DATA COMMUNICATIONS NOTES

Data Communications
This is the process of transmitting data and information over a communication medium such as telephone line,
coaxial cable, fibre optic cable or microwave, form a computer to a user or from one computer to another.

Communication -is the process of transmitting data from one point or device to another.

Sender- who creates the information to be transmitted.

Medium- the physical path between sender and receiver.

Message- what is to be transmitted.

Receiver- who receives the transmitted information unchanged.

Feedback-responses to sender indicating that communication tock place or not.

Telecommunication
This is the transmission of data over a long distance without changing it. A telecommunication system contains
the following components:
 
A sender – who creates the information to be transmitted.
 
A medium – the physical path between sender and receiver
 
A receiver – who receives the transmitted information unchanged

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Transmission media refers to the physical material along which data travels from one point to another. The two main
categories of transmission media are:

(I.) Wired Transmission Media

These are cables used to link cables and devices for short distance communication such as cables include: twisted pair,
coaxial cable, and fibre optic cable.

(II.) Wireless Transmission Media These involve the sending or transmitting of communication signals through
the atmosphere over long distances. Such media include: satellite, microwave, infrared and Bluetooth.
WIRED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Twisted pair
A telephone line consists of a twisted pair of copper wires and is the medium used by telephones to transmit data.

Advantages
1) It is cheap
2) It is most commonly used in the connecting or cabling of a network.

Disadvantages
1) It is relatively slow
2) Subject to interference or noise.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of a conductive cylindrical shield with a central wire or solid core held together by an
insulating material. These are the cables that are connected to a television set to the cable provided and one
medium used to connect computers in a local area network.

Advantages
1) It is not susceptible to noise.
2) Transmits data at high speeds
3) Can accommodate both analog and digital signals

Disadvantages
1) The cables can become bulky and heavy.
2) Needs a booster over long distances. A booster increases the signal level before passing the signal on the
other part of the network.

Fibre Optic Cable

fibre optic cables are similar to those used by large telephone and telecommunication companies. These cables
consist of clear glass fibres which allow data to be transmitted through them as pulses of light (speed) rather than
electronic signals. This eliminates the problem of electrical interference.
They are also used as a standard medium for connecting networks between buildings as it is not affected by
moisture, lightning or corrosion.

Advantages
1) Transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial cable and twisted pair cables
2) No interferences from other devices
3) Better security for signals during transmission because they are less susceptible to noise.
4) The cables are smaller and lighter in weight.

Disadvantages
1) It is more expensive than the coaxial and twisted pair cables.
2) Can be difficult to install and modify.

Examples of the use of fibre optic cables are:

(a) Most telephone companies are replacing existing telephone lines (twisted pair) with fibre optic cables
(b) Most companies use the fibre optic cables is high-traffic networks or as a backbone in a network (FDDI)
fibre Distributed Data Interface

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Microwaves
These are high-frequency radio signals that travel through the atmosphere. They are used for high-volume, long
distance and point-to-point communication. Microwave signals travel only in straight lines, i.e. in a line of
sight. For long distances, the waves must be related by means of “dishes” or antennas. These can be installed
on towers and tall buildings.

Advantages
1) Signals travel at the speed of light (3 * 108 mps)
2) Transmits both analog and digital data.

Disadvantages
1) Signals cannot travel around corners or bends.
2) The signal cannot penetrate buildings

Examples of systems that use microwaves are:

✓ 
Paging systems – one-way communication channel
✓ 
Cellular networks – two-way communication channels

Communications Satellite
A communication satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from an earth-based station, amplifies
(strengthens) the signals and broadcasts these signals back over a wide area to any number of earth-based stations.
The earth-based stations often are microwave stations. Other devices such as PDA’s and GPS receivers are also
earth-based stations. Transmission from an earth-based station to a satellite is called an uplink. Transmission from
a satellite to an earth based station is called a downlink.

