Basics Process PDF

Definitions and Technical Terms Process/Production
Table of Contents
Safety 3
Hydrocarbon Processing Fundamentals 8
Process Variables 15
Oil Reservoir 30
Well Completion & Well-head Development 33
Separation & Treatment 36
Basic Instrumentation & Control Loops 41
Reading Drawings PFD's and P&ID's 51
Pumps 53
Valves & Piping 61
Diesel Engines 69
Table of Contents "Continued"
Gas Turbine Engines 71
Storage Tanks 75
VTC 2nd Edition May 2007 1 of 115

Meter Bank and Prover 79
Compressors & Instrument Air Systems 80
Heat Exchangers 85
Desalination and Potable Water 92
Steam Generation , Boilers,Furnaces 94
Inert Gas Nitrogen Plants 99
Electrical Fundamentals 100
General Information,Drawings 102
Safety Rules & Procedures
Safety: Protection, well being, security
Rules: Set of laws to be followed without any deviation
Procedures: An orderly way of doing things
Accident: Crash, Mishap, Mistake
Incident: Event, Happening

PPE: Personal Protective Equipment

Protective coverall, hard hat or safety helmet, safety goggles
or glasses, safety shoes, safety gloves and ear muffs or ear
plugs.
Safety Equipment: Fire Extinguishers, Fire Blankets, Eye

bath and shower.
Hazards: dangers
Potential safety hazards: Likelihood of hazard to occur
Unsafe act: Action of person, which can cause accidents or

incidents.
Unsafe condition: Situation in an area where there is a

danger to a safe working atmosphere.
ICC Cards: Isolation completion certificate used to avoid

unauthorized use of equipment.
Danger Notice Cards: Used on Electrical Equipment to

ensure they are isolated.
H2S gas or killer gas
Properties of H2S: colorless, rotten egg smell at low

concentration of less than 1ppm, heavier than air, soluble in
water, LEL 4.5% UEL 45.5 %.
TLV: Threshold Limit Value: H2S is below 10 PPM, at this

level a person can work for 8 hours without problem.
Time Weighted Average (TWA) Concentrations:

The limits refer to the maximum exposure concentration

when averaged over an 8-hour day.
Long term exposure limit, LTEL (the 8-hour TWA value) for
H2S=10ppm
In the case of the standard offshore 12 hour shift, the LTEL
for H2S= 6.6ppm.
Short-term exposure limit, STEL (the 15-minute TWA value)
for the H2S=15ppm.
Effects of H2S at various concentrations:

About 30 PPM- eye and throat irritation
About 100 PPM- loss of smell
About 500 PPM-dizziness and headache
1000 PPM & above-rapid unconsciousness followed by death
within minutes
Identifying hazardous concentration of H2S: Yellow

color painting of vessels / piping or yellow bands and local
warning signs.
Safety in H2S Areas: B.A. sets / Escape Respirators and

H2S detectors to be used in H2S present areas.
Fire: is a chemical reaction, which produces Heat, Light and

Noise.
Fire Triangle: Fuel, Heat, and Oxygen
Classes of fire: Class “A”, Class “B”, Class “C”, Class “D”,
Class “E”

Types of Fire Extinguishers: Fire extinguishers using

Water / Foam/ Dry Powder/ Carbon dioxide.
All extinguishers are coloured RED with a panel of the
following identification colours:
Dry Powder: Blue Panel
Carbon dioxide: Black Panel
Foam: Cream Panel
Water: Red Panel
Ignition temperature: The minimum temperature at which

a material will ignite spontaneously.
Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which sufficient

vapor is given off from a liquid to form a flammable mixture
with air in the space above the liquid. Spark or naked flame
can ignite mixture.

Explosive Limits
LEL - Lower Explosive Limit: The concentration of gas/air
mix in volume %, below which mixture will not support
combustion.
UEL- Upper Explosive Limit: The concentration of gas/air

mix in volume %, below which mixture will not support
combustion.
Flammable range is between LEL & UEL
E.g., explosive limits for methane: LEL 5, UEL 15
LSA: Low Specific Activity
NORM: Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material
Hazardous Areas: Areas in which explosive gas- air mixture

is present or most likely to occur.
Classification of Hazardous Areas: Zone –0, Zone-1 and

Zone –2.
Zone 0: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is

present continuously or for long periods (Over 1000 hours
per year)
Example: tank vents, sump vents, drains etc

likely to occur in normal operation (10-1000 hours per year)
Example: Pipeline flanges and inlet manifold areas

likely to occur in normal operation (0-10 hours per year)
Example: Welded pipelines where there are no flange joints

Non Hazardous Areas: An area where an explosive

atmosphere not expected to be present.
Purpose of area classification: for Selection of

equipment, for Consideration of all sources of ignition, for
permit to work, for Access of portable equipment.
Emergency Alert system: Severity of an emergency

situation for Das Island is defined in terms of color code.
Blue Alert: A relatively minor emergency like minor leak of

oil/gas, small fire etc which can continue & unlikely to
escalate.
Yellow Alert: An emergency that has potential to escalate

into a major emergency e.g., significant oil or gas leak.
Red Alert: A serious emergency situation which leads to

evacuation of personnel e.g., Serious fire, major oil / gas
leak.

Hydrocarbon Processing Fundamentals
Matter: Anything that has weight & takes up space

Matter can be solid, liquid or gas.
Element: Simplest form of matter having atoms of only one

kind, Ex: Carbon, Hydrogen, Iron, Oxygen etc.
The symbol for Carbon is C.
Atom: Smallest part of an element that can exist & retain

the properties of that element.
Electron: A negatively charged particle of very small mass,

and orbit the nucleus or center of atom.
Proton: A positively charged particle in the nucleus of the

atom. A proton is larger than electron but still very small.
Neutron: A particle with no charge in the nucleus of the

atom, has larger mass than a proton.
Molecule: The smallest unit of matter that can exist and

retain its chemical properties.
Compound: Two or more elements that chemically bond

together to form a Compound. Ex., Water, Methane, Ethane.
Water is H2O, Methane is CH4, and Ethane is C2H6.
Mixture: Any composition of two or more molecules of

elements or compounds that are not chemically bonded to
each other. Molecules of a mixture can be physically
separated. Ex., Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon-
dioxide and other gases.

