PipeWIZARD Phased Array

Interpretation Manual

Manual version D
DUML009D — May 2006
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Manual version D
Part number: DUML009D
May 2006

Printed in Canada
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vii
viii
Table of Contents

Table of Contents ............................................................................................... ix

List of Figures ................................................................................................... xiii

List of Tables ....................................................................................................... xv

1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Manual Organization ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Conventions ....................................................................................................................... 1

2. Overview ......................................................................................................... 3

3. Inspection Approach ...................................................................................... 5

3.1 Zone Discrimination .......................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Calibration and Analysis ................................................................................................... 7
3.2.1 Calibration Block .................................................................................................... 7
3.2.2 Data Representation ................................................................................................ 8

4. TOFD (Time-Of-Flight Diffraction) ........................................................... 13

4.1 Introduction to TOFD ...................................................................................................... 13
4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of TOFD ....................................................................... 14
4.3 TOFD Calibration for PipeWIZARD® ........................................................................... 15
4.4 Analysis of TOFD Signals .............................................................................................. 15

5. Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 21

5.1 Time and Amplitude Gates .............................................................................................. 21
5.2 Accept/Reject Criteria ..................................................................................................... 24
5.3 Strip Chart Interpretation ................................................................................................. 25
5.3.1 Root ...................................................................................................................... 28

Table of Contents ix
 5.3.2 LCP ....................................................................................................................... 31
5.3.3 Root and LCP ....................................................................................................... 34
5.3.4 Hot Pass 1 ............................................................................................................. 37
5.3.5 Hot Pass 2 ............................................................................................................. 39
5.3.6 Fill 1 ...................................................................................................................... 40
5.3.7 Fill 2 ...................................................................................................................... 41
5.3.8 Any Weld Zone ..................................................................................................... 45

6. Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated Welding ....................................... 51

6.1 Lack of fusion at the Root ............................................................................................... 53
6.1.1 Misfire ................................................................................................................... 53
6.1.2 Missed Edge .......................................................................................................... 53
6.1.3 Lack of Fusion ...................................................................................................... 54
6.1.4 Lack of Fusion at the Junction of the Root and LCP ............................................ 54
6.2 Lack of Fusion LCP ......................................................................................................... 55
6.3 Lack of Fusion Hot Pass .................................................................................................. 56
6.4 Lack of Fusion Fill 1 ....................................................................................................... 56
6.5 Lack of Fusion Fill 2 ....................................................................................................... 57
6.6 Stacked Defects ............................................................................................................... 57
6.7 Burn Through .................................................................................................................. 58
6.8 Porosity ............................................................................................................................ 59
6.8.1 Porosity Root ........................................................................................................ 59
6.8.2 Porosity Fill .......................................................................................................... 60
6.9 Centerline Cracking ......................................................................................................... 60
6.10 High-Low Geometry ....................................................................................................... 61
6.11 Bead Offset (or Wander) ................................................................................................. 61
6.12 Counterbore .................................................................................................................... 62

7. Typical Operator Checklist ......................................................................... 65

8. Phased Array Ultrasound ........................................................................... 67

8.1 Description ...................................................................................................................... 67
8.1.1 Electronic Scanning .............................................................................................. 68
8.1.2 Sectorial (Azimuthal) Scanning ............................................................................ 69
8.1.3 Combined Scans ................................................................................................... 70
8.2 Advantages ...................................................................................................................... 71
8.2.1 Equipment Size ..................................................................................................... 71
8.2.2 Reliability ............................................................................................................. 71
8.2.3 Flexibility .............................................................................................................. 72
8.2.4 Scanning Speed ..................................................................................................... 73
8.2.5 Setup Time Before Inspection .............................................................................. 73

x Table of Contents
 8.2.6 Changeover Time ................................................................................................. 74
8.2.7 Coupling ............................................................................................................... 74
8.2.8 PipeWIZARD® Software based on TomoView™ ............................................... 74
8.3 Advanced Inspections ..................................................................................................... 76
8.3.1 Compensating for Thickness Variations in Seamless Pipes ................................. 76
8.3.2 Compensating for Wedge Temperature ................................................................ 77
8.3.3 Risers, Tendons, and Other High-Quality Welds ................................................. 78
8.3.4 Small Diameter Pipes ........................................................................................... 78
8.3.5 Clad Pipes ............................................................................................................. 79

Appendix A: TOFD Tutorial ............................................................................. 81

Appendix B: Glossary ........................................................................................ 89

Appendix C: References .................................................................................... 93

Index .................................................................................................................... 95

Table of Contents xi
xii Table of Contents
List of Figures

Figure 3-1 Weld zones ................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 3-2 Beam position ............................................................................................................ 7
Figure 3-3 Typical calibration block ............................................................................................ 8
Figure 3-4 Typical strip-chart presentation of a calibration scan ................................................ 9
Figure 3-5 Amplitude, threshold, and position in the dual-gate view ....................................... 10
Figure 3-6 PipeWIZARD® display of a calibration block scan ................................................ 11
Figure 4-1 Scan of 12.7-mm thick plate with deliberately embedded defects using TOFD and PE
.................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 4-2 Nominal positions and character of defects in a 12.7–mm plate ............................. 19
Figure 5-1 Schematic showing positioning of ultrasonic gates ................................................. 22
Figure 5-2 Scan result of a good weld ....................................................................................... 23
Figure 5-3 “Smooth, regular” defect; lack of fusion in the fill 2 view ...................................... 26
Figure 5-4 “Irregular” signals due to weld geometry effects ..................................................... 27
Figure 5-5 Back-wall signal splitting in the TOFD view, indicating high-low ......................... 29
Figure 5-6 Lack of fusion in the LCP weld zone ....................................................................... 33
Figure 5-7 Lack of fusion in the fill view .................................................................................. 43
Figure 5-8 Example of stacked defects ...................................................................................... 47
Figure 5-9 Spurious reflections from the root zone ................................................................... 48
Figure 6-1 Examples of defects found in mechanically welded pipeline .................................. 52
Figure 8-1 Linear and sectorial scans using a phased array probe ............................................ 68
Figure 8-2 Schematic of a linear electronic scan ....................................................................... 69
Figure 8-3 Longitudinal wave S-scan on test sample ................................................................ 70
Figure 8-4 Conventional ultrasound probes and phased array ultrasound probes ..................... 71
Figure 8-5 Added zones that can be covered ............................................................................. 72
Figure 8-6 Extra channels added to cover the root .................................................................... 73
Figure 8-7 The automatic setup in the Channel Parameters dialog box .................................... 75
Figure 8-8 The Defect Information dialog box .......................................................................... 76
Figure 8-9 Ray tracing showing beams for nominal, minimum and maximum wall thicknesses,
as well as errors ........................................................................................................ 77
Figure 8-10 Modeling of a wedge on a pipe, with temperature gradient in layers from base ..... 77

List of Figures xiii

Figure 8-11 Ray tracing showing partial coverage of a high-quality weld .................................. 78
Figure 8-12 Scanner for small diameter pipes ............................................................................. 79
Figure 8-13 Detection of a 2-mm notch ....................................................................................... 80
Figure A-1 The diffraction phenomenon .................................................................................... 81
Figure A-2 The phase shift between the defect upper and lower tips ......................................... 83
Figure A-3 The reflection from the bottom of the defect ........................................................... 84
Figure A-4 The reflection from the top of the defect .................................................................. 85
Figure A-5 Example of lack of inter-run fusion, laminations ..................................................... 86
Figure A-6 Defect position effect on TOFD ............................................................................... 86
Figure A-7 The uncertainty level on indication position ............................................................ 87

xiv List of Figures

List of Tables

Table 1 Sample accept/reject criteria for girth weld defects ................................................. 24

Table 2 Operator evaluation checklist for misfire ................................................................. 53
Table 3 Operator evaluation checklist for missed edge ........................................................ 53
Table 4 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion root .............................................. 54
Table 5 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion root and LCP ............................... 55
Table 6 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion LCP .............................................. 55
Table 7 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion hot pass ........................................ 56
Table 8 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion fill 1 ............................................. 56
Table 9 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion fill 2 ............................................. 57
Table 10 Operator evaluation checklist for stacked defects .................................................... 58
Table 11 Operator evaluation checklist for burn through ....................................................... 58
Table 12 Operator evaluation checklist for root porosity ....................................................... 59
Table 13 Operator evaluation checklist for fill porosity ......................................................... 60
Table 14 Operator evaluation checklist for centerline cracking ............................................. 60
Table 15 Operator evaluation checklist for high-low geometry ............................................. 61
Table 16 Operator evaluation checklist for bead offset or wander ......................................... 62
Table 17 Operator evaluation checklist for counterbore ......................................................... 62

List of Tables xv
xvi List of Tables
1. Introduction

The objective of this manual is to help the field operator interpret typical inspection data
obtained with the PipeWIZARD® system; that is, to differentiate between the various types of
defects: lack of fusion, geometric signals, porosity, etc.

The manual is not intended to be a substitute for the operator’s training, experience, and
qualifications; rather, the manual is designed to assist in the interpretation of ultrasound signals
and PipeWIZARD® displays, and to support the operator’s analysis. Weld defects can be very
difficult to interpret, and the operator’s judgment is crucial.

The target audiences for this manual are: (1) experienced manual operators who are new to
automated ultrasonics, and (2) computer-literate operators who are new to automated
ultrasonics. Experienced automated ultrasonic test operators will probably find this manual
repetitive and the analysis simplified.

This manual specifically refers to interpretation using phased array ultrasound; however, the
same analysis applies to the PipeWIZARD® systems equipped with multiple conventional
probes. Phased array ultrasound is primarily an electronic method of generating and receiving
ultrasounds, which is described in “Phased Array Ultrasound” on page 67.

1.1 Manual Organization

This manual contains instructions on the use of the PipeWIZARD® system. It is organized to
allow progressive understanding of the different functions of the system. Each section,
however, is complete in itself. This manual is therefore a helpful reference.

1.2 Conventions

In a procedure containing several steps, the operations that the user must execute are numbered

Introduction 1
 1, 2, 3… The symbol “♦” is used to indicate a procedure containing only one step, or
secondary steps. Lowercase letters (a, b, c…) can also be used to indicate secondary steps in a
complex procedure.

The abbreviation “NC” is used to indicate no connection.

SMALL CAPITALS are used to identify any term marked as is on the instrument, such as the
names of connectors, buttons, indicator lights, etc. SMALL CAPITALS are also used to identify
key names of the computer keyboard.

All the terms that are used by the software, such as the names of menus, commands, dialog
boxes, text boxes, and options, are presented in bold print.

The abbreviation “N/A” is used to indicate either not applicable or not available at time of
press.

Note: The screen illustrations found in this manual were prepared with the
software version available at time of press; they may slightly differ from what you see on
the screen according to the current software version you are using. Furthermore, the
screen illustrations are printed using the Windows® Standard setting in the Control
Panel display parameters; their look might be different if you use another setting.

2 Chapter 1
2. Overview

PipeWIZARD® stands for Pipe Weld Inspection using Zone discrimination And Real-time
Display. The PipeWIZARD® system is an automated ultrasonic test system for large diameter
girth welds, primarily for gas and oil pipelines. The objective of automated ultrasonic testing
(AUT) is to be able to reliably, rapidly, and repeatedly inspect a weld. This involves knowing
how to mount the inspection head, inspect the weld, interpret data, remove the inspection head,
save the results on two separate media, print the output, and move to the next weld in a matter
of minutes (onshore). Offshore inspections use a different set of actions because the pipe is
moving instead of the inspection vehicle.

PipeWIZARD® uses the zone discrimination approach, whereby each weld is divided into a
number of vertical zones (see chapter 3. on page 5), each with its own focused beam for
inspection. Due to significant time limitations, multiple beams in pulse-echo or tandem modes
are used to travel around the pipe in a single linear movement without any back-and-forth
scanning. Upstream and downstream probe sets are used for each side of the weld. Additional
scans, such as TOFD (time-of-flight diffraction), creeping waves, or transverse pairs can be
used as well.

The manual is written predominately for automated welding of pipe, including all known weld
types: CRC-Evans (used extensively in Canada), J-bevels, X-, V- and manual welds. With
automated welding, the weld defect of most concern is lack of fusion (LOF). To inspect a new
weld profile, the weld must be geometrically divided into zones and ultrasonic probes focused
on each zone at the optimum angle. A calibration block must be manufactured from production
pipe, and the ultrasonics set up using similar zone discrimination principles to previous
automated weld profiles.

The data from the multiple beams is scrolled onto a monitor in real time, and can be interpreted
in real time in the acquisition mode.

Hundreds of thousands of welds have been inspected worldwide using PipeWIZARD® AUT.
The results have been very favorable, with significantly lower reject rates than with
radiography (typically below 1%). There are two main reasons:

Overview 3
 1. Zone discrimination (assisted by time-of-flight diffraction) can rapidly and accurately size
defects. This permits the use of engineering critical assessment (ECA) (also known as
“fracture mechanics” or “fitness for service”), which generally permits larger defects.
2. AUT is performed only a few welds behind the welding machine (onshore), which allows
process control of the welding.
Overall, AUT is less expensive for the pipeline constructor due to the lower reject rates as well
as giving a better, more reliable inspection.