Applications such as air navigation, television and radio broadcasts weather forecasting, video conferencing,
paging, global positioning systems (GPS) and Internet connections use a communication satellite.

Advantages
1) It is always in sight
2) There is no distance limitation

Disadvantage
1) Very expensive to set and maintain.

Infrared
Infrared is a wireless transmission medium that sends signal using infrared light waves. Mobile computers and
devices such as a mouse, printer and smart phones often have an IrDA port that enables the transfer of data from
one device to another using infrared light waves.

Advantage
1) Data can be transmitted directly from one device to another without the use of cables

Disadvantages
1) Requires a line-of-sight for transmission
2) Data can only be transmitted over short distances.

NETWORK

A Network id a set of computers and peripheral linked together on a permanent basis so that they can
communicate and share resources.

Advantages of a Network
1) Enable users to share hardware such as scanners and printers.
2) Allow users access to data stored on other computers
3) Allow users to run programs that are not installed on their own computers but are installed elsewhere on the
network such as the server.

Disadvantages of a Network
1) Accessing anything across a network is slower than accessing your own computer
2) More complexity creates new problems to handle
3) Less customization is possible for shared programs and folders.

TYPES OF NETWORK

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and peripherals in a limited geographical
area such as a home, school computer laboratory, office or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer
or device is referred to as a node and they often share resources such as printers, hard disks and software programs.

Characteristics of LAN
- Limited to a single building or site
- High bandwidth
- Inexpensive cable media is used to connect computers and peripherals
- Data and hardware is shared among users
- The network is owned by the organization or company.

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographical area such a s a city, country or
world using communication channels that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables and
radio waves. A WAN can be one large network or consists of two or more LANs connected together. The
Internet is the world’s largest WAN.

Characteristics of WAN
- Spreads over a wide geographical area
- It consists of large number of computers and multiple host machines
- Sophisticated support devices like a router and gateways are used for interconnecting the various segments.

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a high-speed network that connects LANs in a metropolitan area such
as a city or town and handles the bulk of communication activity across the region. A MAN typically includes
one or more LANs but covers a smaller geographical area than a WAN.

Characteristics of MAN
- Connects local area networks together
- It is a small version of WAN
- It is managed by an association of several businesses or by a single network provider that sells the
service to the users.

A Virtual Private Network (VPN) - This is a network utilized by many businesses to provide their employees
and customers with quick, secure access to corporate information. A VPN operates as a private network over the
Internet, making data accessible to authorized users in remote locations through the use of secure, encrypted
connections and special software.
TRANSMISSION SPEED

Bandwidth – The transmission capacity of a computer or a communications channel. It is also the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies available for transmission.

Types of Bandwidth

Narrowband – this transmits data at 45 – 90 bps. E.g. Telegraph

Voiceband – this transmits data at 110 – 9600 bps. It is often used with microcomputer transmission with the
standard telephone line.
Medium band – this is the bandwidth of special leased lines used mainly with minicomputers and mainframe
computers. It transmits data between 9600 and 256, 000 bps.

Broadband – this is bandwidth that includes microwave, satellites, coaxial cables and fibre optic channels. It is
used for very high-speed computers whose processors communicate directly with each other. It transmits data in
the range 256, 000 and 1,000,000 bps.

Transmission Modes
Transmission Modes or rates determine the number of characters that can be transmitted in one (1) second.
Types of Transmission Modes:

Asynchronous
Asynchronous- The transmission of data one character at a time. Start and stop bits are inserted to separate the
characters. where data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream.

Synchronous
Synchronous- Timed transmission of data over a line one block of characters at a time. Transmission is a process
where data is transferred in regular intervals that are timed by a clocking signal; allowing for constant and reliable
transmission for time-sensitive data, such as real-time video or voice.

TRANSMISSION DIRECTION

Simplex – Data flow in one direction only.