States of Matter: All matter exists in one of the three

states-solid, liquid or gas
The rate of molecular movement determines if matter is
solid, liquid or gas.
Solid: Matter that has definite shape and volume and resists
forces that try to alter its shape or volume at normal
temperature & pressure.
Properties of solids: Volume, Weight, Density, Solubility.
Volume: A measure of how much space a solid occupies.

Volume is measured in cubic feet or cubic meters.
Weight: A measure of the heaviness or mass of an object.

Weight is measured in grams, kilograms and tons, pounds.
Density: The ratio of mass to unit volume.
Solubility: A measure of how easily a solid will dissolve in a

liquid. Ex., salt and sugar are soluble whereas sand is
insoluble.
Liquid: Matter that is free flowing has volume but no shape.

Liquid takes the shape of the container into which it is
poured.
Properties of liquids: Volume, Weight, Density, Specific

Gravity, Compressibility, Volatility, Viscosity, Cohesion,
Adhesion, Miscibility.
Volume: The space the liquid occupies. Volume is measured

in gallons, liters, barrels.
1 barrel of oil=42 US gallons

Weight: A measure of how heavy the liquid is.
Density: The ratio of mass to unit volume. Density of liquid

is measured in gms/cm3, Kgs/m3.
Specific Gravity: The ratio of density of a liquid to the

density of water. Specific Gravity of water is 1.0 at 60 0 F.
This is a number only.
Compressibility: The ability of matter to be reduced in size

or volume by squeezing. Liquids cannot be compressed.
Volatility: A measure of how quickly a liquid will evaporate

at ambient temperature.
Ex., gasoline is more volatile than water
Viscosity: A measure of a liquid‟s resistance to flow.
Cohesion: The tendency of molecules in a liquid to stick to

each other, Ex., motor oil has high cohesion.
Adhesion: The tendency of molecules of a liquid to stick to

something else Ex., Glue has high adhesion.
Miscibility: A property that shows how easily a liquid can

mix with another liquid. Liquids that do not mix are called
immiscible E.g., water and oil.
Gas: Matter that has neither shape nor volume but tends to
expand for ever.
Properties of Gases:
Volume, Pressure, Temperature, Density,
Compressibility, Toxicity, Flammability, Inertness.

Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature, the pressure of a

gas is inversely related to its volume.
Pressure increases, Volume decreases.
Pressure decreases, Volume increases.
Charles Law: At constant pressure, the volume of a gas

increases with an increase in temperature.
Gay Lussac’s Law: At constant volume, the pressure of a

gas increases as the temperature increases.
Standard Condition: A gas is measured at a standard

temperature of 60 °F and pressure of 14.7 psi.
SCF: Standard Cubic Feet, A gas is measured in cubic feet at

the standard condition, and is given as standard cubic feet.
Density: A weight measure of a certain volume of gas,

expressed in pounds per cubic feet, and measured at
standard condition.
Compressibility: The ability of matter to be reduced in size

or volume by squeezing. All gases can be compressed;
compressing a gas increases the pressure and temperature.
Toxicity: Toxic means poisonous
Flammability: Ability of a gas to burn if ignited in presence

of air.
Inertness: A property of a gas to remain without reacting or

doing anything, not flammable eg, Nitrogen, CO2 is inert
gases.

Changing the States of Matter:

The state of a substance can be changed by adding or
removing heat.
Solid on heating becomes liquid. Liquid if heated further
becomes gas or vapor.
Vapor when cooled enough becomes liquid. Liquid when
cooled sufficiently will become a solid.
Evaporation is slow change of water to gas or vapor.
Vaporization or boiling is fast change of water to vapor.
Vapor Pressure: The pressure existing upwards from the

surface of a liquid, the measure of liquid tendency to
vaporize at any given temperature.
RVP: Reid Vapor Pressure. The pressure caused by the

vaporized part of a liquid and the enclosed air. This is usually
expressed in PSI at 100 F (38 C).
Boiling Point: The temperature at which liquid starts boiling

at a given pressure or, the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of a liquid equals the pressure of the surrounding
atmosphere.
Boiling Point decreases at lower pressure. Atmospheric
pressure decreases at higher elevations. With lower
atmospheric pressure on a mountain top, liquid will boil at
lower temperature.
Condensation: The process of vapors becoming liquid when

temperature of a vapor decreases or pressure on a vapor
increases.
Dew Point: The temperature at which the first liquid droplet

starts to condense under certain pressure.

B.T.U: British thermal Unit; A measure of heat energy

needed to raise 1 pound of water by 10 F at standard
atmospheric pressure.
Sensible Heat: The heat used in raising the temperature up

to boiling point.
Latent Heat: The heat used to change liquid to gas or

vapor at its boiling point.
The heat added to liquid to vaporize liquid is called Latent

Heat of Vaporization.
Latent heat of vaporization of water at 1 atm = 540 cal/gm
(kcal/kg).
The heat is taken away from the vapor to change gas or
vapor to a liquid is called Latent Heat of Condensation.
Latent heat of condensation of steam at 1 atm = 540 Cal/gm
(kcal/kg).
Hydrocarbons: Compounds having only Carbon and

Hydrogen atoms. Ex., Gasoline, Methane etc.
Crude: Crude oil containing hundreds of different

compounds from the lightest Hydrocarbon, Methane to
heaviest asphaltic compounds and impurities like water, H2S
etc.
The weight of a hydrocarbon depends on the number of
Carbon atoms in one molecule of the compound.
Feedstock: Crude used by a refinery to produce various

Hydrocarbon (HC) products.
Sour Crude: Crude with high concentration of H2S

Sweet Crude: Crude with little or no H2S
Wet Crude: Crude with large amount of water
Dry Crude: Crude with little or no water
Light Crude: Greater concentration of lighter HC and lesser

concentration of heavier HC.
Heavy Crude: Greater concentration of heavier

Hydrocarbons and lesser concentration of lighter
Hydrocarbons.
API Gravity: A standard measurement to measure density

of crude and petroleum products at 60 0 F.
API Gravity of an oil is inversely proportional to its specific
gravity and is in API0
API Gravity = (141.5/Specific Gravity)-131.5
Natural Gas:
A mixture of the lightest hydrocarbons
Methane is the major component, Ethane, Propane, Butane,
Pentane in lesser amounts.
Associated gas: Natural gas produced with crude oil from

wells.
Non-Associated gas: Gas produced directly from wells.
B S & W: Basic Sediment and water. It is a measure of the

impurities (heavy material composed of water and foreign
material) found in crude oil.

