Methodology

RESEARCH BIAS
 Experimenter bias “research bias”
 A process where the scientists performing the research influence the results in order to
portray a certain outcome
Kinds of experimenter bias
1. Systematic error is consistent, repeatable error associated with faulty equipment or
a flawed experiment design. These errors are usually caused by measuring
instruments that are incorrectly calibrated or are used incorrectly.
2. Random error : Occurs because it is impossible to practically achieve infinite
precision.
3. Design bias : Happens when the researcher fails to take into account the inherent
biases liable in most types of experiment
4. Selection or sampling bias
a. Inclusive bias: Occurs when samples are selected for convenience
b. Omission bias: Occurs when certain groups are omitted from the sample
5. Measurement bias: Arises from an error in the data collection and the process of
measuring.
6. Interviewer bias: Occurs when the interviewer subconsciously gives subtle clues in
with body language or tone of voice that influence the subject’s response
7. Response bias: Occurs when the subject gives response that they think that the
interviewer wants to hear
8. Reporting bias: Occurs when an error is made in the way that the results are
disseminated in the literature

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 Research Study Design
 Sampling Procedure
 Data Collection/Experimental Procedure (includes research instrument/s to be used)
 Data Analysis
What is Research Design?
 a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems (Kerlinger, 1986)
 a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to be completed—
operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of interest to
study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses, and analysing the
results (Thyer, 1993)
A Research Design should provide:
 Type of research approach:
 Application: basic or applied
 Objectives: descriptive, explanatory, exploratory, correlational
 Inquiry: qualitative or quantitative

  Name the study design per se
 Cross-sectional, Before-and-after, longitudinal
 Retrospective, prospective
 Experimental, non-experimental, quasi-experimental

RESEARCH DESIGNS
I. Quantitative Research Design
A. Based on number of contacts:
◦ Cross-sectional before-and-after, longitudinal
B. Based on the reference period:
◦ Retrospective, prospective
C. Based on the nature of investigation:
◦ Experimental, non-experimental, quasi-experimental

A. Based on number of contacts:

1. Cross Sectional Studies

◦ also known as one-shot or status studies; the most commonly used design in the social
sciences
◦ best suited to studies aimed at finding out the prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,
problem, attitude or issue, by taking a cross-section of the population
This will be appropriate for:
◦ The reasons for homelessness among young people.
◦ The relationship between the home environment and the academic performance of a
child at school.
◦ The extent of unemployment in a city.
◦ The attitudes of students towards the facilities available in their library.
◦ The health needs of a community.
2. Before and After Study Design
◦ also known as the pre-test/post-test design
◦ Main advantage: can measure change in a situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or
attitude
◦ the most appropriate design for measuring the impact or effectiveness of a programme
Topics that can be studied using this design
◦ The effect of a drug awareness programme on the knowledge about, and use of, drugs
among young people.
◦ The impact of incentives on the productivity of employees in an organisation.
◦ The impact of maternal and child health services on the infant mortality rate.
◦ The impact of increased funding on the quality of teaching in universities.
◦ The effectiveness of a marriage counselling service.
3. Longitudinal Studies
◦ To determine the pattern of change in relation to time
 ◦ useful when you need to collect factual information on a continuing basis
◦ A longitudinal study can be seen as a series of repetitive cross-sectional studies
Examples:
◦ the impact of a particular teaching method on the level of comprehension of students;
◦ the effectiveness of a programme such as random breath testing on the level of road
accidents; or
◦ the usefulness of a drug such as azidothymidine (AZT) in treating people who are HIV-
positive

B. Based on the Reference Period

1. Retrospective Studies
◦ Investigation of a past phenomenon, situation, problem or issue
◦ basis of data collection: the data available for that period or the respondents’ recall of
the situation
Examples
◦ The utilisation of land before the Second World War in Western Australia.
◦ A historical analysis of migratory movements in Eastern Europe between 1915 and 1945.
◦ The relationship between levels of unemployment and street crime.
2. Prospective Studies
◦ refer to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or outcome
in the future
◦ goal: to establish the outcome of an event or what is likely to happen.

The following are considered prospective studies:

◦ To determine, under field conditions, the impact of maternal and child health services
on the level of infant mortality.
◦ To establish the effects of a counselling service on the extent of marital problems.
◦ To find out the effect of parental involvement on the level of academic achievement of
their children.
C. Based on the nature of investigation

1. Experimental Study - the researcher introducing the intervention that is assumed to be

the ‘cause’ of change, and waiting until it has produced – or has been given sufficient
time to produce – the change
2. Non – Experimental Study - the researcher observing a phenomenon and attempting to
establish what caused it

❖ Experimental group (treatment) : Group that receives the variable being tested in an
experiment
❖ Control group: Group of subjects not exposed to any experimental treatment
Nocebo effect:
Negative symptom induced by the patient’s own negative expectations
Placebo effect:
A remarkable phenomenon in which a placebo (fake treatment) improves a patient's condition
simply because the person has the expectation that it will be helpful
Hawthorne effect:
Human subjects of an experiment change their behavior, simply because they are being studied