Half duplex – Data flow in two directions but not simultaneously.

Full duplex – Data flow allowing the sending and receiving of data at the same time.

WIRELESS NETWORK TECHNOLOGY

Bluetooth – this is a network standard, specifically a protocol, that defines how two Bluetooth devices use short
range aligned radio waves to transmit data.

Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) – is a type of broadband internet connection that uses radio signals to provide internet
connections to wireless computers and devices.

Hotspot – refers to location or area that provides wireless internet connections to mobile computers and other
devices.

Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) – a hardware communication device that converts analog signals to digital
signals (demodulation) and digital signals to analog signals (modulation).

Internet – A worldwide collection of networks.

Intranet - An intranet is an access restricted network used internally in an organization that uses Internet
technologies.

Extranet – A private network that uses Internet Protocols, network connectivity. It can be viewed as a company’s
extended outside the company using the Internet.

Protocol – A set of rules that govern the exchange of data between hardware and/or software components over
communications media.
Point-to-point transmission – Data transmission where the sending and receiving device are connect directly.

Broadcast transmission – Data transmission where the sending device sends messages to everyone in a
network.

Concepts associated with the Internet

Up-load – Transmitting information from a local computer to a remote computer

Down-load – Transmitting data from a remote computer to a local computer.

Data transfer mode – The mode that the computer operates in for transferring of data from one point to another.

E-mail – (short for Electronic Mail) The transmission of messages over communications networks.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) – IRC or instant messaging, is an Internet protocol that allows users to carry on a
typed, real-time, online conversation.

Telnet – A terminal emulation program that allows users to work from a PC as so that its keyboard, monitor, and
data interface emulate that of a terminal.

FTP (short for File Transfer Protocol) – A method of transferring one or more files from one computer to another,
often over a modem and telephone line.

WWW – (short for World Wide Web) – A series of Internet servers is a retrieval system based on technology
that organizes information into pages.

Web browser – An application program used to locate and display Web pages.

Web page – An electronic document on the World Wide Web.

Web server – a computer that delivers Web pages.

Web site – A collection of related Web pages belonging to an individual or organization.

Newsgroup – an online discussion group. To read and post information to a newsgroup a software is needed to
connect a computer to the news server connected to the Internet.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – facilitates the transfer of web pages from remote servers to the computer,
i.e. it is a set of rules that defines how web pages are transferred on the Web.

Modem:
A modulator and a demodulator that converts analogue signal from telephone line to digital signal for computers
and other electronic devices and vice-versa (such as smartphones, tablet etc...).

Hyperlink
Is an icon, information object, underlined or otherwise emphasized word or phrase that displays another document
(or resource) when clicked with the mouse.

Voice Mail (V-Mail)

This is the computerized method of sending spoken messages. It combines the storage features of an answering
machine with the capabilities of e-mail. For a computer to utilized voice mail it must have a sound card, modem,
and voice mail software.
Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing
Simply stated, videoconferencing allows participants to conduct visually interactive electronic meetings between
one or more distant locations using video cameras, monitors and communications. Unlike conventional telephone
communications (teleconferencing) where parties are limited to only hearing each other.

Electronic Funds Transfer

Automated teller machines (ATM), are examples of EFT at work. You go to an ATM machine located at a bank,
insert your ATM card, and enter your personal identification number and the following services become available.

Telecommuting
This means working from home. Unlike establishing a home business, where no commuting is involved, a
commuter has a job elsewhere to which he/she must commute regularly, perhaps daily.

Telemarketing
A telemarketing system employs the telephone for contacting customers, offering products and following up on
sales.

Videotext
Videotext refers to a computer based system used to retrieved data from a central database.

Viewdata
Information travels through the telephone network and is displayed on a home television screen or computer
terminal.

Telex
Telex is a telecommunication service which enables the users to communicate with each other by sending
information in the form of symbols or codes by using telex machine through telex network.