Process Variables
Process Variables: The variables which control the

Process. Examples are temperature, pressure, flow and level.
Force: Force is a pushing or pulling which can cause an

object to move or change shape. Force can be applied in any
direction.
Pressure: Force over unit area, unit of pressure is PSI, Atm,

Bar, mm Hg, inches water, feet of water etc.
P = F/A (Pressure = Force divided by Area)
If a surface is having 1 inch length and 1 inch width, the area

is 1inch X 1 inch = 1 square inch (1inch2). This is called one
unit area.
Other examples of unit area are 1 cm2 , 1ft2 , 1m2 etc.
If 80 lbs. of force is acting on diaphragm having 4 (inch)2

area, then pressure applied will be = 80/4 Lbs./inch2 or 20
psi.
Under the same amount of force, if area reduces pressure

will be higher.
It is easy to press down a pin on your drawing board with

your finger!
Bar is still bigger unit of pressure and is equal to 14.5 psi.

Convert 10 bar to psi:
10 bar = 10x 14.5 psi = 145 psi
Convert 600 psi to bar:
600 psi = 600/(14.5) bar = 41.38 bar
Normal pressure in instrument air header = 90 psi (6.21

bar)
Steam export header pressure = 145 psi (10 bar)
Atmospheric Pressure: Air, which is a mixture of gases,

has weight. That is, the force of gravity attracts the air. At
sea level, the standard weight of earth‟s atmosphere exerts a
pressure of 14.7 PSI.
Gauge pressure: Pressure measured using atmospheric

pressure as reference is called Gauge pressure.
Absolute pressure: Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge

pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure+ Atmospheric Pressure
PSIA = PSIG + 14.7
Vacuum pressure: Pressure below atmospheric pressure

Vacuum scale starts from atmospheric pressure to a
maximum of 29.92 “ Hg (mercury).
Vacuum scale starts from zero (at atmospheric pressure) to a
maximum of 14.7 psi.
Zero absolute pressure = perfect vacuum

Absolute Pressure = Pressure above Absolute zero

Conversions:
1 BARG = 14.5 PSIG
1 ATM = 14.7 PSIG
1” WG = 0.037 PSIG
27” WG = 1 PSIG
1” Hg G = - 0.491 PSIG
1 mm wc = 0.00145 psig
Note:
Pressure exerted by 76 cms of Hg column = 14.7 psig.
Pressure exerted by 10 meters of water column = 14.7 psig.
Pressure exerted by 1 meters of water column = 1. 47 psig.
This explains how the 7.5 meters water seal

maintained in De-aerator No.1 (at Das Utilities) blows
off at 11 psig
and 5.5 meters of water seal maintained in De-
aerator No.2 blows off at 8 psig.
Examples of process pressures in Utilities which are
close to atmospheric pressure:
FD fan outlet pressure: 0.15 psig
Boiler furnace pressure: 0.05 psig ( 34 mm wc)
Boiler stack inlet pressure: -0.015 psig (-10 mm wc)
Aiton, evaporator body pressure: 0.2 psig
De-aerator pressure: 4 psig

Pressure Scales:
Gauge Pressure Scale
Absolute Pressure Scale
Vacuum Scale, maximum pressure 29.92 inch Hg (Hg-Mercury)
Conversions of Pressure Scale.
PSI A = PSI G + Atmospheric pressure

1 in Hg Vac = - 0.491 PSIG
Example, To convert 2 psig to psia,
PSIA = PSIG + atmospheric Pr.

= 2 + 14.7 = 16.7 PSIA.
To convert 20 PSIA to PSIG,
PSIG = PSIA –atmospheric Pr.

= 20 – 14.7 = 5.3 PSIG
To convert 25 in Hg Vac to PSIG and PSIA
1 in Hg Vac = - 0.491 PSIG
PSIG = - 0.491* 25 = -12.3 PSIG

PSIA = PSIG + atmospheric Pr.
= - 12.3 + 14.7
= 2.4 PSIA

Pressure Measuring Devices: There are 4 types of

pressure measuring devices, which are:
1. Manometer
2. Bourdon Tube Gauge
3. Diaphragm Gauge
4. Bellows Gauge
Vacuum Pressure Gauge (PSIA) Detail

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge Detail
Thermocouple Detail

Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness,

measured on a definite scale.
The motion of the molecules in a substance determines how
hot or cold it is. When the motion of the molecules slows, the
temperature falls.
Temperature must be closely monitored because it is difficult
to control.
Heat Transfer: Energy is transferred between a system and
its surroundings as a result of a temperature difference. Heat
always flows from a higher temperature to a lower one.
Heat is transferred in 3 ways:
Convection
Conduction
Radiation
Convection: Transfer of heat by motion of gas or liquids by

natural circulation.
Conduction: Transfer of heat by molecular motion or direct

contact through or across a conductor.
Radiation: Transfer of heat energy by the emission of heat

waves or rays. The light from the sun is an example of
radiation heat transfer.

Temperature scales:
Two scales are commonly used to measure temperature.
They are the Fahrenheit scale and the Centigrade or Celsius
scale.
The Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C) scales are based on the
freezing and boiling points of water. On the Fahrenheit scale,
water freezes at 32° and boils at 212° under atmospheric
pressure. On the Celsius scale, water freezes at 0° and boils
at 100° under atmospheric pressure.
Absolute zero: -273 °C or –460°F. It is the

temperature at which the movement of molecules completely
stops.
Temperature Measuring Devices: Five types of devices
are commonly used to measure or sense temperature:
1. Mercury Thermometer
2. Filled System Temperature Indicator
3. Bimetallic Thermometer
4. Thermocouple
5. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Calorie (cal): Heat required to raise 1 gram of water by 1º

C at atmospheric pressure.
252 cal = 1BTU

Conversions of Temperature scales

C = (F –32) x 5/9
F = (C x 9/5) + 32
Example, to convert 212 F to C

C = (F – 32) x 5/9
= (212 – 32) x 5/9
= 100 C
And To convert 100 C to F

F = (C x 9/5) + 32
= (100x 9/5) + 32
= 212 F
Convert -40 C to F
F=(C x 1.8) + 32
=(-40 x 1.8) + 32
= -72 + 32
= -40
-40 C = -40 F
Flow

Flow: The movement of a liquid or gas from one place to

another.
Flow rate: The measurement of a liquid or gas flowing per

unit time. OR the flow rate is the quantity of fluid passing
through vessel or meter or pipeline per unit time.
Flow rate is usually expressed in gallons per minute, barrels

per hour, or thousands of barrels per day for liquids. Flow
rate for gases is usually expressed in standard cubic feet per
minute.
Two-type flow rates:
1) Mass flow rate
It is the mass or quantity passing through vessel or meter or

pipeline per unit time. It is expressed in Kilograms per
minute (Kg/min) or Pounds per second (lb / sec) or tons per
hour etc.
A. Mass is usually measured in: grams (gms), pounds (lbs.)

