and speed
at the distal end of the lever
Mixed: Depends on placement
of axis
Distal end of lever moves more
slowly than the muscle
­shortens (contracts)
Requires proportionately greater
muscle force
• Upper trapezius muscle extending the head
• Seesaw
• Gastrocnemius plantar flexing the ankle
(standing on tiptoes)
• Wheelbarrow
• Biceps flexing the elbow
• Quadriceps extending the knee

Line of pull Line of pull

Medial-lateral
axis of rotation

Flexion Extension

A B
Fig. 1.30  Lines of pull about a medial-lateral axis of rotation producing the sagittal plane motions of (A) flexion and (B) extension.

Fig. 1.30A. Conversely, a line of pull that courses posterior to evident when referring to muscles that function about a verti-
the medial-lateral axis of rotation, such as the posterior del- cal axis of rotation. However, once you know the line of pull of
toid, produces extension in the sagittal plane (Fig. 1.30B).  a muscle relative to a vertical axis of rotation, its function is
relatively easy to predict. Consider, for example, the anterior
Line of Pull about an Anterior-Posterior Axis of deltoid, depicted in red in Fig. 1.32A. This muscle produces
Rotation internal rotation about a vertical axis. In contrast, the poste-
Muscles with a line of pull passing superior or lateral to the rior deltoid, depicted in red in Fig. 1.32B, has a line of pull that
anterior-posterior axis of rotation at a joint will produce produces external rotation of the shoulder. 
abduction in the frontal plane. Consider, for example, the
middle deltoid, depicted in red in Fig. 1.31A. In contrast, a
Vectors
muscle such as the teres major, depicted in red in Fig. 1.31B,
has a line of pull that courses inferior and medial relative to Vectors are used in kinesiology to represent the magnitude and
the anterior-posterior axis of rotation. This line of pull pro- direction of a force. The magnitude of the force is indicated by
duces adduction in the frontal plane.  the relative length of the vector line, and the direction is indi-
cated by the orientation of the arrowhead. Fig. 1.33 illustrates
Line of Pull About a Vertical Axis of Rotation two different force vectors in red that represent two different
Muscles often wrap around bones, making it difficult to cite muscles pulling on the same bone. The combined force of these
a specific direction for their line of pull. This is especially two muscular vectors produces the resultant force (indicated
16 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology

$QWHULRUSRVWHULRU
D[LVRIURWDWLRQ

/LQHRISXOO
/LQHRISXOO

$EGXFWLRQ $GGXFWLRQ

$ %
Fig. 1.31  Lines of pull about an anterior-posterior axis of rotation producing the frontal plane motions of (A) abduction and (B) adduction.

Vertical axis
of rotation
Line
Line of pull of pull

Internal rotation External rotation

A B
Fig. 1.32  Lines of pull about a vertical axis of rotation producing the horizontal plane motions of (A) internal rotation and (B) external rotation.

by the black arrow). The resultant force can literally be viewed

A B
Fig. 1.33  (A) Two equal force vectors (green) producing a result (black).
(B) An analogy of two equal force vectors resulting in motion of a load
exactly between the two vectors.
as the result of combining the individual force vectors.
Because in this example each vector is equal, the resul-
tant vector is directed exactly between the middle of the two
composite vectors, similar to two people with equal strength
pulling an object with ropes (Fig. 1.33B). In the study of kine-
siology, however, muscles that produce an action often are
not equally matched, in terms of both strength and their line
of pull. In the case of an unequal pair of muscular forces, the
resultant force (and subsequent movement) will be distorted
and pulled toward the stronger muscle (Fig. 1.34A). Similar to
the analogy in Fig. 1.34B, the object will be pulled toward the
side with two people because there is twice as much force.
In kinesiology, vectors are often used to study the effect of
several muscles pulling in multiple directions. For example,
 C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 17

A B
Fig. 1.34  (A) Two unequal force vectors (green) with the result (black) biased toward the stronger vector quantity. (B) An analogy that shows the resultant
force being pulled to the strong side.