Teletex
This is a newer version of telex which handles more characters and has a higher speed (40 to 45 times faster and
lower transmission cost.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) – the language used to create hypertext documents (multimedia pages) that
are found on the World Wide Web.

Blog – (short for Web Log) An online journal or diary of an individual’s opinions on the latest news. It is updated
regularly in chronological order.

Uniform Resource Locator [URL] – It specifies the file

or data and the location where it is stored. It includes
the transfer protocol, the domain name, path and the
resource name. e.g.
http://www.bcs.org.application_forms.html

E-commerce – This is the use of the Internet for commercial tasks such as retail sales or any business transactions.

E-Learning – This is instruction that takes place via the Internet where tutoring is made available on the Internet or
by other network connections.

Podcasting – This is a form of audio broadcasting using the Internet. Podcasting takes its name from a combination of
the terms iPod and Broadcasting. It is a method of releasing files to the Internet allowing users to subscribe and
receive new files automatically.
Electronic Bulletin Board – Is similar to that of the bulletin board at a post office where messages can be posted
by anyone and read by anyone. Whereas electronic mail is intended for a designated recipient messages are placed
on the electronic bulletin board.

Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) – A set of rules which govern the transmission of voice over the Internet. It is
often used abstractly to refer to the actual transmission of voice rather than the protocol implementing it. It is also
known as IP Telephony.

Business –to – Business Ecommerce (B2B) – occurs when a business uses the Internet to provide another business
with the materials, services and or supplies it needs to conduct its operations.

Consumer –to- Consumer Ecommerce (C2C) – Occurs when there is an online exchange between individual
consumers.

Business – to – Consumers [B2C] – Occurs when a business uses the Internet to supply consumers with services,
information, or products.

Electronic Data Interchange [EDI] – Is a set of standards that specifies how to transfer data and documents
between enterprises using the Internet and other networks without human intervention

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Topology refers to the layout or configuration of computer and peripherals in a network.

Star Topology
All the computers on the network are connected to one another through a central hub. A hub is a
hardware device to which a number of computers can be connected. Data is transmitted from one
computer to the next by packets. A packet containing the addresses of the sender and receiver is
first sent to the central hub, which sends the packet to the designated computer.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Adding new devices to the network is easy
2. If a computer stops working, the network is not affected.
3. If one piece of cable is damaged, only one computer is affected.

Disadvantages
1. It requires more cabling
2. If the central computer or server malfunctions, the entire network will fail
3. Only one computer on the network can send data at any particular time.

Line or Bus Topology

This is a single line or cable with nodes at different points. Servers, computers and other
devices can be connected to any of the nodes on the line. Data is sent down the line in any
direction in packets. Each packet has the address of the intended receiver. Each computer on
the line examines each to determine for whom the packet is intended. If the packet is
intended for this computer, it is retained for processing; otherwise it is sent on its way.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. Extending the network is very easy. New equipment can be connected to it simply by tapping into the main cable
2. It requires less hardware to set up
3. It is easy to configure

Disadvantages
1. Any problems with the main cable may cause the whole network to malfunction
2. Packets of data may collide, resulting in loss of information
Ring Topology

The cable is connected to all the computers on the network. The ends of the cable are then
connected together to form a loop or ring. Data is passed from one computer to the next by
means of a token (electronic signal), which is passed around the ring, giving each computer an
opportunity to send data.

Advantages
1. If a computer stops working, the other computers can continue to communicate.
2. Communication is usually faster than with a line network

Disadvantages
1. If the main cable is damaged, the entire network goes down
2. The entire network has to be shut down for maintenance to be carried out
3. The network becomes very difficult to maintain if it gets very large.