AUT has been used in a wide variety of conditions: from temperatures of –40 C in Canadian
winters to hot, sandy deserts, and offshore in corrosive environments. Welds made manually
can be inspected using AUT as well.

TOFD is strongly recommended for all types of welds to detect misoriented defects, though
TOFD is not always a specified requirement.

4 Chapter 2
3. Inspection Approach

This chapter presents the general principles behind automated ultrasound (AUT) testing of
girth welds using the PipeWIZARD® system

3.1 Zone Discrimination

The key to the AUT approach in ASTM E-1961-98 is “zone discrimination.” The weld is
divided into a number of zones. The most common are: root, LCP, hot pass 1 and hot pass 2,
and two or more fill zones depending on the pipe wall thickness (see Figure 3-1 on page 6).
Each zone is about 2 mm deep, depending on its geometry and location.

Inspection Approach 5
 5°

Cap
region Fill2

Body
Fill1
region

Hot-pass 2

45° Hot-pass 1
Root
region LCP

37.5° Root

Figure 3-1 Weld zones

A carefully positioned, focused beam inspects each zone. The angle of the beam (see Figure
3-2 on page 7) is tailored to the orientation of the expected defects, primarily lack of fusion for
welds made with automated equipment. In other words, the beam is oriented to strike the
fusion line as close to right angles as possible. Beam spot sizes are typically 2 mm or less at the
fusion line. The beams are small enough that each beam effectively interrogates its zone only;
beam overlap from the calibration defects in neighboring zones should be minimal. The
ultrasound crosstalk between adjacent channels is sometimes specified (for example, between
–6 dB and –14 dB).

6 Chapter 3
 Figure 3-2 Beam position

3.2 Calibration and Analysis

This section presents the tools used to make accurate data analysis.

3.2.1 Calibration Block

To accurately inspect pipe, calibration defects are used to represent defects of main interest.
For non-surface breaking zones, this typically means lack of fusion (LOF) along the weld line.
Thus flat-bottom holes of typically 2 mm in diameter are machined normal to the fusion line.
For surface-breaking zones (that is, the root and cap), horizontal notches are also used. Besides
having ID and OD notches, plus one flat-bottom hole for each of the upstream and downstream
zones, there is a through-wall hole used to set the positions of the gates (see Figure 3-3 on
page 8).

The calibration block must be made from the same material as the actual pipe, from the same
factory and production line, due to variations in ultrasound velocity from different
manufacturing processes. The calibration block is cut from a piece of production pipe,
machined, then re-inserted into a section of pipe for field use.

Inspection Approach 7
 Figure 3-3 Typical calibration block

3.2.2 Data Representation

During scanning, data is scrolled onto the monitor in real time for rapid interpretation. Figure
3-4 on page 9 shows a typical strip chart displaying results from a calibration scan. The
calibration weld contains deliberately implanted defects, which are clearly visible due to the
color changes (defects above threshold show as red). Defect lengths are rapidly estimated from
the circumferential position ruler (a ruler showing distance around the pipe on the far left strip
on a standard PipeWIZARD® software display), or accurately measured with cursors. Defect
depths can be rapidly estimated from the number of zones affected; each zone is approximately
2 mm in vertical extend, depending on the zone. The operator should be supplied with an
accept/reject table, specific to the material and operating conditions (see “Accept/Reject
Criteria” on page 24 and Table 1 on page 24). Defect positions within the weld can be
determined from the TOF color bar.

8 Chapter 3
 Figure 3-4 Typical strip-chart presentation of a calibration scan

The philosophy behind the strip-chart display is to allow the operator to simultaneously view
fifteen to thirty-two channels of ultrasonic information in order to detect, characterize, and size
defects within the tight time constraints (see Figure 3-6 on page 11). The operator must be able
to accept or reject the weld before moving to the next one.

Each zone is displayed as a dual-gate view: one gate shows the signal amplitude, and the other
the time-of-flight (TOF). The amplitude signal is displayed as a line (that is, percentage of full
screen height—FSH). The height of the TOF gate (colored bar) shows the location of the
defect in the weld, while the color shows if the signal amplitude is below or above threshold
(changes from green to red). For selected channels, for example the root, the time gate is set
longer than the amplitude gate to monitor the weld root profile (see Figure 3-5 on page 10).

Inspection Approach 9
 Amplitude
Above 40%
Early in
gate

Late in
gate Below 40%

Figure 3-5 Amplitude, threshold, and position in the dual-gate view

Root and cap regions are displayed in volumetric views (see Figure 3-6 on page 11); they are
primarily used to detect and characterize porosity. Coupling checks are displayed in green on
the right side. If bad coupling occurs, or a defect blocks the beam, the coupling check turns to
red. Optional TOFD or dual-gate views for transverse defects may be included.

10 Chapter 3
 Volumetric views Couplant

Figure 3-6 PipeWIZARD® display of a calibration block scan

The screen layout essentially “opens out” the weld from the root; the operator views the screen
as if the weld were cut open along the weld centerline with the different zones displayed.
Volumetric views of the root (upstream and downstream) are shown in the center of the screen.
Dual-gate views are shown in order of zone beside them, and other channels are displayed as
required (for example, cap volume and TOFD). The circumferential position ruler is shown on
the left and the coupling checks on the far right. With the dual-gate views (signal amplitude
and TOF in the gate), the operator can rapidly determine the length, location, and maximum
depth of any defect. (Other presentations can be arranged, depending on operator or customer
preferences).

Rapid accept/reject of welds is performed using a lookup table based on engineering critical
assessment (ECA) criteria. Note that any ECA calculations on accept/reject are based on
appropriate material properties, pipe dimensions, and operating conditions; consequently, the
lookup table is specific to a given pipe, wall thickness, and inspection setup. Table 1 on

Inspection Approach 11
 page 24 shows sample values using a typical Canadian code CSA Z662 calculation.

12 Chapter 3
4. TOFD (Time-Of-Flight Diffraction)

This chapter presents the time-of-flight diffraction inspection technique.

4.1 Introduction to TOFD

TOFD is an ultrasound inspection technique that uses the diffracted signals from the tips of
defects to detect and size reflectors. In contrast to conventional shear-wave pulse-echo, TOFD
uses high-angle longitudinal waves. For a thin wall pipeline, refracted angles of 60° or 70° are
used, with small diameter elements. In contrast to the focused beams for pulse-echo, these
small transducers generate a wide-angle beam, which essentially fills the whole pipe wall with
ultrasounds. One probe is used as a pulser, the other as a receiver, and the two probes are
positioned an optimum distance apart. Data is collected on a high-resolution, gray-scale
B-scan view.

A lateral wave travels directly under the surface (at longitudinal wave velocity), and is
detected by the receiving transducer. This lateral wave has a low amplitude, and the TOFD
setup typically involves setting the lateral wave amplitude at approximately 40% full-screen
height. A portion of the beam reflects off the bottom of the pipe, giving strong L-wave back-
wall signals. Besides the longitudinal wave, shear waves are also generated. Because these
shear waves undergo multiple skips, and have a lower velocity than the longitudinal waves,
they arrive later than the longitudinal wave back-wall signal. For practical purposes, the
diffracted shear-wave signals can effectively be ignored for TOFD analysis.

With TOFD, it is possible, in principle, to scan over the defects or along the defects. Scanning
over the defects gives a parabolic signal from the defect tips, which can be computer-enhanced
for accurate sizing. However, the PipeWIZARD® system can only scan along the defects
(assuming circumferential defects). Under these conditions, defects are imaged as low
amplitude waves from the top and bottom of the reflector. With a low-noise system like
PipeWIZARD®, normally, the mid-wall defects are clearly visible.

TOFD (Time-Of-Flight Diffraction) 13

4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of TOFD

TOFD is now becoming codified. At the time of writing, ASTM published a TOFD code
(ASTM 2373-04), ASME was working on a TOFD code, and had published a TOFD
interpretation manual. Two European guidelines (BS 7709 and EN 583-6) are also available.
TOFD has significant advantages over conventional pulse-echo, as well as notable limitations.
The advantages can be summarized as follows:

• The operator gets a clear image of the weld immediately, and can analyze the defects in
real time.
• TOFD is very good at detecting mid-wall defects where the pulse-echo is weak.
• TOFD can detect misoriented defects, such as cracks that do not closely follow the fusion
line. This increases the probability of detection (PoD) of defects.
• TOFD can also show which defects are surface-breaking. For OD defects, the lateral wave
will be broken; for ID defects, the back-wall signal will be perturbed.
• TOFD is the best method for accurately sizing defects. The zone discrimination technique
permits reliable sizing within the depth of one zone or less; in contrast, TOFD can offer
“true” sizing (see TOFD calibration in section 4.3 on page 15).
The disadvantages of TOFD have been clearly documented:

• TOFD inherently suffers from a “dead zone” a couple of millimeters deep at the near
surface. Consequently, it is important to use the pulse-echo channels in this zone (upper-
fill zone).
• Similarly, near-back-wall TOFD signals can be obscured.
• TOFD signals are low amplitude, and can be missed.
• Scanning along the defect does not allow the operator to determine where the defect is
located in the weld in the axial direction; however, this can be resolved by looking at the
pulse-echo channels.
• TOFD tends to “over-emphasize” mid-wall defects, especially porosity and interlamellar
lack of fusion.
• TOFD is not usually a specified procedure, though codes are now available. Therefore, all
accept/reject decisions should be made using the pulse-echo data.
There are inspectors who advocate using TOFD alone since the PoD has been shown to be as
high as that of pulse-echo; however, Olympus NDT strongly supports the combined use of
TOFD and pulse-echo. Overall, a combination of TOFD and pulse-echo offers the best
inspection, as the weak points of TOFD are complemented by the strong points of pulse-echo,
and vice versa. TOFD can be performed with either conventional or phased array probes. The

14 Chapter 4
 physics does not change.

4.3 TOFD Calibration for PipeWIZARD®

Amplitude calibration with TOFD is normally straightforward. TOFD does not rely on signal
amplitude as such, though obviously the gain (and signal-to-noise ratio) must be high enough
to detect defects. Setting the lateral wave signal amplitude at about 40% FSH is usually
appropriate.

There are a number of TOFD interpretation manuals available (see ASME Section V,
Nonmandatory Appendix N for example).

4.4 Analysis of TOFD Signals

Figure 4-1 on page 16 shows a typical TOFD scan of a 12.7-mm plate containing deliberately
implanted defects.

Note: This scan was performed using the HS-TOFD hand scanner and
TomoView™, not PipeWIZARD® based on TomoView, though TOFD interpretation is
the same. The scan uses 60° pulse-echo, shear waves from both sides for inspecting the
root, plus 45° full-skip shear waves for inspecting the cap area. This plate offers four
suitable defects for comparing TOFD and pulse-echo results.

Note that there are inherent depth measurement inaccuracies with TOFD line scans. Off-center
defects will appear to be lower in the weld than they actually are, and potentially incorrectly
sized and positioned.

TOFD (Time-Of-Flight Diffraction) 15

 Figure 4-1 Scan of 12.7-mm thick plate with deliberately embedded defects using TOFD
and PE

16 Chapter 4
Most of the TOFD region shows only the lateral wave and back-wall signal. Signals later in
time than the high-amplitude signal from the back wall can normally be ignored since these are
diffracted shear waves. There are four typical defects in this plate, all visible in the TOFD view
and one or more volumetric views. Starting from the bottom of the figure, the defects can be
analyzed as follows:

Defect 1: Lack of root fusion

The TOFD view shows a defect apparently starting about half way through the wall, and
causing a disruption in the back-wall signal. The disruption in the back-wall signal
indicates an inside-surface-breaking defect. The top of the signal can be clearly seen, and
has a phase reversal from the lateral wave. At any selected location on the defect, the
depth can be measured using the measurement cursor. The depth values are read directly
from the screen. Note that the back-wall position varies due to the hand scanner position,
velocity changes, etc. Therefore, the operator should measure the depth from the
appropriate location on the back wall. Note also that the TOFD display is not inherently
linear, so this defect is significantly less than half the pipe wall.
In practice, this defect is “lack of root fusion” (see Figure 4-2 on page 19). The defect was
detected in the root volumetric view on the left (60° pulse-echo root channel). This
indicates the defect position relative to the weld centerline, information not available in
the TOFD view.
Defect 2: Toe crack
The TOFD view shows a break in the lateral wave and a clear signal underneath. The
break in the lateral wave indicates an outside-surface-breaking defect. The second signal
comes from the base of the defect. Note the phase reversal from the top of defect 1, which
is expected since the top and bottom of an internal defect always show a phase reversal.
The measurement cursor can be used to accurately measure the depth of this defect.

Note: Always measure on the same location in the wave, independent of phase
inversions. Thus, if you select a “black” line on the top of the defect, measure on a
“white” line on the bottom of the defect.