& kilograms (Kgs)
453.6 gms = 1 lb
1000 gms = 1 kg
0.452 kg = 1 lb
2.2 lbs = 1 kg
1000 kgs = 1 MT (metric ton)
B. Time is usually measured in: seconds, minutes, hours &

days.

60 seconds = 1 minute ( min)

60 minutes = 1 hour ( hr)
24 hrs = 1 day
1day = 24x60 min = 1440 min.
1 hr = 60x60 sec = 3600 sec
C. Mass flow rate unit conversion examples:
1. Convert 10 kg/min to kg/hr
10 kg/min X 60 = 600 kg/hr
2. Convert 10 lbs/sec to lbs/min
10 lbs/sec X 60 = 600 lbs./min
3. Steam production from Boiler. No.3 is 75,000

lbs/hr. Express the production in Kg/hr,
MT/hr and MT/day.
75,000 lbs/hr X 0.453 = 33,900 kg/hr

(33,900 kg/hr) /1000 = 33.9 MT/hr
33.9 MT/hr X 24 = 813.6 MT/day
2) Volumetric flow rate
It is the volume of fluid passing through vessel or meter or pipeline

per unit time.
It is expressed in cubic centimeters per second (cm3 / sec) or cubic
meters per second (m3 / sec) or cubic meters per day (m3 / d).
In the oil industry, the flow rate of crude oil is expressed as barrels

per day (BPD) and the flow rate of gas is expressed in standard cubic
feet per day (SCFD).
A. Volume is usually measured in: milliliters ( ml) , liters

(lit.), cubic meters(M3), gallons (gal) & barrels(bbl)
1000 ml = 1 lit
1000 lit = 1 M3
4.546 lit = 1 IG (Imperial gallon)
3.785 lit = 1 USG (U.S. gallon)
159 lit = 1 bbl
1 BPD (barrel per day) = 159 lit/day

30.46 SCFD= 1 M3/day
(Standard cubic feet per day)
1MMSCFD = 106 SCFD
(Million standard cubic feet per day)
B. Volumetric flow rate unit conversion examples:
1. Convert 10 lit/min to Lit/hr
10 lit /min X 60 = 600 lit/hr
2. Convert 20 lit /hr to lit/day
20 lit / hr X 24 = 480 lit/day

3. Distillate production from each AITON is 75,000 IGPD.

Express the production rate in lit /day, M3/day and lit /hr.
75,000 IGPD x 4.5463 = 340,950 lit/day

(340,950 lit/day) / 1000 = 340.95 M3/day
(340,950 lit/day) / 24 = 14,206.25 lit/hr
4. If the corrosion inhibitor injection rate to separator is

0.5 lit/min, calculate consumption per hr & per day.
Injection rate per hour = 0.5 lit/min X 60

(Consumption) = 30 lit/hr
Injection rate per day = 30 lit/hr X 24
(Consumption) = 720 lit/day
Flow profiles are of 3 types:

Laminar or Streamlined: liquid flowing through a pipeline
separated into layers moving parallel to each other.
Turbulent: most common type of flow pattern found in

pipes. Its flow pattern has a crossways velocity (swirls, eddy
current).

Transition: flow profile which is between laminar and

turbulent flow profiles. Its behavior is difficult to predict and
it may oscillate between the laminar and turbulent flow
profiles.
Four basic types of flow meters used in the plants:

1. Velocity Flow-meter
2. Positive Displacement Flow-meter
3. Differential Pressure Flow-meter
4. Variable Area Flow-meter

Drawing of Orifice Meter

Level
Level: The height of the liquid in a vessel or tank.
Measurement is in inches, feet, meters.
Five common types of level measuring devices used in
the plant:
1.Hand Reel Tape
2.Sight Glass Indicator
3. Bubbler Level Indicator
4. Float-type Level Indicator
5. Displacer Level Indicator
________________________________________________
Oil Reservoir
Petroleum: Crude oil and natural gas are known collectively

as petroleum.
Porosity: The ratio of open spaces to bulk volume of rock.
Permeability: A quantitative measure of the ease with

which a porous rock will permit passage of fluids through it
under pressure gradient.
Petroleum Geology: Study of rocks where Oil and Gas is

likely to be found.
Rocks: 3 Main types of rocks

Igneous Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks (Oil and Gas bearing rocks)
Origin of Oil & Gas: The most acceptable theory of how oil
and gas were formed is Organic theory
For Petroleum to Accumulate there must be:

Source of oil and gas
Rock should be porous and permeable
A trap should exist
What are the 3 stages to formation of oil & gas?

The 3 stages are: Generation; Migration & Accumulation
Generation: the debris (sand, dead vegetation and animals)

falls to the bottom of the sea and builds up a level over
millions of years.
Migration: the layers of sand and dead vegetation and

animals change to a substance called kerogen, which is the
start of Oil and Gas.
Accumulation: Oil and Gas is trapped inside non-permeable

rock which keeps the fluids underground.
Primary Migration: Oil and Gas moves from the very fine
grained to rough and uneven rocks like limestone and
sandstone where it settles.
Secondary Migration: Hydrocarbons move through the

rock holding the oil and gas called carrier beds and build up
levels in the reservoirs.