the anterior and posterior deltoids have opposite directed lines on the application of the form and function of the muscu-
of pull (vectors) but nearly equal force potential. Clinically it is loskeletal system. Very rarely does a single muscle act in
not uncommon to see a balanced muscular system such as this isolation, and rarely does movement at one joint occur with-
become upset. For example, if the posterior deltoid is weakened out affecting another. The principles discussed in this first
from injury or disease, the anterior deltoid muscle takes on a chapter should become increasingly meaningful as they are
much more dominant role in the forces produced during shoul- applied to the various joints and regions of the body.
der movement. As a consequence, shoulder motion would be
pulled toward the stronger muscle, in this case, the anterior
deltoid. Clinicians must carefully observe movements of their Study Questions
patients to detect potential asymmetry in muscle forces. Over
1. Which of the following motions occurs around an
time, an individual’s posture may become biased toward the
anterior-posterior axis of rotation?
stronger muscle group, and this can lead to a painful and dys-
a. Shoulder abduction
functional disruption in the kinematics of the entire region. 
b. Ulnar deviation
c. Elbow flexion
d. A and B
Summary e. B and C
In kinesiology the body may be viewed as a biologic machine 2. If a muscle has a line of pull that is posterior to the
that rotates bony levers that are powered by muscles. Some medial-lateral axis of rotation of the hip, which motion
of these musculoskeletal levers are designed to produce large can it perform?
torques, whereas others are designed to produce high speeds a. Hip abduction
or to cover large distances. b. Hip extension
Although the body, or a body segment, rarely moves in a c. Hip internal rotation
straight plane, movements are described in relation to the three d. Hip flexion
cardinal planes. The active motions of the body—powered by
3. When a convex member of a joint is moving over
muscle—are determined by the muscle’s line of pull relative
a relatively stationary concave member, the
to the axis of rotation of a joint. A large portion of this text will
arthrokinematic roll and slide occurs:
focus on the various functions of muscle, with the goal of pro-
a. In the same direction
moting understanding of this concept.
b. In opposite directions
The motion that occurs at a joint follows specific (arthro-
kinematic) rules that help guide bony movement and stabilize 4. Which of the following terms describes the proximal
the joint as the distal segment of the joint moves through vari- attachment of a muscle?
ous planes of motion. Other factors such as bony conforma- a. Caudal
tion and ligamentous support determine the available motion b. Insertion
(degrees of freedom) of the limb or body segment. c. Cephalad
Although this text will discuss the kinesiology of individual d. Origin
joints and regions of the body, our study of kinesiology focuses e. A and B
18 C HAP TER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology

5. Which of the following lever systems always provides c. Transitioning from sitting to standing is an example of
good leverage, allowing an external load to be lifted with a closed-chain motion.
comparatively less muscular force? d. A second-class lever system is analogous to a
a. First class wheelbarrow.
b. Second class e. C and D
c. Third class
13. Which of the following movements occurs in the frontal
6. The torque generated by a muscle is calculated by: plane?
a. Dividing the muscular force by the internal moment arm a. Shoulder adduction
b. Multiplying the muscular force by the external b. Hip flexion
moment arm c. Pronation of the forearm
c. Dividing the muscular force by the external d. A and C
moment arm e. B and C
d. Multiplying the muscular force by the internal
14. Which of the following movements occurs about a
moment arm
longitudinal or vertical axis of rotation?
7. A closed-chain motion: a. Internal rotation of the shoulder
a. Always provides larger ranges of motion than an open- b. Extension of the shoulder
chain motion c. Flexion of the hip
b. Occurs when the distal segment of the joint moves d. Abduction of the hip
relative to a stationary proximal segment
15. Which of the following movements occurs in the sagittal
c. Occurs when the proximal segment of a joint moves
plane?
relative to a fixed distal segment
a. Extension of the hip
d. Typically is not used when treating a patient
b. Flexion of the shoulder
8. The wrist is _________ to the elbow. c. Internal rotation of the shoulder
a. Superficial d. A and B
b. Proximal e. All of the above
c. Cephalad
16. Which of the following motions occurs about a vertical
d. Distal
axis of rotation?
e. A and B
a. Internal rotation of the shoulder
9. Internal rotation of the shoulder occurs about a(n) b. External rotation of the shoulder
_________ axis of rotation. c. Rotation of the head and neck
a. Anterior-posterior d. A and B
b. Medial-lateral e. All of the above
c. Longitudinal (or vertical)
17. Which of the following movements occurs about an
d. Reciprocal
anterior-posterior axis of rotation?
10. The term osteokinematics describes the: a. Extension of the hip
a. Motion between joint surfaces b. Supination of the forearm
b. Motion of bones relative to the three cardinal planes c. Abduction of the hip
c. Forces transferred from muscles through joints d. Internal rotation of the shoulder
d. Force of a muscle contraction acting on an internal
18. Which of the following motions would be produced by a
moment arm
muscular line of pull that courses anterior to the medial-
11. Which of the following statements is true? lateral axis of rotation?
a. The proximal attachment of a muscle is known as the a. Hip flexion
insertion. b. Shoulder extension
b. A vector is a representation of a force’s magnitude and c. Plantar flexion
direction. d. Shoulder adduction
c. Flexion of the hip occurs in the frontal plane.
19. The shoulder adductor muscles are antagonists to the:
d. A closed-chain motion refers to the distal segment of a
a. Shoulder abductors
joint moving on a relatively fixed proximal segment.
b. Shoulder flexors
e. C and D
c. Shoulder extensors
12. Which of the following statements is true? d. Shoulder internal rotators
a. Knee flexion occurs in the frontal plane.
b. Second-class lever systems favor range of motion and
speed.
 C H A P T ER 1   Basic Principles of Kinesiology 19

20. Third-class levers favor range of motion and speed over 28. When a concave joint surface moves about a stationary
force. convex joint surface, the arthrokinematic roll and slide
a. True occurs in the same direction.
b. False a. True
b. False
21. A muscle that courses posterior to a medial-lateral axis
of rotation will produce motion in the sagittal plane. 29. A motion such as flexing and extending the elbow with
a. True the hand free is an example of a closed-chain motion.
b. False a. True
b. False
22. The term strength refers solely to the force that a muscle
can produce, not its torque production. 30. Going from sitting to standing is an example of a closed-
a. True chain motion at the knee.
b. False a. True
b. False
23. A resultant force refers to the amount of force that is lost
because of tissue elasticity. 31. With the elbow flexed to 90 degrees, supination of
a. True the forearm describes the motion of turning the palm
b. False downward, so that the palm faces the floor.
a. True
24. A first-class lever always favors force over range of
b. False
motion.
a. True
b. False Additional and Classic Readings
25. Passive movements refer to forces that produce Cameron, M. H. (2012). Physical agents in rehabilitation: from research to
body movement other than that caused by muscular practice (4th ed.). St Louis: Elsevier.
Greene, D., & Roberts, S. (2005). Kinesiology: movement in the context of activ-
activation.
ity (2nd ed.). St Louis: Mosby.
a. True Kolt, S. K., & Snyder-Mackler, L. (2007). Physical therapies in sport and exer-
b. False cise. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone.
Mosby’s medical dictionary. (2005). (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Mosby.
26. A joint that allows 2 degrees of freedom is likely to permit Neumann, D. A. (2012). Arthrokinematics: flawed or just misinterpreted?
volitional motion in all three planes. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 34, 428–429.
a. True Neumann, D. (2017). Kinesiology of the musculoskeletal system: foundations
b. False for physical rehabilitation (3rd ed.). St Louis: Elsevier.
Rasch, P. (1989). Kinesiology and applied anatomy. Philadelphia: Lea &
27. A joint must allow motion in at least two planes for it to Febiger.
circumduct. Smith, L. K., Weiss, E. L., & Lehmkuhl, L. D. (1983). Brunnstrom’s clinical
kinesiology. Philadelphia: FA Davis.
a. True
b. False