Data security & Misuse of data

Data security
Involves keeping data safe. In computer system people have found ways in which data can be misused/exploited
for various reasons. To prevent these misuses of data measure were establishing to protect data. These measures
are being establish through a variety of ways.
• Software restrictions
• Physical restrictions

Software restriction
Software restrictions can create barriers to data corruption, restrict access to software that may contain sensitive
data, or to software that can cause damage.
1. Passwords - A password is a combination of characters that must be entered before you can access, view or edit.
This is used to prevent unauthorized person from accessing data.
2. Encryption - Data is coded by the sender in a particular way according to a key and decoded by the appropriate
receive by the same key. Encryption is used to prevent hijacking of data during the process of being send from
sender to receiver. Other examples may apply.
3. Firewall - A software that defends a computer system from unauthorized remote access from hackers.
4. Virus protection - A virus is a piece of software intended to cause harm to a computer or gain access to
confidential data. Software that offers virus protection are called antivirus software.

Physical restrictions
A computer is a physical object that can create physical output, so there are physical ways to protect data. There
are many physical restrictions such as:
1. Backup and recovery procedures - Backing up data allows one to have a secondary copy thus having a backup
in-case of data lost or corruption.
2. Archiving - Backing up and saving secondary data for old data such as a physical copy in file cabinets of legal
or financial documents.
3. Biometric systems - Biometric system uses a scanner in cooperation with a body part. For example, fingerprint
scanner and retinal scanner use to gain access to rooms.
4. Locks and guards - Computers and peripherals, such as keyboards and monitors, are easily stolen. here are
some ways to make them harder to steal:
• Many laptop computers have slots that allow you to attach a lock that is chained to a desk.
• In an office or even a home, locking windows and doors and securing the premises with an alarm system
can help prevent theft of computer equipment
 • A business may employ a security guard to help prevent theft.
• Physical data, such as documents, can be locked away in a safe or a lock drawer to prevent theft.
5. Fireproof and waterproof cabinets - A fireproof/waterproof cabinet can be used to protect computers, servers
and data backups from fire and/or flooding.
6. Good maintenance of computers - Involves establishing proper protection from dust electrical spike and dips
and power lost.

Software rights
There are two types of software rights:
• Proprietary software
• Open source software
The difference is proprietary software is a software that is sold at a price, prohibiting you the right to copy, change
or resell it. These software usually sells what is called licenses key. While, open source software is a software that
is free to the public and its users are allowed to make further improvements.

Misuse of Data
Today we can use technology to produce and share information but unfortunately, that also means that some people
can misuse the technology for unpleasant purposes. Some ways in which data be misused are:
1. Surveillance - Using hidden microphones and/or cameras to gain unauthorized information from conversation.
2. Electronic eavesdropping - Intercepting email and/or messages during the process of reaching its designated
receiver.
3. Propaganda - Is information distributed to encourage or force a particular opinion on a particular entity.
4. Inaccurate information - Entering and storing of inaccurate information due to human error or deliberately
altering correct information.

Computer crimes
Technology was greatly advance human being and human have been trusted technology to secure their most vital
and personal information. Here are some computer crimes:
1. Industrial espionage
2. Software piracy
3. Computer fraud
4. Credit card fraud
5. Identify theft

Technological Trends and Professions

Current technological trends

These are improvement with the use of technology in a specific field or area that is becoming the norms of
everyday life. These specific areas/fields are:

Education

E-learning - This involves the ability to learn and teach over vast distances via the internet.

Banking and business

ATM - Automated Teller Machine. These are machines that allow you to withdraw money from your account.
EFT- Electronic Funds Transfer. The transferring of money electronically from one person directly to another.

Telemarketing - Direct marketing being done via the use of the telephone between buyer and seller.
Teleconferencing - The live exchange of information among several persons and machines remote from each other
but linked via telecommunication systems
Engineering and Manufacturing

CAD & CADD - Computer Aided Design & Computer Aided Design and Design. These are hardware and
software to draw designs in architecture, engineering and clothing. These trends reduce the time frame in sketching
design drawings.