This defect is a “toe crack.” It is detected in the root volumetric view on the left (45°
pulse-echo channel), indicating its location relative to the weld centerline.
Defect 3: Porosity
The TOFD view shows a ragged defect, with both top and bottom of a series of indications
visible, but no distinctive structure. There are no breaks in the lateral wave or back-wall

TOFD (Time-Of-Flight Diffraction) 17

 signal. This indicates a subsurface defect. The apparent depth of the defect can be
measured using the cursors, but this is not meaningful in this case. Looking at both cap
volumetric views (45° pulse-echo) shows that this defect is “porosity.”. While the TOFD
view has clearly detected this porosity, it is not so successful at characterizing it.
Defect 4: Lack of fusion
The TOFD view clearly shows a defect, with no break in the lateral wave or back-wall
signal. This indicates a subsurface defect. The bottom of the defect is clearly visible at
approximately one-third of the apparent pipe depth; the top of the defect is close to the
outer surface. Note that the phase reversal is useful here to identify the defect top. The
defect can be accurately sized using the measurement cursors.
This regular-type defect is consistent with “lack of fusion” (LOF). The cap view on the
right (45° pulse-echo channel) clearly shows a regular defect.
Figure 4-2 on page 19 shows the actual plate used for the scan. The identified defects
correlate with the TOFD and volumetric views in Figure 4-1 on page 16.

18 Chapter 4
Figure 4-2 Nominal positions and character of defects in a 12.7–mm plate

TOFD (Time-Of-Flight Diffraction) 19

 Note that the TOFD technique also detects “defects” which are not visible with pulse-echo.
The TOFD view shows a near back-wall, point-type defect between defect 2 and defect 3. The
root volumetric view does not show any defect at this location. Similarly, the TOFD channel
detects a series of small defects close to the back wall at defect 4, not detected on the root
volumetric view. TOFD typically over-emphasizes defects in the mid-wall, so the operator is
advised to use the volumetric information for final evaluation.

Some of the defects detected by TOFD may be benign. For example, inter-pass lack of fusion,
while a real defect, presents negligible structural concerns but, would show well on TOFD and
would probably not be detected in the volumetric view. The operator must use experience and
judgment in cases such as this.

20 Chapter 4
5. Data Analysis

This chapter assists the operator to rapidly interpret scan data, channel by channel (or zone by
zone).

CAUTION
Any interpretation of ultrasound signals is complex, and operators should use their
training and experience to analyze all the data from all zones. The following chapter is
designed to assist the operator; it should not be followed blindly. Weld defects the
tendency of fooling inspectors.

5.1 Time and Amplitude Gates

Each dual-gate view has the time gate that reads TOF (time of flight) and the amplitude gate
that reads signal amplitude.

Time gates
The time gates are typically set with the start of the gate 3 mm before the weld fusion line; the
end of the gate is set 1 mm after the weld centerline (using the through-wall drilled hole—see
section 3.2, “Calibration and Analysis” on page 7). This arrangement puts the weld fusion line
(calibration defect position) at 40–50% in the time gate, as shown schematically in Figure 5-1
on page 22.

Data Analysis 21
 Weld center line

HP2 channel
amplitude gate

Root channel HP2

sound path channel
time gate

Root channel
amplitude gate HP2 channel
sound path

Root channel
time gate

Figure 5-1 Schematic showing positioning of ultrasonic gates

For most channels, the time and amplitude gates are set identically, with each beam covering
slightly more than half of the weld. The main exception is the root channel, where the time gate
is significantly longer than the amplitude gate. The TOF for the root channel is used to monitor
the weld bead for meander, high-low, mispositioned weld band, etc. Displaying the hot pass 2
ultrasonic beam past the centerline into the cap region performs volumetric mapping of the
weld cap.

The TOF setup can be summarized as follows:

• Signals with low TOF (say 10% of the distance through the gate) arise from defects before
the fusion line.
• Signals with TOF of 40–50% come from the calibration defect position (fusion line).
• Signals at the end of the gate (~90%) typically are mid-weld defects.
• Root TOF signals from the weld cap are typically about 80%, but vary with weld band
position, high-low, bead meander, etc.
Figure 5-2 on page 23 shows a typical scan of a “good” weld with minimal defects.

22 Chapter 5
Figure 5-2 Scan result of a good weld

Data Analysis 23
 Amplitude gates
Unless otherwise specified, calibration amplitude for each flat-bottom hole 2 mm in diameter
in each zone is set at 80% FSH. The recording threshold is set at 40% FSH. Any signal over
the 40% FSH threshold causes the TOF color bar to change from green to red in the strip chart
to attract the operator’s attention.

5.2 Accept/Reject Criteria

The criteria on which to base acceptable defect or calling for weld rework are based on
engineering critical assessment (fracture mechanics) for the life cycle of the pipe.

Criteria depend on specific material properties, wall thickness, service life, and inspection
capabilities, and are only valid for a specific pipeline. Defects can be single- or multizone
deep, depending on zone dimensions. Under these circumstances, the operator can
immediately size the defect as the depth of that zone, or less. Note that quite long defects are
acceptable, and that centerline cracking is not permitted at any length. ECA accept/reject
criteria can be applied to defects that are multizone deep, but an appropriate table is required.
The pipeline operator or construction company should provide an appropriate accept/reject
table.

Table 1 on page 24 shows a sample table for acceptance/rejection of defects.

Table 1 Sample accept/reject criteria for girth weld defects

Feature Depth assumed Acceptable length for

for analysis pipe wall thickness
(mm) 12.5 mm <t <15 mm

External undercut low cap (LFS) 0.5–1.0 250 335

External undercut low cap (LFS) 1.1–2.5 100 195

Surface porosity / pinholes 2.5 2.5 2.5

External weld reinforcement >2.5 none allowed

Lack of fusion in one fill pass or the 2.5 100 195

cap pass (LFSS)

Lack of fusion or porosity in multiple up to 5.8 25 25

fill or cap passes

24 Chapter 5
 Table 1 Sample accept/reject criteria for girth weld defects (continued)

Feature Depth assumed Acceptable length for

for analysis pipe wall thickness
(mm) 12.5 mm <t <15 mm

Lack of fusion in hot pass: both 3.8 65 120

zones

Lack of fusion in hot pass: one zone 1.9 100 200

(LFSS)

Lack of fusion or porosity in root 2 100 200

pass (LFS) / misfire

Lack of fusion in both root and hot 5.8 25 25

pass / burn through

Lack of cross penetration 1 250 335

Spherical porosity 1 250 335

Piping porosity Unacceptable if piping porosity continues

through three or more passes

5.3 Strip Chart Interpretation

For the purposes of this manual, indications can be roughly classified into “smooth, regular”
(see Figure 5-3 on page 26) and “irregular” (see Figure 5-4 on page 27) signals. Operators are
advised (again) that signal interpretation is not so simple, so they should review all data
available before classifying an indication.

Data Analysis 25
 Figure 5-3 “Smooth, regular” defect; lack of fusion in the fill 2 view

26 Chapter 5
Figure 5-4 “Irregular” signals due to weld geometry effects

Data Analysis 27
 The following sections present indications and their signals in the strip chart for each weld
zone.

5.3.1 Root
For the inspection of the root, the amplitude gate typically starts 3 mm before the fusion line,
and finishes 1 mm past the centerline. The time gate also starts 3 mm before the fusion line, but
stretches past the far side of the root-back wall. Thus the time gate (TOF) routinely monitors
the position of the weld bead, while amplitude reflections from the weld bead are not collected
and displayed as these are normally outside the amplitude gate. This allows the operator to
routinely monitor for bead meander, high-low, and misplaced welding band, without triggering
the amplitude gate with false calls.

5.3.1.1 Time Signals Show Different Positions in Upstream and

Downstream Views
Observation: In the dual-gate views for the root signal, the weld bead indication position is not
the same in both views.

1. The two signals for both sides of the weld bead differ, but the times remain constant.
One probable cause is a misplaced welding band, which will exhibit a constant or
gradually changing position difference. If the welding band was not accurately positioned
at 170 mm from the weld center line, the position signal from either side of the weld bead
will differ. If the error is large (typically greater than ±1 mm), the band should be
repositioned and the weld scanned again. A misplaced welding band can be confirmed by
viewing the position of the weld bead in the two root volumetric views.
2. The two signals on both sides of the weld vary around the weld.
The likely cause is bead offset or wander (see “Bead Offset (or Wander)” on page 61).
Note that bead offset usually affects the LCP view as well (see “Asymmetric Signals and
the TOF Signal, in the Root Upstream and Downstream Views, “Wanders” or Shows
Sudden Discontinuity” on page 36).
3. The two signals vary locally and may show sudden jumps in TOF.
A probable cause is high-low (see “Asymmetric Signals with Different TOF in the Root
Upstream and Downstream Views” on page 36). High-low is not a defect as such, but
must be correctly characterized. Look at the TOFD back-wall signal for “splitting,”
indicating a double back-wall signal (see Figure 5-5 on page 29).

28 Chapter 5
Figure 5-5 Back-wall signal splitting in the TOFD view, indicating high-low

Data Analysis 29
5.3.1.2 Amplitude Signals Are Above Threshold in Upstream or
Downstream View
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the root signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red).

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar for defect location (fusion line if short, centerline
if long).
2. Look in the volumetric view (root volumetric map) to confirm the indication. A related
signal may also be observed in the opposite volumetric view at the weld bead line.
3. Look at the TOFD view to see if a near-surface defect is present. The TOFD signal from
the defect tip may show as a distinct line just inboard of the back wall; however, the back
wall will probably obscure the TOFD signals.
4. In the TOFD view, a break or perturbation in the back wall indicates a surface-breaking
defect.
5. Look in the LCP dual-gate view for a multiple-zone signal. Note that a lack of fusion in
the root is a surface-breaking defect.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

If the position of the indication is in the middle of the gate, the signal might be Lack of Fusion
or incomplete penetration. Lack of Fusion defects typically show high amplitude, and long,
relatively constant profiles (see “Lack of fusion at the Root” on page 53). If the LCP view also
presents the signal, the indication is probably a typical non-fusion defect (misfire, lack of
fusion root, and lack of fusion root and LCP). Toe crack and missed edge (see “Missed Edge”
on page 53) are other possibilities.

5.3.1.3 Amplitude Signals Are Above Threshold in Both Upstream

and Downstream Views
Observation: In the dual-gate views for the root signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red).

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar for defect position. If the position is in the middle
of the gate (that is, at the fusion line), suspect misfire. If the bar is short (that is, the signal
occurs before the fusion line), suspect burn through.
2. Look in the opposing root dual-gate view for signals. Misfire should be symmetric; burn
through may be symmetric or asymmetric.
3. Look in the TOFD view for diffracted signals. The TOFD signal from the defect tip may
show as a distinct line just inboard of the back wall; however, the back wall will probably
obscure the defect tip signals.

30 Chapter 5
 4. In the TOFD view, perturbations in the back wall indicate a surface-breaking defect.
5. Look in both volumetric views (root volumetric) to determine the type and location of the
signal. Confirm the indication location from the volumetric views by estimating the time
of flight from the weld bead.
6. Look in the LCP dual-gate views for associated signals.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

Possibly misfire or burn through, especially if signals are seen on the LCP channel (see
“Unusual Signals with Very Short TOF Color Bar” on page 35, “Missed Edge” on page 53, and
“Burn Through” on page 58).

5.3.1.4 Intermittent Signals in Either or Both Upstream and

Downstream Views
Observation: In the dual-gate views for the root signal, low-amplitude signals are appearing in
clusters.

1. Examine both volumetric views for sporadic and low amplitude signals.
2. Check the root TOF for travel times; both travel time and signal amplitude may vary
considerably.
3. Look in the LCP dual-gate views for associated signals.
4. Look in the TOFD view, but any defect may be shielded by the back-wall signal.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

Intermittent signals are possibly caused by porosity, though porosity amplitudes are usually
below threshold. Normally, porosity shows as a series of clustered signals located anywhere in
the weld bead, and is visible in both root views. Some signals may extend into the LCP.
Another possible source of these signals is a geometric reflector.

See “Porosity Root” on page 59.

5.3.2 LCP
The LCP weld zone is inspected using high-angle (70° and higher), shear waves in pulse-echo
mode from both upstream and downstream.

5.3.2.1 Amplitude Signals Are Above Threshold in Both Upstream

and Downstream Views
Observation: In the dual-gate views for the LCP signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%

Data Analysis 31
 threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red).

1. In the dual-gate view, see if the signals are smooth, with little overlap into the adjacent
zones.
2. Verify the indication position (time gate) in both dual-gate views to see if the signal comes
from the fusion line. Lack of cross penetration defects typically have a high amplitude,
and are symmetric and regular.
3. Look in the root dual-gate view for associated defects (possibility of misfire or burn
through, see “Misfire” on page 53 and “Burn Through” on page 58).
4. Look in the TOFD view to establish the presence of a near-inside surface defect, and for
accurate sizing if required. LCP defects should be seen clearly in the TOFD view.
Normal ECA criteria for accept/reject are applicable.

This reflection likely comes from lack of cross penetration defect (see Figure 5-6 on page 33
for example of lack of fusion). See “Lack of Fusion LCP” on page 55 and “Lack of Fusion at
the Junction of the Root and LCP” on page 54.