Primary Porosity: voids resulting from original deposition

such as inter-granular porosity of sandstone.
Secondary Porosity: due to physical or chemical change

such as dolomitization, solution channels, or fracturing.
Petroleum Traps: A trap is a set of geological rocks that

has stopped migration of oil & gas to be retained in a porous
reservoir.
Types of Traps: Salt Dome, Stratigraphic Trap
Connate or interstitial water content of reservoir is the

non-displaced water remaining in reservoir.
Solution gas: Gas bubbles formed in the oil, which is as

solution in oil.
Coning: When production rate of oil is too high, the water

below the oil is drawn up into a cone and enters the
production tubing.
Reservoir Problems:
Decreasing reservoir pressure and solution gas
Coning
Increasing Gas Cap
Advancing Oil/Water Contact
Reservoir fluid during work-over
Permeability irregularities
Well Completion & Wellhead Development
Well completion: Well made ready to produce oil

Types of Well Completion

1) Single completion –production from single zone
2) Dual completion – production from 2 zones
Perforating: Making holes in casing using perforation gun

with special explosives called „shape charges‟.
What is the Cooling / Lubricating material used in

drilling a well?
Drilling mud is the cooling / lubrication material
BOP: Blow out Preventer
Production casing: Large diameter pipe screwed together

in sections, which surrounds the hole.
Production tubing: smaller diameter pipe that is lowered

inside the casing. Oil is produced through the tubing.
Production packer: A device that is fixed inside the casing

just above the perforations.
Sliding sleeves or Sliding Side Door: Device that allows

fluids circulation between tubing and the annulus.
Annulus: Space between outside of the tubing and inside of

the casing.
Expansion or Travel Joint: Device screwed into production

tubing string to allow for expansion & contraction of tubing.

Wireline Landing Nipples: Short pieces of pipes screwed

into production tubing string that has special internal shapes
to fix flow control devices.
Landing Nipples can be “Selective” or “No-Go”.
Flow Couplings: Thick walled pieces of pipe screwed to

each side of landing nipple.
Blast joint: Thick walled hard faced pipe pieces screwed

into tubing string and placed opposite to upper zone
perforations to prevent flow damage to outside of long string
tubing.
Pup Joints: short-tubing sections to” space out”
Well Head is of two parts:

Well head itself
Collection of Valves called Christmas Tree
Purpose of well head:

1) Supports weight of down-hole tubing
2) Safely contains max surface pressure at the well
3) Permits access to the well
4) Provides a way to „kill‟ the well
Well head assembly:

Surface casing
Intermediate casing
Production casing
Production tubing strings
Ways to hang production tubing strings:

1) In tension (stretched)

2) In compression
What is a Christmas tree?

A collection of valves connected to the top of wellhead at the
tubing through which well fluids pass.
Christmas trees are made in two ways:

1) from components bolted together
2) from a solid steel block – for high pressure & corrosive
wells
Christmas tree Assembly consists of:

Crown Valve, Wing Valve, Surface Safety Valve, Choke Valve,
Upper Master Valve, Lower Master Valve.
Surface Safety Valve is Wing valve with actuator.
Gate Valves normally used on well head assembly since we

require the valve to fully open or close.
Needle valves used for pressure gauge points
Separation and Treatment
Separation: The process of separating a fluid from another

Why Separation is required?

Most pipelines and refinery systems to which oil is sent
require oil to have less than 0.1 to 0.5 % water.
Separator: A mechanical device used for primary separation

to remove and collect liquid from gas by centrifugal force.
Two conditions for Separators to function:

1) The fluids to be separated must be insoluble in each other
2) One fluid must be lighter than the other
Classification of Separators:
1) By the number of fluids separated

2-Phase: Liquid, Gas
3-Phase: Oil, Water, and Gas
2) By shape
Horizontal, Vertical, Spherical
Separators have four sections:

Primary Separation Section-bulk of liquid removed here
Secondary Separation Section- Gravity Separation
Liquid Accumulation Section-oil and water storage
Mist Elimination Section – removal of droplets of liquid from
gas before it leaves the vessel
Vessel Terminology:
Separators are also called by the following names:
Oil & Gas Separator

Stage Separator
Knock-out Vessel/Drum/Trap
Water Knock-out
Liquid Knock-out
Flash Vessel/Chamber
Expansion Vessel/Separator
Gas Scrubber/Scrubber
Filter/Gas Filter
Trap
Slug Catcher
Scrubber: Used for separation of small amount of liquid

(With no surging) from gas.
Surges: Sudden increase
Residence Time: The length of time that the liquid remains

in the vessel. This is around 30 to 60 seconds.
Factors affecting separation:

Fluid stream composition
Operating pressure
Operating temperature
Foaming & Emulsion
Horizontal Separators are used for processing crude with

large gas volumes (high GOR), liquid-liquid separation and
when foaming is present.
Vertical Separators are used for processing crude with

low gas volumes (low GOR) and when liquid level is
important. E.g. downstream pumps.

Separation is better when:

1) Difference in weight of fluids to be separated is greater
2) More Residence time
3) More Coalescing Surface Area
4) Higher Velocity due to Centrifugal action
Methods of Separation: Impingement, Change of

direction, Change of velocity, Agitation, Coalescing & Heating
help separation of oil and gas from crude.
Foaming: Tendency to form foam on surface of liquid
Flashing: Release of dissolved gas from a liquid due to

sudden reduction in pressure.
Vessel Internals:
Inlet Cyclones, Diverters or Deflector plates
Straightening Vanes
Coalescing Plates or Packs
Weir or Overflow Weir
Baffles
Vortex Breakers
Demister pads, mist extractors, mist eliminators
Safety Features in Separators:

1) High and Low Liquid Level Control
LAH, LAHH, LAL, LALL
2) High and Low Pressure Control
PAH, PAHH, PAL, PALL
3) High and Low Temperature Control

4) Safety Relief Valves
5) Emergency Shut Down Valves

Pressure Safety Relief Valves should never be connected

in series because it is unsafe for safety valve to relieve
another safety valve.
Emulsion: A mixture of two mutually immiscible liquids, with

one dispersed as droplets in another.
Dispersed droplets are called internal phase.
The liquid surrounding is the external phase.
Coalesce: to come together
Emulsifying agent: A chemical, which stabilizes the

dispersion. Paraffin‟s, resins, metallic salts, drilling mud are
good emulsifying agents.
Surface Tension: is a measure of the shrinking force of a

liquid drop in another liquid surrounding it.
Demulsifiers: like Visco, Petrolite acts to neutralize the

effect of emulsifying agents.
Crude oil treating equipment breaks emulsion by coalescing
water droplets and using gravity to separate oil and water.