True Experiments
◦ Regarded as the most accurate form of experimental research
◦ tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis mathematically (thru statistical analysis)
◦ Only one variable is manipulated and tested
3. Quasi-experimental studies
◦ Involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without any random pre-
selection processes
◦ Takes advantage of natural occurrences (involves on-field experimentations)
◦ Time and resources needed are much reduced

II. Qualitative Study design

A. Case Study:
◦ A case could be an individual, a group, a community, an instance, an episode, an event,
a subgroup of a population, a town or a city
◦ a very useful design when exploring an area where little is known or where you want to
have a holistic understanding of the situation, phenomenon, episode, site, group or
community
◦ In a case study design the ‘case’ you select becomes the basis of a thorough, holistic and
in-depth exploration of the aspect(s) that you want to find out about. It is an approach
‘in which a particular instance or a few carefully selected cases are studied intensively’
(Gilbert, 2008)
B. Focus Group/ Individual Interviews
◦ a form of strategy in which attitudes, opinions or perceptions towards an issue, product,
service or programme are explored through a free and open discussion between
members of a group and the researcher
C. Observational Studies
◦ A research in which the researcher observes ongoing behavior.
Types of Observational Research
- Controlled or Structured Observation – researcher decides where the observation
will take place, at what time, with which participants (uses standardized procedure)
- Naturalistic/ Unstructured Observation – Involves studying the spontaneous
behavior of participants in natural surroundings
- Participant Observation – researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are
studying to get a deeper insight into their lives
a. Covert
 b. Overt
D. Community Discussion Forums
◦ designed to find opinions, attitudes and/or ideas of a community with regard to
community issues and problems
III. Sampling Methods
A population is a group of individuals that have the same characteristic(s).
A sample is a subgroup of the target population that the researcher plans to study for the
purpose of making generalizations about the target population.
▫ Samples are only estimates.
▫ The difference between the sample estimate and the true population is the “sampling error.”
Sample is derived from a Population

Sampling Procedures:
• Probability sampling is the selection of individuals from the population so that they are
representative of the population.
• Nonprobability sampling is the selection of participants because they are available,
convenient, or represent some characteristic the investigator wants to study.

Sampling
Technique

Probability Non-probability
Sampling sampling

Systemati Cluster
c
Sampling
Sampling

Convenie Quota
nce
Sampling
Sampling
Simple Stratified
Random Sampling
Sampling
 Slovin’s Formula:
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2

Where: n = Sample Size

N = population size
e= margin of error

IV. Data Collection Methods

Primary Sources
◦ finding out first-hand the attitudes of a community towards health services
◦ evaluating a social programme
◦ ascertaining the quality of service provided by a worker
Secondary Sources
◦ use of census data to obtain information on the age–sex structure of a population
◦ collection of data from sources such as articles, journals, magazines, books and
periodicals to obtain information

Questionnaire
◦ written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by respondents
◦ It is important that the questions are clear and easy to understand
Formulating Effective Questions
◦ Always use simple and everyday language.
Is anyone in your family a dipsomaniac? (Bailey, 1978)
◦ Do not use ambiguous questions.
Are you satisfied with your canteen? (Moser& Kalton, 1989)
◦ Do not ask double-barrelled questions.
How often and how much time do you spend on each visit?
◦ Do not ask leading questions.
Smoking is bad, isn’t it?
◦ Do not ask questions that are based on presumptions.
How many cigarettes do you smoke in a day? (Moser & Kalton, 1989)

Examples of Closed Questions

Examples of Open Questions

Examples of a survey questionnaire

Individual or in – depth interviews
◦ An in-depth conversation on a given topic between a respondent and an interviewer
◦ Used to obtain detailed insights and personal thoughts
In – Depth Interviews
Structured (fixed format or directive)
◦ Questions are asked in standardized order
◦ Non-flexible yet fairly quick to conduct
Unstructured (projective or non-directive)
◦ Interview without any set format and allows questions based on the interviewee's
responses
◦ Time consuming to conduct
Focus Group Discussion
◦ A group of interacting individuals
◦ A Moderator is present
Technology mediated Interviews
◦ Synchronous communication
chat, text messaging, online conferencing and telephonic conversations
◦ Asynchronous communication
e-mail

V. Methods of Analysis
1. Descriptive statistics
• Used to describe the data gathered
• The most generally used descriptive statistics are the following:
a. Frequencies
b. Ranges
c. Means
d. Modes
e. Medians
f. Standard deviation
2. Inferential statistics
• The researcher is trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the data.
• Inferential statistics are used to infer, based on the study of a sample of a population,
what the entire population might think, or do.
Measure of Central tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
Measure of Variability
Range
Interquartile Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
Statistical Tools to be Used for Different Types of Data