32 Chapter 5
Figure 5-6 Lack of fusion in the LCP weld zone

Data Analysis 33
5.3.2.2 Amplitude Signals Are Above Threshold in Upstream or
Downstream View
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the root signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red).

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar for defect location (fusion line if short, centerline
if long).
2. Look in the TOFD view for a misoriented defect and for high-low (breaks in the back-wall
signal), and for porosity.
3. Look in the root, the first hot pass, and the opposing LCP views for associated signals.
4. Look in the root volumetric view for porosity or other defects.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

This reflection may be due to lack of fusion at the root and LCP junction (see “Lack of Fusion
at the Junction of the Root and LCP” on page 54), porosity, or a LCP edge missed due to
high-low.

5.3.2.3 Irregular Signals in Either Upstream or Downstream View

Observation: In the dual-gate views for the LCP signal, indications are appearing in clusters.

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar for defect location (fusion line if short, centerline
if long).
2. Look in the TOFD view for defects, for high-low, and for porosity (refer to “TOFD
(Time-Of-Flight Diffraction)” on page 13).
3. Look in both root dual-gate views for associated signals.
If porosity is suspected, check the root volumetric views. This combination of signals may
indicate an incorrect setup, so verify the calibration. Geometry and high-low are not rejectable
defects. For other defects, normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

Weld geometry effects in the LCP weld zone, or incorrect application of procedures (for
example, poor temperature control) might cause these irregular signals. Porosity is another
possible cause.

5.3.3 Root and LCP

The root and LCP weld zones can be affected by the same defect.

34 Chapter 5
5.3.3.1 Smooth, Regular Signals in Both Upstream and
Downstream Views
Observation: The dual-gate views show smooth, regular indications for both upstream and
downstream channels, both at the fusion line.

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar for defect location (fusion line if short, centerline
if long) for both channels.
2. Check the amplitude in both LCP upstream and downstream views.
3. Check the amplitude in both root upstream and downstream views.
4. Look in the TOFD view for indications close to the inside surface and for back-wall
perturbations.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

This reflection indicates lack of metal, or misfire (see “Misfire” on page 53).

5.3.3.2 Smooth, Regular Signals in Either Upstream or Downstream

View
Observation: In the dual-gate views, the indications come from both root and LCP on either the
upstream or downstream side (but not both). The root and LCP signals are associated, but the
amplitude may differ for the two channels.

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar to ensure that indications are at the fusion line
(short color bar).
2. Look in the adjacent dual-gate views to make sure there are no associated signals.
3. Look in the TOFD view for defects (refer to “TOFD (Time-Of-Flight Diffraction)” on
page 13). Lack of fusion should show as a near-inside surface defect.
4. Check the TOFD view for back-wall perturbations.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

The possible cause is lack of fusion (see “Lack of Fusion at the Junction of the Root and LCP”
on page 54).

5.3.3.3 Unusual Signals with Very Short TOF Color Bar

Observation: In the dual-gate views, associated signals are observed for the root and LCP
channels, and the TOF color bar is unusually short, that is, the indication position is before the
fusion line.

Data Analysis 35
 1. Look in the TOFD view for indications, especially near the inside surface.
2. Look in the TOFD view for back-wall perturbations, indicating a surface-breaking defect.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

One possible cause is burn through. Burn through is a difficult defect to analyze, as the amount
and position will vary considerably. Burn through might also impact on the hot pass weld
zones; might or might not be symmetric; and might be rough or smooth. Burn through should
show clearly in the TOFD view (see “Burn Through” on page 58).

5.3.3.4 Asymmetric Signals with Different TOF in the Root

Upstream and Downstream Views
Observation: In the root and LCP dual-gate views, indications can occur on either the upstream
or the downstream side (that is, are asymmetric). In the root dual-gate views, the TOF color bar
in one view is very long while very short in the other one. Signals should be smooth and
regular.

1. Ensure that the indications in the root and LCP dual-gate views are associated.
2. Look in the TOFD view. The splitting of the back-wall signal into two components might
occur if you are in the presence of high-low.
If it is high-low, normal ECA criteria do not apply; high-low is not a rejectable defect as such.

This is probably caused by high-low, with the long TOF color bar in the root dual-gate view
coming from the high side and the short one coming from the low side. Note that high-low is a
geometry indication, not a welding defect. High-low is acceptable at any length, but must be
correctly differentiated from the indication of a misplaced welding band or of the bead
meander (see section 5.3.3.5 on page 36 and “High-Low Geometry” on page 61).

5.3.3.5 Asymmetric Signals and the TOF Signal, in the Root

Upstream and Downstream Views, “Wanders” or Shows
Sudden Discontinuity
Observation: In the root and LCP dual-gate views, indications are observed but they are not
symmetric (the upstream and downstream views show different signals). In the root dual-gate
view, the indication position (TOF) either goes in different directions or shows sudden jumps.

1. Ensure that the indications in the root and LCP dual-gate views are associated.
2. Check the TOF difference of color bar length between the upstream and downstream
views.

36 Chapter 5
 3. Look at the indication TOF for the complete weld. Either, the two views show that the
indication position is gradually moving in different directions, or they show a sudden
discontinuity.
4. Look in the TOFD view, there should be no significant indications, though there could be
back-wall perturbations.
If it is the case of a bead offset or wander, normal ECA criteria do not apply.

This condition indicates bead offset or wander. Bead offset or wander is not a defect, and is
acceptable in any length; however, it should be correctly identified (see “Bead Offset (or
Wander)” on page 61).

Short lengths of signal wander may be caused by bead overlap, where the internal root bead of
one head welds over the previously deposited root metal.

5.3.4 Hot Pass 1

The first hot pass weld zone is referred to as hot pass 1. The beam covering that weld zone uses
a 50° half skip for a CRC-Evans weld profile, plus inspection in pulse-echo mode. This
accurately orients the beam normal to the fusion line in both the hot pass 1 and hot pass 2
zones.

5.3.4.1 Amplitude Signals Are Regular and Above Threshold in

Upstream or Downstream View
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the hot pass 1 (HP1) signal, the amplitude has crossed
the 40% threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red).

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar for defect location (fusion line if short, centerline
if long). If it is at the fusion line, it is likely due to lack of fusion.
2. Is the signal smooth and regular?
3. Look in the adjacent dual-gate views for associated signals.
4. Look in the TOFD view to confirm the presence of a defect. Note that any defect less than
2 mm in height will not be resolved into top and bottom signals due to the ringing of the
ultrasound.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

The likely cause of this type of indication is lack of fusion (see “Lack of Fusion Hot Pass” on
page 56).

Data Analysis 37
5.3.4.2 Amplitude Signals Are Irregular and Above Threshold in
Upstream and/or Downstream Views
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the hot pass 1 (HP1) signal, the amplitude has crossed
the 40% threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red) and shows very variable
values.

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar for defect location (fusion line if short, centerline
if long).
2. Look in the adjacent dual-gate views for associated signals.
3. Look in the TOFD view to confirm the absence of a defect.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria do not apply.

These signals are normally caused by the weld geometry and are of no structural significance.
The beam covering the first hot pass weld zone reflects off the inside wall very close to the
weld root. Sometimes, some of the beam penetrates the weld root and is reflected back from
the weld bead outer wall. Due to variations in weld bead geometry, these signals are inherently
very variable in amplitude, unlike cracks (see “Amplitude Signals Are Irregular and Above
Threshold in Any Dual-Gate View” on page 48).

5.3.4.3 Amplitude Signals Are Regular and Above Threshold and

the TOF Color Bar is Long in Upstream and/or Downstream
Views
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the hot pass 1 (HP1) signal, the amplitude has crossed
the 40% threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red) and the length of the
TOF color bar is long indicating that the defect is in the center of the weld.

1. Check the signal amplitude to see if it is irregular.

2. Look in the TOFD view for a mid-wall defect, and for accurate sizing. The defect may be
centerline cracking, which can be normally seen in the fill view, or a cold lap.
If this signal is caused by centerline cracking, normal ECA criteria do not apply. Centerline
cracking is rejectable at any length. If the signal is due to a cold lap, normal ECA criteria
apply.

This signal combination is not normally observed due to the angle of the hot pass beams (see
“Centerline Cracking” on page 60).

38 Chapter 5
5.3.5 Hot Pass 2
The second hot pass weld zone is referred to as hot pass 2 (HP2). It is not always needed for
pipes with small wall thicknesses or with different weld geometries. The hot pass 2 beam for a
CRC weld uses a 50°–shear wave in half skip in pulse-echo mode, as with the HP1 inspection.
The HP2 beam is less prone to geometric effects from the weld bead than the HP1 beam. It is
also used for volumetric mapping of the weld cap.

5.3.5.1 Amplitude Signals Are Regular and Above Threshold in

Upstream or Downstream View
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the hot pass 2 signal (HP2), the amplitude has crossed
the 40% threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red).

1. Look at the length of the TOF color bar for defect location (fusion line if short, centerline
if long). If it is at the fusion line, it is likely due to lack of fusion.
2. Look in the adjacent dual-gate views for associated signals.
3. Look in the TOFD view to confirm the presence of a defect. Note that any defect less than
about 3 mm in height will not be resolved into top and bottom signals due to the ringing of
the ultrasound.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

The likely cause of this type of indication is lack of fusion (see “Lack of Fusion Hot Pass” on
page 56).

5.3.5.2 Amplitude Signals Are Regular and Above Threshold and

the TOF Color Bar Is Long in Upstream and/or Downstream
Views
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the hot pass 2 signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red) and the length of the TOF color
bar is long indicating that the defect is in the center of the weld.

1. Check the signal amplitude to see if it is irregular.

2. Look in the volumetric views for porosity.
3. Look in the TOFD view for a mid-wall defect, and for accurate sizing. The defect could be
centerline cracking, which can be normally seen in the fill view, or a cold lap.
If this signal is caused by centerline cracking, normal ECA criteria do not apply. Centerline
cracking is rejectable at any length. If the signal is due to a cold lap, normal ECA criteria
apply.

Data Analysis 39
 This signal combination is not normally observed due to the angle of the hot pass beams (see
section 6.9, Centerline Cracking).

5.3.6 Fill 1
The first fill weld zone is referred to as fill 1. The number of fill zones needed to cover the
complete weld depends on the thickness of the pipe wall. The fill 1 channel typically uses a
tandem technique, which permits very good reflections from defects oriented along the fusion
line in this zone. Experience has shown that centerline cracking is detectable using the same
setup (see “Smooth, Regular Signals in Either Upstream or Downstream View” on page 35).

5.3.6.1 Amplitude Signals Are Above Threshold in Upstream or

Downstream View
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the fill 1 signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red).

1. Look at the length of the TOF color to make sure that the indication is located on the
fusion line (short color bar). The TOF should be fairly constant over the signal length.
2. Look in the adjacent dual-gate views for associated signals.
3. Look in the TOFD view to confirm the presence of a defect.
4. The signal amplitude should be relatively smooth and regular.
Highly irregular amplitudes are probably due to weld geometry effects as the beam
covering the fill 1 zone has a long travel path with multiple skips, and is, therefore more
prone to interference.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

The likely cause of this type of indication is lack of fusion along the fill line (see “Lack of
Fusion Fill 1” on page 56).

5.3.6.2 Amplitude Signals Are Above Threshold and the TOF Color
Bar Is Long in Both Upstream and Downstream Views
Observation: In the dual-gate views for the fill 1 signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red) and the TOF color bars are
symmetric, that is, the time of arrival corresponds to the center of the weld and to the center-
hole calibration (not the fusion line).

1. Check the channel on the opposing stream for symmetric associated signals.
2. Look in the adjacent dual-gate views for associated signals.

40 Chapter 5
 3. Look in the TOFD view for mid-wall defects. These should show clearly, independent of
the defect orientation.
4. In the dual-gate, look for signal amplitude variations.
If the amplitudes are slightly irregular, the signal probably comes from centerline cracking. If
the indication is characterized as centerline cracking, normal ECA accept/reject criteria do not
apply. Centerline cracking is rejectable at any length (see “Centerline Cracking” on page 60).

5.3.7 Fill 2
The second fill weld zone is referred to as fill 2. The fill 2 channel normally uses a full skip 70°
shear wave, if the pipe is thin (and only two Fill zones used), which gives an inherently long
metal path. The 70° angle gives good orientation for fusion line defects, and for toe cracking.
A 65°–55° tandem arrangement can be used under some conditions, especially in a three-fill
application. For thicker pipes, the fill channels typically use tandem (pitch-catch)
arrangements. For thinner material, the fill 2 (upper fill) channel also inspects the near-surface
area, so undercut can be detected. For thicker material, the fill 3 (higher fill) channel would
detect undercut, while the fill 2 (lower fill) channel would behave similarly to the fill 1
channel.

Thick-wall pipes used offshore often have welds that need many fill zones; up to ten in some
cases. The general approach to analyze a weld with a high number of fill channels applies here,
based on the fill 2 approach. With multiple fill channels, the overtrace from one fill channel to
the next is often useful information on defect characterization and sizing.