Drawing of a Separator

Basic Instrumentation & Control Loops
We use various Instruments in the plant to keep process

variables at desired settings.
Control Loop:
A circular system for maintaining a process variable.
It consists of 3 main elements:
Measurement system
Controller
Final Control Element
Measurement system instruments are:

Primary element to detect changes in process variable
Transmitter to communicate the changes
Indicator to display the current measurement
Recorder to keep a record of measurements
Controller :
A device, which keeps the process variable at a constant
value by comparing the measurement signal with the set
point for the variable. It produces an output signal as a
function of the input signal.
Final Control Element

A device, mostly a Control Valve which receives signals from
the controller to adjust position of the valve element to
regulate the flow of energy or material in a process.
Control Loop Instrumentation

Control loops use pneumatic and / or electronic instruments.

Pneumatic instruments use compressed air to transmit

signals.
Electronic instruments send electronic signals
Transmitter: They receive information about process

condition from the primary element and send this information
as standard electrical signal to other instruments The
pressure transmitter contains a built-in detecting element.
Open Loop:
A loop that is without a feedback and has no control
The manual valve has no information or feedback about the
current condition of the process, and is unaware of the effect
of its output.
100 - 200
TE TT deg F Manual
10 10
Valve
TR Steam
10
Hot Sweet
Water
Heat Exchanger
E-101
Cold
Sweet
Water Condensate

Closed Control Loop:

A control loop with feedback
The output of the measuring element (control valve) is fed to
the controller (feedback) where it is compared with the set
point. Here the process variable is continuously measured
and controlled.
Reverse Acting
Set at 150 deg F
100 - 200
deg F
TIC TTd
10 10
TE TT
10 10
Steam
TR
Hot Sweet 10 TCV AO/
Water 10 AFC
Heat Exchanger
E-101
Cold
Sweet
Water Condensate
Drawing of closed Control Loop

Elements of a Closed Control Loop

(The Example shows a simple Heat Exchanger)

Controller:
Four separate elements in a Controller:
Set Point adjustment
Comparing element
Controlling element
Automatic / Manual Transfer Switch
Transducers: These are devices which convert one type of

signal to another type.
E.g.: A controller sends electrical signals, while control valves
are mostly pneumatically operated.
A transducer receives electrical signals from a controller and
converts it to pneumatic signals that operate control valves.
Final Control Element:

Control Valve is the most common type of final control
element.
Louvers are also used as final control element for
controlling:
Air flow into Cooling Tower fan blades.
Air flow into fin-fan cooler dampers.
Air flow into boiler flame combustion chambers.
Control Valve with Positioners and Actuators:

Positioner receives pneumatic signal
Actuator adjusts the valve element movement
Multiple Control Loops: These loops exist when two or

more signals jointly affect the action of the control system
Multiple Control Loops are:
Cascade Control
Ratio Control
Split Range Control

Override Control
Cascade Control Loop

In cascade control the output from one controller called “the
Master” is the set point for another controller called “the
Slave”. The master has an independent plant measurement,
only the slave controller has an output to the final control
element.
Drawing of Cascade Control Loop

Ratio Control Loop

A predetermined ratio is maintained between two or more
variables. The advantage is to maintain a consistent ratio of
2 or more variables than relying on two independent
controls.

Drawing of Ratio Control Loop
Override Control:
In this control either the highest or lowest signal from two or
more input signals is automatically selected by the selector
relay. Used in gas distribution system to limit maximum flow
rate and maximum pressure in a distribution system.
Split Range Control:
The purpose of using this split-range control loop is to

provide more than one consumer with gas, (E.g. fuel gas) if
gas supply pressure is high enough. When the supply
pressure decreases, the control loop reduces the opening of
the low priority consumer control valve to save the gas for
the high priority consumer. The positioner of one control
valve is calibrated to operate at the lower half of the input

signal range (4 - 12 mA), while the positioner of the second

control valve is calibrated to operate at the upper half of the
input signal range (12 - 20 mA)
Drawing of Split Range Control Loop

Typical Level Control Loop

Reading Drawings PFD’s & P&ID’s
PFD: Process Flow Diagram. It is a simplified flow diagram of

a process unit, utility unit or complete process module or
offsite product storage and loading system.
PFD is a document that contains information on:

Process Conditions & data of main process streams
Main Process equipment with design data
Main Process lines
Main Controls
Mass (material) balance
Heat (energy) balance, if applicable
Explanatory notes at bottom of PFD give information on
different modes of operation
P&ID: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram.

It is a detailed flow diagram of a process unit, utility unit or
complete process module or offsite product storage and
loading system or a drawing of a process and
instrumentation system, which connects different operating
facilities.
P&ID is a document that contains information on:

Main Equipment
Main Pipelines
Instrumentation and Control functions
Explanatory notes at bottom of P&ID gives information on
special features of stationary equipment, rotary equipment,

complex process control loops, legend page showing symbols

and codes used.
PUFD: Process Utility Flow Diagram, which gives information

on main distribution and / or collection arrangement of each
utility system except electrical systems.
PSFD: Process Safeguarding Flow Diagram

It highlights information on types and levels of protection
offered by devices installed in plant and their inter-relation to
demonstrate plant safety.
Numbering Lines:
All Piping lines have a number or code. The Code identifies
the type of fluid inside, size of line, class or type of material
the pipe is made of and its pressure capacity, the line
number of the line within the unit and the class of Insulation
of the line.
E.g. CO - 10” -6B6B - 1460AD -IH

This line handles Crude Oil or Condensate, pipe diameter is
10”NB, Piping Class is 300 #, line number is 1460 Abu Dhabi
and line is hot insulated

Pumps
Pump: A machine used to move liquids by pressure force,

from one place to another through pipelines.
Pumping rate: Quantity of liquid pumped out in a known
time E.g. gallons/ min, gallons/hour, liters/min, barrels /day
Upstream :} the side of pump where liquid enters the

Inlet :} pump
Suction :}
Downstream :} the side of pump where liquid leaves the

Outlet :} pump
Discharge :}
Classification of Pumps:
Centrifugal Positive Displacement

Pumps Pumps
Rotary Reciprocating
Pumps Pumps
Piston Plunger Diaphragm

Pumps Pumps Pumps

Gear Screw Vane Lobe

Pumps Pumps Pumps Pumps
Centrifugal force: A spinning force that moves a body

away from the center of a circle.
Centrifugal Pump: A machine that uses centrifugal force to

move liquids from place to place.
Major parts of a Centrifugal Pump:

Suction inlet
Impeller & shaft
Casing
Discharge outlet
Bearings
Seals

Drawing of a Single Stage Centrifugal Pump

Types of Impellers: Open, Semi-Open and Closed
Impellers.
Bearings: A device installed on a rotating shaft to support

the shaft and reduce vibration.