CAM - Computer Aided Manufacturing. Systems that are used to control manufacturing plant equipment and
production equipment.

CAE - Computer Aided Engineering. These are systems used to analyse designs (engineering), by simulating
varying conditions to determine in advance whether the design is likely to work.

AI - Artificial Intelligence

Robotics - Computer-controlled machines that are used in industries to take the place of humans in doing repetitive
tasks. For example, in car construction.

Expert systems - Systems with vast database of information, which makes decisions based on the results from a
user.

Entertainment

CGI - Computer Generated Images. These are the use of computer systems to generate images/animations for
games & movie.

Other areas

NLP - Natural Language Processing. Systems that offer voice recognition, voice synthesis and language
comprehension.

Jobs in I.T.
Computers have changed the way we do our jobs. They have even created new avenues of employment for us.
These new avenues of employment in IT are:

Data processing managers - Responsible for planning, coordinating, managing and staffing the Data Processing
department of a large organization.

System analysts - responsible for developing a system from start to finish. They analyse the problem to find a
solution, then develop the system and implement and test the system.

Programmers - develop both application software and system software. They discuss programs specifications with
system analysts.

Network Administrators - Creates, manage and secure computer networks in their organization. They
troubleshoot problems, issue passwords, and allow access to system by setting up user accounts.

Operations manager - In charge of the daily operation of the computer department. They are responsible for
supervising the use and maintenance of the computer equipment, supervising the receiving and preparation of data,
scheduling processing activities, allocating duties to staff and consulting with the data processing manager.
Computer Operators - monitor and control the central computer system (or console) by starting up and shutting
down the system. They also perform routine maintenance such as cleaning drivers, loading input and output
systems such as tape drives, or paper in printers and keeping logs on system performance.

Data-Entry Operator - Enter data into the system from the source documents. They keep records of the data that
they have entered and verify the data.

File librarians - Keep all of a company's data files and software organized through the cataloguing and storing of
tapes and disks. They maintain and protect that type. They also clean and inspect the data storage media.

Data security specialists - Look after the security and protection of the company's data. They protect the
company's computer systems against threats form hackers, viruses, power outages, fraud, theft and invasion of
privacy.

Web Page Designers - build and maintain websites using programming languages such as HTML and Java. They
maintain and improve web pages.

Web Masters - Internet specialists whose responsibilities range from monitoring Internet traffic on web servers to
answers queries about the web site's operations. There duties may also include those of the Web Designer or
someone who updates the web pages.

Computer engineers - design components, test and assemble them. Item such as microprocessors and circuit
boards, as well as computer peripherals, are examples of these components.

Impact of IT on jobs and careers

Education
Education has evolved from just being paper, pen and white board in one room to being over vast distances.
Computers are used to aid students in learning through e-learning. E-learning takes the form as drills, tutorials and
simulations. For example: Monroe University offers degrees via online studies to people across the globe.

Banking
Banks have evolved from the use of cheques to a swipe/contact of a card. Banks can now transfer money
electronically via EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer).

Engineering and Manufacturing

I.T. has evolved the designing and manufacturing process in such a way that diminishes the time and effort need
tremendously. CAD (Computer Aided Design), CADD (Computer Aided Design and Design), CAM (Computer
Aided Manufacturing) and CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) are all implementation of I.T. in the engineering
and manufacturing field.

Law Enforcement
I.T. has enable Law enforcement officers the benefits of using security cameras, fingerprinting, traffic control,
surveillance and computer assisted facial image recognition/identification systems in the persecution of
individuals.

Medicine
The impact of I.T. has enable hospitals to better monitor patient’s records (databases) and patient’s vital signs
(heart rate, blood pressure, temperature) using sensors.

Entertainment
I.T. has evolved entertainment tremendously (in music, movies and games). I.T. has enable the playback of high
quality movies and music on I-pods and tablets. Advance games with detail graphically images and advance
instruction rules is also an impact of I.T. on games.