5.3.7.1 Amplitude Signals Are Regular and Above Threshold in

Upstream or Downstream View
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the fill 2 signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red) and the length of the TOF color
bar is short indicating that the defect is in the fusion line.

1. Check the absence of a related signal on the channel for the other stream.
2. Look in the TOFD view to confirm the presence of a defect, in particular the lateral wave;
any breaks in the lateral wave indicate surface breaking defects, typically a toe crack or
undercut.
3. Look in the TOFD view for sub-surface indications. Note that the TOFD dead zone will
probably encompass any near-surface cracking so that the defect tip may be shadowed out.
4. Look in both upstream and downstream volumetric views for the fill 2 channel for toe
cracks, lack of fusion, and undercut.
Normal ECA accept/reject criteria are applicable.

Data Analysis 41
 Regular, above-threshold signals on one channel typically indicate lack of fusion or toe
cracking (see “Lack of Fusion Fill 2” on page 57, and Figure 5-7 on page 43).

42 Chapter 5
Figure 5-7 Lack of fusion in the fill view

Data Analysis 43
5.3.7.2 Amplitude Signals Are Irregular and Above Threshold in
Upstream or Downstream View
Observation: In the dual-gate view for the fill 2 signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red) but the values are irregular.

1. Look in both upstream and downstream volumetric views for low amplitude, irregular
signals. Porosity may be located anywhere in the weld cap, but should clearly show
irregular signals.
2. Look in both upstream and downstream volumetric views for any weld geometry effects;
for example, from the weld cap. Also check the opposite volumetric view (if the signals
occur on the downstream side, check the upstream volumetric view since this will show
the appropriate area of the fill 2 outer surface.)
3. Look at the TOF data to establish defect location. Porosity is generally anywhere in the
weld cap, but not at the fusion line.
4. In the TOFD view, ensure that there are no surface breaking defects. (These will show as a
break in the lateral wave.) Porosity may show visibly in the TOFD view, but the image
may be difficult to characterize; in general, use the volumetric views to characterize
porosity.
If the indications are characterized as a real defect (that is cracking or porosity but not
geometry), normal ECA accept/reject criteria apply.

Irregular signals for one fill channel are likely due to weld geometry effects or porosity,
particularly from the weld cap (see “Porosity” on page 59).

5.3.7.3 Amplitude Signals Are Regular and Above Threshold in

Both Upstream and Downstream Views
Observation: In the dual-gate views for the fill 2 signal, the amplitude has crossed the 40%
threshold (the TOF color bar has switched from green to red) and the values stay relatively the
same.

1. In the dual-gate views, verify if the signals are relatively symmetric.

2. Look at the length of the TOF color to make sure that the indication is located in the center
of the weld (long color bar).
3. Look in the TOFD view for near-outside surface defects. (Remember that the TOFD has a
dead zone of a few millimeters on the outside surface.)
4. Look at the TOFD lateral wave to make sure that the defect is not surface-breaking.
If the amplitudes are slightly irregular and the position in the gate suggests that the indication
is from the middle of the weld, the signal probably comes from centerline cracking (see

44 Chapter 5
 “Centerline Cracking” on page 60). There might be associated signals in the adjacent fill
zones. For some applications, the number of fills could be up to 9 or even higher depending on
the wall pipe thickness.

If the amplitudes are regular, the signal probably comes from a cold lap. Normal ECA criteria
apply for cold laps. If centerline cracking, ECA accept/reject criteria do not apply. Centerline
cracking is rejectable at any length.

5.3.8 Any Weld Zone

This section presents the interpretation of signals appearing in any view.

5.3.8.1 Unexpected Signals at Pipe Transition Weld

Observation: In dual-gate views, unexplained signals occur on any channel, particularly at
changes in pipe ID.

The cause might be an incorrect counterbore. If the thicker section is incorrectly machined to
the smaller diameter, or if the counterbore is tapered, or if the pipe is excessively oval, the zone
discrimination technique does not work. Under these circumstances, the weld must be
inspected manually or by radiography.

1. Check for smooth indications at any location on the TOF.

2. Look in the TOFD view for real defects. The counterbore should affect TOFD less than
the zone discrimination channels. Any indications of real defects should correlate closely
with the observed signals.
If you suspect counterbore problems, redo the inspection manually.

Note that counterbore is not a defect, and is acceptable at any length provided it can be
properly characterized. Also note that tapered counterbores are not to be used with AUT (see
“Counterbore” on page 62).

5.3.8.2 Short Associated Signals in Two or More Dual-Gate Views

Observation: Two or more adjacent dual-gate views on one side of the strip chart show short
associated signals. There are two distinct types of short multichannel defects (or stacked
defects):

1. Multipass lack of fusion: this defect has some length. These lack of fusion defects are
analyzed using normal ECA criteria, for multichannel defects.

Data Analysis 45
 2. Welder stop-start defects, which can be multipass, deep, and volumetric, but are short.
Sometimes these stop-start defects have a volumetric component. Welder start-stop
defects are called “stacked defects” in this manual.

5.3.8.3 A Series of Amplitude Signals Are Above Threshold in Two

or More Dual-Gate Views
Observation: Two or more adjacent dual-gate views on one side of the strip chart show a series
of signals for which the amplitude has crossed the 40% threshold (the TOF color bar has
switched from green to red).

1. On the circumferential position ruler, verify if the indications are relatively short in length
(about 10–20 mm).
2. Look in both upstream and downstream dual-gate views to see if signals are symmetric or
not (probably not).
3. Look for associated signals on both upstream and downstream dual-gate views (probably
present, but with different signal profiles and positions).
4. Look at the TOF color bar length to determine the exact location of indication(s). Is the
indication at the fusion line, or just beyond it? If the position in the upstream and
downstream views locate the indication in different positions in the weld, there might be a
transverse component to the defect due to stop-starts.
5. Look in the TOFD view for the presence of a defect.
Normal ECA and other accept/reject conditions apply.

If the cause is characterized as stacked defects, check for porosity and measure defect depth.
Note that there might be a depth-rejection criterion, as well as a length criterion. For example,
any defect over 50% through wall may be rejectable.

Stacked defects can show up in any adjacent dual-gate views. Stacked defects should be deep
enough to show both top and bottom defects in the TOFD view (see “Stacked Defects” on
page 57, and Figure 5-8 on page 47).

Note: If stacked defects are suspected, ask the manual operator to confirm the
analysis.

46 Chapter 5
Figure 5-8 Example of stacked defects

Data Analysis 47
5.3.8.4 Amplitude Signals Are Irregular and Above Threshold in
Any Dual-Gate View
Observation: Irregular, above-threshold signals occurring on any channel. They may show
considerable variation in amplitude, and possibly in position as well. They may or may not
appear to be associated with signals in other views.

These irregular signals are likely due to weld geometry, and are common (see Figure 5-9 on
page 48). Thus, it is important to correctly identify them.

Edges of beam

Center of beam
Hot
pass 1

Figure 5-9 Spurious reflections from the root zone

The ultrasound beam has a finite width; if the centre of the beam is correctly targeted at HP1
calibration notch, a portion of the beam may hit the root zone. This could send spurious
reflections back to the probe, depending on the root profile, its position, the beam spread, etc.
Due to the variations in weld root geometry, such signals are very irregular.

48 Chapter 5
 Note: Geometry reflections can occur under many different conditions, but the
predominant effects are from the root and cap zones (root, hot pass, and upper fill zones).

1. Look in the dual-gate view to see if the signal is distinctly “choppy”.

2. Look in adjacent dual-gate views for associated signals.
3. Look at the TOF color bar to determine where in the weld the indications are supposed to
be located.
4. Look in the TOFD view to determine if a defect is present.
If geometry effects are suspected, mark and characterize the indications as such. Otherwise
analyze and characterize the indications as usual.

Data Analysis 49
50 Chapter 5
6. Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated
Welding

This chapter presents information reformatted from “Weld Inspection UT2 – Training for
Nondestructive Testing: Ultrasonic Testing of Pipeline Girth Welds” with permission from Mr.
E. A. Ginzel.

Defects and weld geometry

Figure 6-1 on page 52 illustrates a few defects and a weld geometry found in mechanically
welded joints.

Other defects and weld geometries that are not illustrated in the figure are listed here:

• Stacked defects
• Bead offset (or wander)
• Counterbore (transition)

Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated Welding 51

 Cap lack of fusion Cap undercut
surface

Zones

Fill 2 lack of fusion Fill 2 solidification

2
subsurface crack

Fill 1 solidification Fill 1 lack of fusion

3 crack subsurface

4
Hot pass (upper) lack
of fusion subsurface Hot pass (lower) lack
5
of fusion subsurface
6 LCP

Root porosity

Root lack of fusion

Root undercut
surface

Porosity

Misfire Burn through

High-low

Figure 6-1 Examples of defects found in mechanically welded pipeline

The following sections present a description of the defects and a verification list the operator
may use to help evaluate signals.

52 Chapter 6
6.1 Lack of fusion at the Root

Several variations can occur when there is a problem of lack of fusion at the root. Possible
defects include misfire, the missed edge, Lack of Fusion, and lack of fusion at the junction of
the root and LCP.

6.1.1 Misfire
The internal welding head did not fire or sputtered. No metal is deposited. Ideally this presents
two smooth root faces; however, welders have been known to see this from the outside and the
hot pass bug can be run over the area twice. This can cause some metal to penetrate and reduce
the surface area of non-fused root face.

Table 2 Operator evaluation checklist for misfire

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Root and LCP

Symmetry (US and DS) Yes

Transit time At calibration target distance and smooth

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.1.2 Missed Edge

Due to misalignment of the internal head or high-low conditions, one side of the root bevel
might not get metal deposited on it. Undercut is the depression caused by melting of the parent
metal next to the weld edge. It would need to be very deep to be detected but a difference could
not be reasonably seen between undercut and a missed edge.

Table 3 Operator evaluation checklist for missed edge

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated Welding 53

 Table 3 Operator evaluation checklist for missed edge (continued)

Characteristic Comment

Channel(s) affected Root only

Symmetry (US and DS) No

Transit time At calibration target distance and smooth

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.1.3 Lack of Fusion

It may be possible for the root bead to be placed symmetrically but due to oil or arc redirection,
an area of the parent metal does not get melted to fuse with the weld puddle. The bead will
appear acceptable on the inside surface but lack of fusion still exists. Although it does not
appear to be surface breaking it is considered a surface defect.

Table 4 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion root

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Root

Symmetry (US and DS) No

Transit time At calibration target distance and smooth

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.1.4 Lack of Fusion at the Junction of the Root and LCP

If a condition of high-low exists, or debris is caught between the root bead and corner of the
weld at the land area, the lack of fusion may span two zones. Such a flaw is difficult to evaluate
as one or another condition. If seen mostly with the LCP channel, it is called an LCP defect
and if seen mostly with the root channels, but a little with the LCP channel, it is called a root
defect.

54 Chapter 6
 Table 5 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion root and LCP

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Root and LCP

Symmetry (US and DS) No

Transit time At calibration target distance and broken

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.2 Lack of Fusion LCP

LCP (lack of cross penetration) both identifies the defect and is the term used to identify the
zone at the weld land area. This can be associated with the internal welding machine not
depositing the bead deep enough, the hot pass weld not penetrating deep enough, or is often
associated with conditions of high-low. With welder problems, the condition may be more
symmetric (seen with approximately equal length and amplitude upstream and downstream)
whereas high-low conditions could cause one side to be more pronounced that the other. The
adjacent channels (root and hot pass 1) are usually examined to see if the LCP extends inward
or outward.

Table 6 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion LCP

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected LCP

Symmetry (US and DS) Yes (usually)

Transit time At calibration target distance

Length Acceptable/rejectable

Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated Welding 55

6.3 Lack of Fusion Hot Pass

With its 45° orientation, the CRC hot pass bevel was a difficult problem for radiography
testing (RT). Due to the surface length of this area, it has been divided into two zones: hot
pass 1 and hot pass 2. UT signals here are clear, and due to the large angular difference
between the 45° hot pass bevel and the 90° LCP below it and the 85° fill above, signals from
the hot pass zone are not confused with adjacent zone defects. (If they were detectable by RT
these would have been called lack of fusion subsurface (LFSS.)

Table 7 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion hot pass

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected HP1 and/or HP2

Symmetry (US and DS) No

Transit time At calibration target distance.

HP1 may have some associated LCP signal.
HP2 may have some associated fill 1 signal.

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.4 Lack of Fusion Fill 1

The sources of this defect are the same as for any lack of fusion defect in the fill passes. Lack
of fusion for fill 1 is often associated with the corner where the hot pass bevel and the fill bevel
meet.

Table 8 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion fill 1

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Fill 1

Symmetry (US and DS) No

56 Chapter 6
 Table 8 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion fill 1 (continued)

Characteristic Comment

Transit time At calibration target

distance

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.5 Lack of Fusion Fill 2

This defect can be simple side wall lack of fusion, or it may have a component of cold lap to
the fill 1 pass. Undercut, if deeper than 1 mm, would occur in the fill 2 zone as well. The
operator cannot discriminate where the lack of fusion exists. This must be determined by a
manual scan and then, the operator would have to plot any defects called for repair. If during
the manual evaluation no undercut is seen, it is assumed the flaw is subsurface. For heavier
wall pipe where 3 or 4 fills are required, the concerns are the same as for fills 1 and 2.