Seals: Devices that prevent leaks around the drive shaft.

Packing Box /Stuffing Box with fibrous material is the seal
used in small pumps.
Mechanical Seal is used in large pumps and in pumps
handling dangerous liquids.
Centrifugal Pumps are of two types:
Single stage centrifugal pump that has only one impeller

Multi stage centrifugal pump that have more than one

impeller
Multistage Centrifugal Pump Cutaway

Drawing of Single Stage Centrifugal Pump

Cavitation:
Air or gas bubbles trapped in the liquid inside a Centrifugal
pump, which cause very high vibration that can damage the
bearings, impeller and the pump itself
Priming: To fill a pump completely with liquid to drive out

any trapped air or gas bubbles.
NPSH: Net Positive Suction Head
NPSHA: Net Positive Suction Head Available
NPSHR: Net Positive Suction Head Required

Always NPSHA should be more than NPSHR to avoid
Cavitation.
Positive Displacement Pumps: The pumping element

occupies the space of the liquid and forces the liquid out of
the pump.
Rotary Pumps: A machine that uses rotary force to move

liquids from place to place.
Major parts of Rotary Pump:

Suction Inlet
Pumping Element /Drive Shaft
Housing
Discharge Outlet
Pumping Element can be Gears, Screws, Vanes and Lobes.

Rotary Pumps can be Gear Pumps, Screw Pumps, Vane
Pumps or Lobe Pumps depending upon the type of Pumping
Element.

Pressure Relief Valves: Devices installed at discharge of

positive displacement pump to protect pump from pressure
build-up.
Reciprocating Pumps: A machine that uses reciprocating

force to move liquids from place to place.
Reciprocating: moving forward and backward alternatively
Two types of Reciprocating Pumps:

Single acting pump
Double acting pump
Major parts of Reciprocating Pump:

Suction Inlet Valve
Cylinder
Piston
Discharge Outlet Valve
Housing
Stroke: Movement of piston from one end of cylinder to

another.
Pulsate: To raise and fall like a series of waves
Dampeners: A chamber or surge vessel installed on

discharge line of reciprocating pump to eliminate pulses and
smooth discharge pressure.

Plunger Reciprocating
Diaphragm
Gear Lobe

Valves & Piping
Valves: Devices used to control the flow of liquids and gases

in a piping system.
Some Valves are used only to start or stop flow in pipelines.
Used in the fully open or fully closed position
Ex., Gate Valves, Plug valves and Ball Valves
Some Valves are used to regulate flow in pipelines
Ex., Globe Valves, Butterfly Valves, Needle Valve, Diaphragm valve
Some Valves are used to release excess pressure.
Ex., Pressure Safety Valve (PSV), Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)
TRV Thermal Relief Valve: TRV function is to release extra

vapor pressure (like relief valve) created by high temperature
raise. Located on vessel or pipeline exposed to high temperature
raising.
Types of Valves operated either manually or

automatically:
Globe Valves : Mainly used as Control Valves

Gate Valves : Normally used as Isolation Valves
Ball Valves : Mainly used as Quick shut-off Valves
Butterfly Valves : Used as Control Valves for low-pressure
Applications
Types of Valves operated automatically:
Check (or Non-Return) Valves: They permit flow in one

direction only.
Safety Relief Valves: Used to prevent excess pressure
MOV: Motor Operated Valve

Major Parts of Valve:

Body
Opening Element (Plug shaped disc, Wedge shaped disc, Ball
or Flat disc)
Stem (Rising Stem or Non-Rising Stem)
Hand-wheel / Handle
Bonnet
Packing Gland
Valves can be operated either manually or automatically.
Valves can be operated either locally or remotely.
Remote operated valves are equipped with Valve Actuators.
Valve Actuator: A device that provides the force to open,

close or adjust a valve.
Valve Actuator can be operated electrically, pneumatically or
hydraulically or by solenoid.
MOV is a local operated valve where the electric motor is the
actuator.
Safety Relief valve Rupture Disc

Check valves (non return valves)
Ball valve


Gate valve Globe Valve

Pipe-Work
Pipe-work: Used to transfer fluids from one place to

another within the process, between units and plants or from
process units to storage and from one country to another.
ASTM American Standard for Testing and Material is the

standard of different materials for ferrous, non-ferrous and
non-metallic materials and includes physical properties,
mechanical properties and chemical properties.
API: American Petroleum Institute.

Specification of ferrous material used in oil fields specially
pipelines, flow lines and oil well materials, concerning
fabrication and welding
Pipe dimensions:
Pipe length: Measurement is in meters, kilometers
Pipe diameter (ID): Inside Diameter of a pipe is very

important, as it is a measure of the internal space through
which the fluid passes. Measurement is in Inches.
Pipe Thickness: Pipe thickness =(Pipe OD - Pipe ID)/2

Pipe thickness increases as Operating pressure, Operating
temperatures increases. If Pipe Material if stronger then
smaller thickness pipe is enough, otherwise pipe thickness
must be increased. Erosion & Corrosion eat away the pipe
material; hence pipes of higher quality alloys or great
thickness are used.

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS): Standard Pipe Size, which is

approx. diameter of standard wall thickness for pipes of OD
12” or less. For pipe sizes of OD 14” and more NPS=OD.
Schedule Number: This relates to Pipe Nominal Size and

thickness to the working conditions of pressure temperature.
The numbers range from 10,which is the thinnest wall to
160, which is the thickest wall of the pipe.
Class: Rating of flange should match pressure of pipe according

to the design pressure. The pipe is classified by schedule to
indicate thickness. The flange is classified by rating, which means
flange dimension, holes, thickness of flange. Rating 150, 300, and
600 etc.
Example: flange rating 150 matches pipe schedule 40.
Weight: Light Gauge (LG), Standard (S), Extra Heavy (X or

XH) and Double Extra Heavy (XX or XXH).
Pipe fittings: These are used to join pipes in various ways
Type of connections for Pipe fittings to Pipes:

They can be Screwed, Flanged, Butt and Socket Welded.
Elbows, Tees, Reducers, Unions, Couplings, Crosses, Flanges,
Blinds, Gaskets are some pipe fittings.
GRE Piping: Glass Reinforced Epoxy Piping
Lagging or Insulation done to reduce heat loss, protect

personnel, prevent condensation.