Table 9 Operator evaluation checklist for lack of fusion fill 2

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Fill 2 or Fill 3

Symmetry (US and DS) No

Transit time At calibration target distance.

(If this is also the cap zone and no
indication occurs on next lower fill, a
possible undercut may exist).

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.6 Stacked Defects

When welders stop a weld in the middle of the process (to clean a cup or clear bad wire, etc.),
they must then restart the weld in the same area. If the arc stutters or if the stop was not
properly cleaned out, a vertical component will be seen that can extend to two or more weld

Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated Welding 57

 zones. If the chart indicates the situation exists on three or more adjacent zones, it is
recommended to investigate further using a manual ultrasound scanner even if the length is
less than 25 mm.

Table 10 Operator evaluation checklist for stacked defects

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Two or more adjacent channels

Symmetry (US and DS) Not necessary but can occur

Transit time At calibration target distance or

slightly after (cold lap)

Length Stops/starts will be short geometry, or

welding machine difficulties could
result in long stacked defects

6.7 Burn Through

Burn through occurs when the heat of the melt is sufficient to weaken the weld metal
previously laid down. The melt pokes through, thereby removing a volume of metal from the
inside surface of the weld/pipe. The amount of material may be very small, typically 5–6 mm
diameter and only be sufficient to remove the bead surface. This would produce little or no
indication in the root channel. However, if the situation is more pronounced, metal could be
removed from the hot pass and bead as well as material from the parent metal. This would be
seen in root, LCP, and 1 or 2 hot pass weld zones. Associated with this stacked indication
would be a position at the beginning of the time gate, earlier than the normal lack of fusion,
and some degree of symmetry.

Table 11 Operator evaluation checklist for burn through

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Root and LCP

58 Chapter 6
 Table 11 Operator evaluation checklist for burn through (continued)

Characteristic Comment

Symmetry (US and DS) Not necessary but can occur

Transit time Less than calibration distance

and maybe smooth or rough

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.8 Porosity

Caused by gasification of impurities on the weld preparation surface or by loss of shielding

gas. Signals will typically have irregular amplitudes and irregular positions in the time gates,
although with such short time intervals as exist in the root and LCP this is more difficult to see.
Some symmetry is often noted and if the porosity is heavy, the geometry signal seen from the
weld surface will be reduced or even eliminated. Porosity is seen differently for the root and
for the fill zones.

6.8.1 Porosity Root

Table 12 Operator evaluation checklist for root porosity

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Maybe

Channel(s) affected Root and LCP

Symmetry (US and DS) Usually

Transit time Very irregular, varying from

calibration target distance to 1–2 mm
beyond

Length Acceptable/rejectable

Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated Welding 59

6.8.2 Porosity Fill

Table 13 Operator evaluation checklist for fill porosity

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Maybe

Channel(s) affected Porosity channel and others from hot

pass 1 and up

Symmetry (US and DS) Usually

Transit time Occurs at varying distances and usually

begins at the base of the pass affected.
Associated cap geometry signal may
drop back.

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.9 Centerline Cracking

If too much weld metal is deposited too quickly, the heat gradient in the weld nugget causes
shrinkage cracking to occur as it solidifies (called solidification cracking or shrinkage
cracking). This is not likely to occur in the root but might occur in any pass made from the
outside surface. As this is likely to pass right through the weld nugget, its amplitude is usually
large and symmetry exists. On a radiograph, the crack edges are very fine and might not show
clearly; it would then be misinterpreted as LCP as it is approximately centered.

Table 14 Operator evaluation checklist for centerline cracking

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Fill 1 and/or fill 2 and/or fill 3

Symmetry (US and DS) Yes

60 Chapter 6
 Table 14 Operator evaluation checklist for centerline cracking (continued)

Characteristic Comment

Transit time Beyond calibration target distance

corresponding to center notch or hole and
slightly irregular

Length Acceptable/rejectable

6.10 High-Low Geometry

High-low is not a defect but a geometry condition caused by ovality or a poor mechanical fit.
Care must be taken by the operator to ensure that the indications originating from this do not
call for repair. However, this condition can cause genuine defects and the two must be
discernible. Large differences in root transit times are usually an indication of high-low.

Table 15 Operator evaluation checklist for high-low geometry

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Root and LCP

Symmetry (US and DS) No

Transit time Long transit time on high side associated

with short transit time on low side

Length NA

6.11 Bead Offset (or Wander)

Internal welding is performed using multiple welding heads arranged to align with the weld
centerline. If not correctly set, one or more heads will deviate from the central position. This
could be a head starting on one side and crossing the centerline or it could be a head that moves
straight but is offset upstream or downstream. Root transit time indicates this condition.

Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated Welding 61

 Table 16 Operator evaluation checklist for bead offset or wander

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Root and LCP

Symmetry (US and DS) No

Transit time Transit time for root probes move in opposite

directions. If bead wander, then movement of
transit times is gradual and across the
centerline. If bead offset, then one or more
internal welding heads are seen to have transit
times long on one side and short on the other
and will exhibit a sudden jumping of position
from the center.

Length NA

6.12 Counterbore

To allow heavy wall and light wall pipe to be joined, the heavy wall pipe is counterbored to the
same thickness as the light wall. If the counterbore is made as a taper, the counterbored side
cannot be inspected using ultrasound as the skip angles are no longer correct. If the
counterbore is parallel, inspection is possible but ovality might result in some areas being
thicker than they should be. This results in the gated regions being incorrect for the sound path
traveled.

Table 17 Operator evaluation checklist for counterbore

Characteristic Comment

Indication over threshold Yes

Channel(s) affected Any channel can be affected

Symmetry (US and DS) No

62 Chapter 6
 Table 17 Operator evaluation checklist for counterbore (continued)

Characteristic Comment

Transit time If sloped, the test cannot be carried out from

that side.
If too thick, signals usually have length as well
as long transit times. All signals must be
evaluated using a manual inspection.

Length NA

Typical Defects of Pipeline Automated Welding 63

64 Chapter 6
7. Typical Operator Checklist

This chapter presents a checklist that is designed to help the operator analyze inspection results
using the phased array PipeWIZARD® system. The following verifications are made in the
strip chart display of scan results from PipeWIZARD® software based on TomoView™.

1. Look for above-threshold signals in any view (green TOF color bar turns to red).
2. If a signal is observed, look in adjacent views for associated signals.
3. Look in the opposing views for associated signals. For example, if the defect is observed
in the downstream LCP view, check the upstream LCP view.
4. Look at the TOF color bar on all views to determine the indication location, that is, pre-
fusion line (very short bar), fusion line (short bar), or centerline (long bar).
5. Look in the TOFD view to confirm the presence or absence of a defect. This should help
differentiate lack of fusion from indications that are not a defect like weld geometry
effects.
6. Still in the TOFD view, look for top and bottom signals (phase reversal/inversion). If the
defect is less than 2 mm deep, then top and bottom will not be distinguishable.
7. If the defect is near either surface, check the TOFD lateral wave or back-wall signal for
breaks to determine if it is a surface-breaking defect.
8. Estimate the defect length, if appropriate.
9. Check the defect profile: is it smooth, rough, or highly irregular?
10. If the defect occurs on several channels, use the horizontal cursor to determine if more
than one defect is present.
11. Determine accept/reject of defect from appropriate table or other criteria.

Typical Operator Checklist 65

66 Chapter 7
8. Phased Array Ultrasound

The PipeWIZARD® system switched from conventional to phased array ultrasound in early
1999. There are many advantages to phased array ultrasound, as this chapter will show.
Phased array setups are primarily software-based, so it is relatively easy to introduce new
modifications to PipeWIZARD®, and to implement changes in a short period of time.

8.1 Description

Pipelines are typically constructed by joining sections of pipe together, using either manual or
automated welding. Since pipelines operate at a high percentage of yield strength, these welds
must be constructed and inspected to a high standard. In recent years, engineering critical
assessment (ECA also called fracture mechanics, fitness for service, or structural integrity) has
been used to evaluate defects because ECA is typically less conservative than traditional
“workmanship” criteria.

Phased array probes use many elements, all individually wired, pulsed, and time-shifted.
These elements are typically pulsed in groups of about 16 elements at a time for pipeline
welds. In order to make a user-friendly system, a typical setup calculates the time delays from
operator input, or uses a pre-defined file calculated for the inspection angle, focal distance, and
scan pattern (see Figure 8-1 on page 68).

Phased Array Ultrasound 67

 Linear scan Sectorial scan Depth focusing
Delays (ns)

Focal law 1
...
Elements
Focal law 5
Linear array

Acoustic Acoustic Beam spot N

field 1 field 5
Beam spot 1

Figure 8-1 Linear and sectorial scans using a phased array probe

The time delay values are back calculated using time-of-flight from the focal spot, and the
scan assembled from individual focal laws. Time-delay circuits must be accurate to around two
nanoseconds to provide the required accuracy. Due to the limited market, complexity, software
requirements, and manufacturing problems, industrial uses have been limited until the last few
years.

From a practical viewpoint, phased array ultrasound is merely a method of generating and
receiving ultrasound signals. Consequently, many of the details of ultrasound inspection
remain unchanged; for example, if 7.5 MHz is the optimum inspection frequency with
conventional ultrasound, then phased array ultrasound would typically use the same frequency,
focal length, and incident angle.

8.1.1 Electronic Scanning

Multiplexing along an array of elements produces electronic scans (see Figure 8-2 on page 69).

68 Chapter 8
 Active group of
16 elements

Scan direction

Figure 8-2 Schematic of a linear electronic scan

Typical arrays have up to 128 elements, pulsed in groups of 8 to 16. Electronic scanning
permits rapid coverage with a tight focal spot. If the array is flat and linear, then the scan
pattern is a simple B-scan. If the array is curved, then the scan pattern will be curved.
Electronic scanning refers to the electronic beam sweeping along the probe element array that
replaces the mechanical raster scanning. Linear scanning refers to the mechanical scanning
along the weld, perpendicular to the electronic scan. Linear scans are straightforward to
program. For example, an electronic-linear-scan pattern can be readily programmed to inspect
a weld using both 45° and 60° shear waves, which mimic conventional manual inspections or
automated raster scans.

8.1.2 Sectorial (Azimuthal) Scanning

Sectorial or S-scans use a fixed set of elements, but they alter the time delays to sweep the
beam through a series of angles (see Figure 8-3 on page 70).

Phased Array Ultrasound 69

 Figure 8-3 Longitudinal wave S-scan on test sample

Again, this is a straightforward scan to program. Applications for sectorial scanning typically
involve a stationary array, sweeping across a relatively inaccessible component like a turbine
blade root, to map out the features (and defects). Depending primarily on the array frequency
and element spacing, the sweep angles can vary from + 20° up to + 80°.

8.1.3 Combined Scans

Phased array ultrasound permits the combination of electronic scanning, sectorial scanning,
and precision focusing to give a practical combination of displays. Optimum angles can be
selected for welds and other components, while electronic scanning permits fast and functional
inspections. For zone discrimination scans of pipeline welds, specific angles are used for given
weld geometries.

70 Chapter 8
8.2 Advantages

Phased array ultrasound offers significant technical advantages over conventional ultrasound
with multiple probes. In some cases, the advantages are minor, in others they are major, and
sometimes the use of phased array probes allows inspections which would be impossible using
multiple probes. This section presents some advantages of phased array ultrasound.

8.2.1 Equipment Size

Phased array probe holders are significantly smaller and lighter than multiple-probe holders.
The R/D Tech® phased array holder weighs 15 kg, while the old R/D Tech multiple-probe
holder weighed around 30 kg. Smaller and lighter probe holders are much easier for the
operators, who have to load 100 probe holders per day, and are less likely to result in a dropped
holder. Figure 8-4 on page 71 shows two PipeWIZARD® inspection heads. On the left the
multiprobe system; on the right, with a phased array probe holder, just two multielement
probes. Note that the two phased array probes have twice as much inspection capability as the
24-channel, multiple-probe head, at the same speed.

Figure 8-4 Conventional ultrasound probes and phased array ultrasound probes

8.2.2 Reliability
Phased array systems have about 80% fewer moving parts than equivalent multiple-probe
systems, and provide much better reliability. The best reliability record known for AUT is
three months without downtime for an offshore project in the Black Sea.

Phased Array Ultrasound 71

8.2.3 Flexibility
The PipeWIZARD® system can scan diameter pipes from 60 mm to 1.5 m, wall thicknesses
from 6 mm to 50 mm, and any weld profile. These scans can be done without any major
changes to the machine. (Depending on the details, a new wedge and welding band may be
required, plus the correct setup.) This significantly minimizes operating costs.

Furthermore, channels can be added to add coverage on selected weld zones. Unlike
conventional multiprobe systems which are typically limited to 24 channels, the
PipeWIZARD® software permits up to 128 channels. This means that an extra 104 inspection
channels can be used for special scans. While using all 128 channels will slow down the
inspection significantly, it is possible to run approximately 50 channels while still scanning at
100 mm/s (depending on the channels).

Interlaced scans
Extra channels can be added between the standard channels to improve defect detection and
sizing (see Figure 8-5 on page 72).

Standard zones
Added zones

Figure 8-5 Added zones that can be covered

72 Chapter 8
 Extra Root Scans
For critical welds, extra channels are added in the root area (see Figure 8-6 on page 73) to
ensure that small defects are not missed, especially if there are small variations in thickness or
pipe velocity.

Figure 8-6 Extra channels added to cover the root

8.2.4 Scanning Speed

At the standard ASTM E-1961 scanning speed of 100 mm/s, a phased array system takes
approximately six seconds less per scan than a multiprobe system. Each scan of the pipe
requires a 360° scan, plus the length of the probe holder. Since the PipeWIZARD®
phased array probe holder is 50 mm long, as opposed to the 700 mm for the multiple-probe
version, this saves over six seconds per scan.

8.2.5 Setup Time Before Inspection

The setup steps required before starting an inspection are significantly shorter with a
phased array system. Using the automated setup procedure, the initial setup takes a few
minutes. Then the operator must calibrate and fine-tune, which usually takes a few hours with
experience. Once the setup is stored, it is available any time, any place. In contrast, multiprobe
systems take a day for a good operator to set up; if the multiprobe pan is dropped, the setup
may need to be repeated.

Phased Array Ultrasound 73

8.2.6 Changeover Time
To make changes in parameters (wall thickness, diameter, material), a phased array system
typically requires just a few minutes. Multiprobe systems can take an hour or more.

8.2.7 Coupling
Phased array probe wedges require less water than the one used in the multiprobe
configuration (about 0.5 litres per 36-inch pipe, or less than one quarter). Also, coupling has
proved very reliable, and the larger array wedges run more smoothly than multiprobe wedges.

8.2.8 PipeWIZARD® Software based on TomoView™

The software developed for the phased array PipeWIZARD® system offers many advantages.

The system is delivered with inspection setups already prepared; however, since other weld
profiles or defect characteristics can be added, the system is equipped with an automated setup
function (see Figure 8-7 on page 75) to assist the operators when creating their own setups.
The automatic setup procedure is described in the Phased-Array PipeWIZARD® System User’s
Manual.

74 Chapter 8
 Figure 8-7 The automatic setup in the Channel Parameters dialog box

The software is also a data interpretation assistant through the Defect Information dialog box
(see Figure 8-8 on page 76).

Phased Array Ultrasound 75

 40%
80%

Figure 8-8 The Defect Information dialog box

Defect information is displayed on the bevel profile including the circumferential position of
the defect. A comparison with pre-established and job specific engineering critical assessment
(ECA) criteria is conducted.

8.3 Advanced Inspections

Phased array systems can be configured to adapt to special inspection problems. This section
presents some of the new uses of phased array ultrasound.

8.3.1 Compensating for Thickness Variations in Seamless

Pipes
Offshore seamless pipes have significant variations in wall thickness, up to 10–15%. For a
20 mm thick wall, these variations are sufficient for the zone discrimination beams to
completely miss their targets. One phased array solution is to run multiple setups, typically the
nominal, minimum, and maximum thicknesses (see Figure 8-9 on page 77). The minimum and
maximum setups can be performed electronically, based on a nominal calibration. The operator
selects which view to display based on wall thickness measurements.

76 Chapter 8
 Figure 8-9 Ray tracing showing beams for nominal, minimum and maximum wall
thicknesses, as well as errors

8.3.2 Compensating for Wedge Temperature

Phased array probes use large wedges, and there has been some concern that temperature
gradients in these wedges will skew the ultrasonic beams enough to miss targets. Preliminary
modeling (see Figure 8-10 on page 77) has shown that the effect is somewhat small.

Figure 8-10 Modeling of a wedge on a pipe, with temperature gradient in layers from
base

The modeling shows that any effects are likely to be limited to the exit point and attenuation.
Experimental results have supported this modeling, and showed that the key issue is to keep
the couplant temperature steady, and flowing. In this way, the wedge is cooled, and

Phased Array Ultrasound 77

 temperature variations are negligible.

8.3.3 Risers, Tendons, and Other High-Quality Welds

Risers and tendons are nominally built to much higher quality than standard pipelines or other
welds. For example, acceptable defect sizes on a 35-mm thick wall may be only 0.3 mm, with
a sizing error of +0.3 mm. Phased array systems work better on such applications since they
produce multiple beams at multiple angles to guarantee better coverage and defect detection.

Risers and tendons also tend to have thick walls; thicknesses of 35–40 mm are normal, with up
to 50 mm possible. Since the PipeWIZARD® system can run an additional eight conventional
transducers, it permits detailed inspections with highly focused transducers up to 50-mm thick
walls.

Figure 8-11 on page 78 presents a schematic ray tracing that shows enhanced coverage of the
root, cap, and volumetric regions using an increased number of beams and angles. In this
application, the PipeWIZARD® system uses 84 beams (not all shown), which would be
impractical with a multiprobe system.

Figure 8-11 Ray tracing showing partial coverage of a high-quality weld

8.3.4 Small Diameter Pipes

Small diameter pipes are difficult to inspect with conventional ultrasound since there is a limit
to the number of probes that can be placed on the pipe. Phased array ultrasound can generate
an almost unlimited number of beams to provide coverage at different angles, locations, and
coverage. A scanner for small diameter pipes (see Figure 8-12 on page 79) can be added to
PipeWIZARD® or operated independently. This scanner requires four rings to cover diameters
ranging from 60 mm to 400 mm.

78 Chapter 8
 Figure 8-12 Scanner for small diameter pipes

8.3.5 Clad Pipes

Clad pipes are becoming more common for corrosion resistance. Normally cladding is
austenitic stainless-steel or nickel-alloy based. Both materials can be very difficult for
inspection using conventional shear wave ultrasound; large austenitic grains skew and
attenuate shear wave beams. Longitudinal waves (L-waves) are significantly less affected, so
standard practice in the nuclear industry (which uses a lot of austenitic piping) is to perform
L-wave inspections. L-waves can be easily generated by the phased array PipeWIZARD®
system, but the standard zone discrimination approach does not work since it is not practical to
bounce beams off the inside of the clad pipe. Developments are ongoing in this area.

Figure 8-13 on page 80 shows an L-wave scan of a pipe, showing notch and notch tip using an
S-scan.

Phased Array Ultrasound 79

 Clad
interface
Notch tip

Notch base

Figure 8-13 Detection of a 2-mm notch

80 Chapter 8
Appendix A: TOFD Tutorial

The following is a technical summary of time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) for the new user,
based on an Olympus NDT course.

The diffraction phenomenon

Incident
wave

Diffracted
waves

CRACK
Refracted wave

Diffracted
waves

Figure A-1 The diffraction phenomenon

• All directions
• Low energy

TOFD Tutorial 81
 • Dependent of incidence angle

Diffraction summary
• Incident wave = reflected wave
• Incident wave = diffracted waves emitted by defect boundaries
• Cylindrical/spherical waves emitted in all directions
• Amplitude typically 20 dB to 30 dB below direct reflection

Basic setup
• Two probes (transmitter and receiver)
• Wide beam, long waves
• Symmetrical to the weld center
• Lateral wave (sub-surface LW)
• Back-wall reflection
• Diffraction signal detection (high receiver sensitivity)

82 Appendix A
Phase difference

Lateral wave

Back-wall reflection

+ +
LW BW

- -
Upper tip Lower tip

Figure A-2 The phase shift between the defect upper and lower tips

A non-rectified A-scan presentation is needed to show the phase changes.

TOFD Tutorial 83
Upper surface breaking crack

Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave is blocked

Back-wall reflection

BW

No lateral wave Crack tip

Figure A-3 The reflection from the bottom of the defect

84 Appendix A
Back-wall surface breaking crack

Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave

Back-wall echo blocked

LW

No back-wall echo
Tip

Figure A-4 The reflection from the top of the defect

TOFD Tutorial 85
Horizontal planar defect

Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave

Reflected signal

Back-wall reflection

LW BW

Reflection echo

Figure A-5 Example of lack of inter-run fusion, laminations

Defect position influence

S S
Transmitter Receiver

t0 t0

Figure A-6 Defect position effect on TOFD

86 Appendix A
Defect position uncertainty

S S
Transmitter Receiver

t1 t2 dmin dmax

Constant time
locus
(t1 + t2 = ct)

Figure A-7 The uncertainty level on indication position

In practice:

• Maximum error on absolute depth position lies below 10%.

• Error on height estimation of internal (small) defect is negligible.
• Caution for small defects situated at the back-wall.

Summary of the principles

• Two probes, pitch and catch, LW
• Direct lateral wave, back-wall reflection
• Diffracted signals from defect edges
• Phase difference tip-bottom
• Defect depth and height are determined with high accuracy on basis of transition time
• Not based on amplitude

TOFD Tutorial 87
88 Appendix A
Appendix B: Glossary

A-scan Ultrasonic terminology for a waveform.

Acquisition mode The PipeWIZARD® mode for collecting scan data.
Amplitude gate One of the two gates in each PipeWIZARD® channel. This
gate reads amplitude only and may be shorter or equal in
length to the time gate
Analysis mode The PipeWIZARD® mode for analyzing data collected in a
weld scan.
Automated ultrasonic testing (AUT)
The generic term for automated computer-controlled
ultrasound inspections for girth welds. Sometimes called
Mechanized Ultrasonic Testing.
B-scan An amplitude-time image of a portion of the weld; also called
“volumetric map”. Used for imaging porosity in the root and
cap regions, and for TOFD (see below).
Back-wall reflection The longitudinal wave signal reflected from the back wall
during TOFD. This is always a strong signal; breaks or
interruptions in the back-wall signal indicate the presence of
surface-breaking defects. Look for “signal splitting” to
indicate high-low.
Calibration The regular inspection of a block with machined defects to
ensure reproducible results. In pipeline AUT, calibration
notches are often made by electro-discharge machining to
provide greater accuracy.
Calibration scan A weld scan specifically for the calibration block (different
scan length, etc.).

Glossary 89
 Centerline cracking Also called shrinkage cracking or solidification cracking.
Occurs in the weld bead towards the cap, and is detected on
the Fill passes. Centerline cracking indicates a structural
weakness in the weld, and must always be correctly identified
and rejected at any length.
Dual-gate view Amplitude and time-of-flight signal representation. The
amplitude signal is displayed as a line (percentage of full
screen height), the height of the time-of-flight gate (colored
bar) shows the location of the defect in the weld.
ECA Engineering critical assessment, also known as fracture
mechanics, fitness for service (FFS), or fitness for purpose
(FFP). A numerical technique for determining what length
and depth of defects are acceptable for in-service use by
calculating defect growth rates.
FSH Full screen height. Refers to the signal amplitude in the
A-scan.
GMAW It is the abbreviation of gas metal arc welding.
Lateral wave A wave mode specific to TOFD that travels just under the
outer surface at longitudinal wave velocities.
LCP Acronym with several meanings: Lack of Cross Penetration
(a lack of fusion defect at the LCP zone) or Land for Cross
Penetration (the zone adjacent to the root). Can also mean
Lined Cylinder Pipe.
LOF Lack of fusion. Failure of the automated welding system to
fuse the weld bead with the parent material. This is a
common defect with automated welding, and is of structural
concern. LOF usually occurs parallel to the fusion line, and at
a similar location. LOF can be surface-breaking, or
sub-surface. Also called nonfusion.
Nonfusion Lack of fusion (see LOF).
PE Pulse-echo, the traditional technique for inspecting welds
using shear waves.
PipeWIZARD® R/D Tech® inspection system for pipeline girth welds.
PoD Probability of detection. The statistical probability that a
specific defect will be detected using a specific inspection

90 Appendix B
 technique. Good inspection techniques provide PoD’s over
90%. PoD is a function of defect size.
Setup mode The PipeWIZARD® mode for setting up individual channels.
Strip chart A diagram that plots coordinates extracted from points on an
amplitude diagram versus time or axial position.
Threshold Threshold recording level for reflectors. Normally 40% FSH
for PE channels, with the calibration reflector set at 80%
FSH.
Time gate One of the two gates in each PipeWIZARD® channel. This
gate reads time of arrival of the signal only and could be
longer or equal in length to the time gate.
TOF Time of flight. Refers to the time of the peak signal in the
time gate, which usually starts 3 mm before the fusion line
and ends 1 mm after.
TOFD Time-of-flight diffraction. Refers to a specific inspection
technique that uses the low-amplitude diffracted longitudinal
waves from defect tips to detect and size reflectors. TOFD is
not related to TOF.
Volumetric view A two-dimensional graphical presentation of the cross-
section of the weld, perpendicular to the scanning surface,
often called a B-scan.
Zone discrimination Inspection technique that divides the weld into a series of
well-defined discrete zones, each inspected by its own
focused transducer.

Glossary 91
92 Appendix B
Appendix C: References

American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM Standard E-1961, 1998.

J. A. de Raad, “High speed ultrasonic inspection of field girth welds during pipeline
construction,” European Journal of Non-Destructive Testing, Pipeline Technology Conference,
Oostende, Belgium, 15–18 October, 1990, pp. 14.1 – 14.9.

J. A. de Raad and F.H. Dijkstra, “Mechanized Ultrasonic testing on Girth Welds During
Pipeline Construction,” Materials Evaluation, August 1997, pp. 890–895.

E. A. Ginzel, NDT On-line, “Ultrasonic Inspection 2 – Training for Nondestructive Testing:

Ultrasonic Testing of Pipeline Girth Welds,”

E. Ginzel, P. den Boer and M. Hoff, “Application of mechanized ultrasonic inspection to

manually welded pipeline girth welds,” UT Online Application Workshop, May 1997,
http://www.ultrasonic.de/article/wsho0597/ginzel3/ginzel3.htm

E. A. Ginzel and R. K. Ginzel, “Study of Acoustic Velocity Variations in Line Pipe Steel,”
Materials Evaluation, May 1995, pp. 598–603.

B. Gross, J. O’Beirne and B. Delanty, “Comparison of Radiographic and Ultrasonic Inspection

Methods on Mechanized Girth Welds,” Pipeline Technology Conference, Oostende, Belgium,
15–18 October, 1990, pp. 14.17 – 14.22.

H. Heckhauser and S. Shultz, “Advanced technology in automatic ultrasonic weld inspection

of pipeline girth welds,” Insight Vol. 37, No. 6, June 1995, pp. 440–443.

M. D. C. Moles, N. Dubé and E. A. Ginzel, “Customized Ultrasonic Systems for Gas Pipeline
Girth Weld Inspections,” Proceedings of the International Pipeline Conference 1998, Calgary,
Alberta, June 7–11, 1998, Vol. 2, pp. 639–643.

TransCanada Pipelines, “Welder Inspector’s Manual 1996,” Section TWE-01 January 1995,
Published by TCPL.

References 93
94 Appendix C
Index

A downstream view 41
accept criteria 24 hot pass 1 channel
advanced inspections using phased array ultra- regular and above threshold and the TOF
sound 76 color bar is long in upstream and/or
advantages downstream views 38
changeover time 74 regular and above threshold in upstream
and/or downstream views 38
coupling 74
regular and above threshold in upstream or
equipment size 71
downstream view 37
flexibility 72
hot pass 2 channel
PipeWIZARD® software 74 regular and above threshold and the TOF
reliability 71 color bar is long in upstream and/or
setup time 73 downstream views 39
speed, scanning 73 regular and above threshold in upstream or
advantages and disadvantages of TOFD 14 downstream view 39
advantages of phased array ultrasound 71 irregular and above threshold in any dual-
amplitude signals gate view 48
fill 1 channel LCP channel
above threshold and TOF color bar long in above threshold in upstream and down-
upstream and downstream views 40 stream views 31
above threshold in upstream or down- above threshold in upstream or down-
stream view 40 stream view 34
fill 2 channel irregular signals in upstream and/or down-
irregular and above threshold in upstream stream views 34
or downstream view 44 root and LCP channels
regular and above threshold in upstream asymmetric signals and the TOF signal, in
and downstream views 44 the root upstream and downstream
regular and above threshold in upstream or views, wanders or shows sudden dis-

Index 95
 continuity 36 combined scanning 70
asymmetric signals with different TOF in compensating for thickness variations in seam-
the root upstream and downstream less pipes 76
views 36 compensating for wedge temperature 77
smooth, regular signals in upstream and conventions 1
downstream views 35 counterbore 62
smooth, regular signals in upstream or
problems 45
downstream view 35
coupling 74
root channel
cracking
above threshold in upstream and down-
centerline 24, 60
stream views 30
above threshold in upstream or down- fill 1 40, 41
stream view 30 fill 2 44
intermittent signals in upstream and/or hot pass 1 38
downstream views 31 hot pass 2 39
analysis of TOFD signals 15 fill 2 44
near surface 41
B
toe
bead meander 28 fill 2 41
bead offset 37, 61 root 30
bead wander See bead offset criteria to accept or reject a weld 24
burn through 30, 32, 58
root and LCP 36 D
data
C
representation 8
calibration block 7 strip-chart display 9
centerline cracking 60 data analysis 21
fill 1 41 accept/reject criteria 24
fill 2 44 gates 21
hot pass 1 38 strip chart interpretation 25
hot pass 2 39 defects
changeover time 74 bead offset 61
checklist 65 burn through 58
clad pipes 79 centerline cracking 60
cold lap counterbore 62
fill 2 45 general checklist 65
hot pass 1 38 lack of fusion
hot pass 2 39 fill 1 56

96 Index
 fill 2 57 amplitude signals regular and above thresh-
hot pass 56 old in upstream or downstream view 41
LCP 55 centerline cracking 44
root 17, 54 cold lap 45
root and LCP 54 cracking 44
side wall 18 lack of fusion 41, 57
misfire 53 porosity 44
missed edge 53 toe crack 41
porosity 18, 59 undercut 41
stacked defects 57 weld geometry 44
subsurface 18 flexibility 72
surface breaking 17 G
outside 17 gates
toe crack 17 amplitude 21
typical of pipeline mechanized welding 51 time 21
descriptions geometry
phased array ultrasound 67 effects, LCP 34
E high-low 61
electronic scanning 68 glossary 89
equipment size 71 H
F high-low 28, 61
fill 1 40 hot pass 1 37
amplitude signals above threshold and TOF amplitude signals regular and above thresh-
color bar long in upstream and down- old and the TOF color bar is long in
stream views 40 upstream and/or downstream views 38
amplitude signals are above threshold in amplitude signals regular and above thresh-
old in upstream and/or downstream
upstream or downstream view 40
views 38
centerline cracking 41
amplitude signals regular and above thresh-
lack of fusion 40, 56
old in upstream or downstream view 37
weld geometry 40
centerline cracking 38
fill 2 41
cold lap 38
amplitude signals irregular and above thresh-
lack of fusion 37
old in upstream or downstream view 44
amplitude signals regular and above thresh- weld geometry 38
old in both upstream and downstream hot pass 2 39
views 44 amplitude signals regular and above thresh-

Index 97
 old and the TOF color bar is long in LCP 55
upstream and/or downstream views 39 near LCP 34
amplitude signals regular and above thresh- root 17, 30, 53, 54
old in upstream or downstream view 39 misfire 53
centerline cracking 39 missed edge 53
cold lap 39 root and LCP 35, 54
lack of fusion 39 side wall 18
hot pass, lack of fusion 56 lack of metal, root and LCP 35
I lateral wave 13
incomplete penetration 30 LCP 31
inspection approach 5 amplitude signals are above threshold in
analysis 7 both upstream and downstream views
31
calibration 7
amplitude signals are above threshold in
zone discrimination 5 upstream or downstream view 34
inspections 76 geometry effects 34
clad pipes 79 irregular signals in either upstream or down-
compensating for thickness variations in stream view 34
seamless pipes 76 lack of cross penetration 32
compensating for wedge temperature 77 lack of fusion 34, 55
risers, tendons, and other high-quality welds
missed edge due to high-low 34
78
near-inside surface defect 32
small diameter pipes 78
porosity 34
introduction 1
LCP and root See root and LCP 34
conventions 1
longitudinal waves 13
manual organization 1
objective 1 M
introduction to TOFD 13 manual
conventions 1
L
introduction 1
lack of cross penetration 32 objective 1
lack of fusion 30
organization 1
fill 1 40, 56
misfire 30, 32, 53
fill 2 41, 57
root 30
hot pass 56 root and LCP 35
hot pass 1 37
missed edge 53
hot pass 2 39
due to high-low 34

98 Index
 toe 30 bead offset 37
N bead wander 37
burn through 30, 32
near-inside surface defect 32
high-low 28
O incomplete penetration 30
objective 1 intermittent signals in either or both
operator checklist 65 upstream and downstream views 31
organization of the manual 1 lack of fusion 30, 53, 54
overview 3 misfire 53
missed edge 53
P
near LCP 34
phased array ultrasound 67
misfire 30, 32
advanced inspections 76
misplaced welding band 28
advantages 71 missed edge 30
combined scanning 70
porosity 31, 34
description 67
surface-breaking defect 30
electronic scanning 68 time signals show different positions in
sectorial scanning 69 upstream and downstream views 28
PipeWIZARD® software advantages 74 toe crack 30
porosity 18, 59 root and LCP 34
fill 2 44 asymmetric signals and the TOF signal, in
LCP 34 the root upstream and downstream
root 31, 34 views, wanders or shows sudden discon-
pulse-echo shear wave 13 tinuity 36
asymmetric signals with different TOF in the
R root upstream and downstream views 36
reject criteria 24 burn through 36
reliability 71 lack of fusion 35, 54
result, scan data display 9 lack of metal 35
risers, tendons, and other high-quality welds 78 misfire 35
root 28 smooth, regular signals in both upstream and
amplitude signals are above threshold in downstream views 35
both upstream and downstream views smooth, regular signals in either upstream or
30 downstream view 35
amplitude signals are above threshold in unusual signals with very short TOF color
upstream or downstream view 30 bar 35
bead meander 28

Index 99
S upstream or downstream view 40
scans fill 2 channel 41
combined 70 amplitude signals irregular and above
electronic 68 threshold in upstream or downstream
sectorial 69 view 44
speed 73 amplitude signals regular and above
threshold in both upstream and down-
sectorial scanning 69
stream views 44
setup time 73
amplitude signals regular and above
shear waves 13 threshold in upstream or downstream
shrinkage cracking See centerline cracking view 41
signals
hot pass 1 channel 37
analysis, TOFD 15
amplitude signals regular and above
irregular and above threshold in any dual- threshold and the TOF color bar is
gate view 48 long in upstream and/or downstream
short associated in two or more dual-gate views 38
views 45, 46 amplitude signals regular and above
unexpected signals at pipe transition weld 45 threshold in upstream and/or down-
size of the equipment 71 stream views 38
small diameter pipes 78 amplitude signals regular and above
software threshold in upstream or downstream
advantages of PipeWIZARD® based on view 37
TomoView 74 hot pass 2 channel 39
solidification cracking See centerline cracking amplitude signals regular and above
speed, scanning 73 threshold and the TOF color bar is
stacked defects 46, 57 long in upstream and/or downstream
strip chart views 39
amplitude signals irregular and above thresh- amplitude signals regular and above
old in any dual-gate view 48 threshold in upstream or downstream
any weld section channel view 39
unexpected signals at pipe transition weld interpretation 25
45 LCP and root channels See root and LCP
any weld zone channel 45 channels 34
data display 9 LCP channel 31
fill 1 channel 40 amplitude signals above threshold in both
amplitude signals above threshold and upstream and downstream views 31
TOF color bar long in upstream and amplitude signals above threshold in
downstream views 40 upstream or downstream view 34
amplitude signals above threshold in irregular signals in either upstream or

100 Index
 downstream view 34 root and LCP channels
root and LCP channels 34 asymmetric signals and the TOF signal, in
asymmetric signals and the TOF signal, in the root upstream and downstream
the root upstream and downstream views, wanders or shows sudden dis-
views, wanders or shows sudden dis- continuity 36
continuity 36 asymmetric signals with different TOF in
asymmetric signals with different TOF in the root upstream and downstream
the root upstream and downstream views 36
views 36 unusual signals with very short TOF color
smooth, regular signals in both upstream bar 35
and downstream views 35 root channel, upstream and downstream
smooth, regular signals in either upstream views show different positions 28
or downstream view 35 time-of-flight diffraction See TOFD 13
unusual signals with very short TOF color toe crack 17
bar 35 fill 2 41
root channel 28 root 30
amplitude signals above threshold in both TOFD 13
upstream and downstream views 30 advantages and disadvantages 14
amplitude signals above threshold in calibration 15
upstream or downstream view 30 introduction 13
intermittent signals in either or both
longitudinal waves 13
upstream and downstream views 31
signal analysis 15
time signals show different positions in
subsurface defect 18
upstream and downstream views 28
surface-breaking defect
short associated signals in two or more dual-
inside 17
gate views 45, 46
outside 17
surface-breaking defect 30
tutorial 81
T transition See counterbore
tendons, risers, and other high-quality welds 78 tutorial, TOFD 81
time signals
U
hot pass 1 channel, upstream and/or down-
stream views show regular and above ultrasound, phased array 67
threshold amplitude and the TOF color undercut fill 2 41
bar is long 38 W
hot pass 2 channel, upstream and/or down-
waves
stream views show regular and above
threshold amplitude and the TOF color lateral 13
bar is long 39 longitudinal 13

Index 101
 shear 13 hot pass 1 37
weld geometry 27 hot pass 2 39
fill 1 40 LCP 31
fill 2 44 LCP and root See root and LCP 34
hot pass 1 38 root 28
LCP 34 root and LCP 34
weld typical defects 51 welding band, misplaced 28
weld zones
Z
any 45
fill 1 40 zone discrimination 3, 5, 14
fill 2 41

102 Index
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