Flanges: Are used for joining or ending sections of pipe.

They are so constructed that pieces of equipment may be
installed or removed without a change in the piping.

Pipe fitting


Diesel Engine
Diesel Engine: A device used to drive generators in remote

locations, or as start-up engines for gas turbines. It is an
Internal Combustion engine.
Internal Combustion engine: Fuel is burned inside the

cylinder of the engine.
Two types of Diesel Engines:
1) Inline engines 2) V-Block engine
Diesel Engines are: 1) 2-Stroke 2) 4-Stroke
Diesel Engine has no spark plug

It compresses air and injects fuel directly to combustion
chamber, heat of combustion automatically lights the fuel.
Parts of A Diesel Engine:

Cylinders and Pistons
Crankshaft
Fuel Injectors
4-Stroke Diesel Engine Power Cycle Sequence is:

Intake
Compression
Power
Exhaust
Advantages of Disadvantages of
Diesel Engine Diesel Engine
Safer to use diesel oil Difficult in starting
No need of spark plug
Batteries used for starting

Lubrication system for a Diesel Engine:

Reduces friction Reduces wear
Cools Cleans
Major parts of a Closed Lubrication System:

Reservoir, Pump, Filter, Pressure Control Valve, Temperature
Control Valve, Cooler.

Gas Turbine Engine
Gas Turbine Engines: Engines that use hot expanding

gases from fuel combustion to turn the rotors.
Gas Turbine Engine is an axial flow engine.
Axial flow: flow of air and gas is in a line to center of the

shaft from one end of the shaft to the other end.
Gas Turbine Engines are of 2 types:

1) Single Shaft 2) Split Shaft
Major Sections of a Gas Turbine
Starter Compressor Combustion Turbine Exhaust

Section Section Section Section Section
Starter Section Compressor Section
Starter Torque Air Inlet Compressor

Engine Converter
Starter engine: To rotate the compressor shaft during

turbine start-up. Can be a diesel engine or large electric
motor.
Torque Converter: To transfer gradually the speed of

starting engine to the compressor shaft.

Air Inlet: To filter the air free of dust, sand and other
impurities, before entering the compressor.
Compressor: It consists of alternate stator and rotor blades

closely fitted to each other, to compress the incoming air into
smaller and smaller volumes. The blades get smaller in size
as air travels through compressor.
Rotor blades attached to the rotating shaft, while Stator
blades are stationary.
The air is compressed and under high pressure.
The air becomes very hot when compressed.
Combustion Section
Burner Cans Transition Pieces
Burner Cans: They mix compressed air and fuel gas and
burn them to give hot gas to drive turbine rotor discs. They
are made of heat resistant metal alloy to withstand 4000 0 F.
Transition Piece: Heat resistant metal tube connected to

each burner tapered with a nozzle at its end to carry hot gas
to turbine stator.
Turbine Section
Compressor Compressor Load Load

Turbine Stator Turbine Rotor Turbine Turbine
Stator Rotor

Turbine Section: The power producing section of a Gas

Turbine.
In a split shaft the compressor side and load side not
physically connected.
Load turbine stator and rotor discs are larger in size to
capture more energy remaining in the gas.
Hot gas turns the load turbine disc and rotor shaft.
The Load Turbine rotor assembly is the driver for pump,
generator or compressor.
Exhaust Section has only one part, the exhaust stack
Journal Bearings: To support the rotating shafts on a thin

film of lube oil. 4 numbers required for split shaft turbine.
Load Coupling: To connect Gas Turbine load turbine rotor

shaft to the shaft of pump or generator.
Governor: A device to control shaft speed by regulating fuel

to the Combustion Chamber.
Over-speed trip device: A device that will trip the turbine,

by cutting off the fuel supply to combustion chamber if the
shaft rotation exceeds a set limit.
Gas Turbines not very efficient; the faster the shaft rotation,
the more air is sucked into the compressor. More power
needed to compress the air. More power produced by the
Gas Turbine but it uses more power.
Efficiency: Ratio of Input to Output

Gas Turbine Engine: This drawing shows the major sections of

a split-shaft gas turbine engine

Storage Tanks
Storage Tanks: used to store liquids (crude oil, condensate),

gases (Propane, LPG), before final shipment.
Types of Storage Tanks:

Cone Roof Tanks: Used for storing non-volatile liquids and
low flash stocks (water, bunker fuel).
Floating Roof Tanks: Used for storing volatile liquids like

crude oil, naphtha and gasoline. Floating roof rests on the
top of the stored liquid, so there is no space for vapors to
collect under the roof.

Dome Roof Tanks: Closed cylindrical tank with a rounded

or domed top. Used for storing highly volatile liquefied
petroleum gases like ethane, propane and butane.
Types of Floating Roofs:
Pan Roof: Upside down cone shaped single layer of metal,

with low point at the center of roof, to collect rainwater.
Pontoon Roof: Has outer edges floats called pontoons

which are sealed metal air chambers that make the roof
float.
Double Deck Roof: Two-layer roof in which air space

between the roofs provide insulation from the sun‟s heat to
the entire surface of the liquid.

Auxiliary Equipment:
Roof Drains: To drain water from roof, as water will sink

pan roof and cause problems with pontoon and double deck
roofs.
Mixers: To agitate the product in the tank to be uniform
Heater: To lower viscosity of heavy liquids before mixing
Gauge Platform: Level measuring & sampling stations

Hand reel tape or Dip tape for measuring level in the tank
Pressure Relief Valves: Provided on top of roof to prevent

pressure from going too high.
Vacuum Relief Valves: Provided on top of roof to prevent

vacuum from forming inside the tank, when product is
removed. Vacuum relief valves open automatically to allow
air to flow into tank.

Meter Bank and Prover
Meter Bank: A metering station completely piped, wired

and skid mounted that is used for measuring oil output.
A Turbine flow meter having a rotor to sense the average
velocity of flowing oil. This is proportionate to volumetric flow
rate.
Prover or Prover Loop: A test loop of known volume for

testing meter accuracy.
Prover Inaccuracies:
Improper sizing of spheroid
Trapped air in the system during proving
Poor temperature stabilization
Improper valve manipulation
Improper electrical connections
LACT: Lease Automatic Custody Transfer units that test oil

qualitatively and quantitatively automatically.
BS&W, specific gravity, API gravity, temperature, adjusting
volume.

Compressors & Instrument Air Systems
Compressors: Equipment that compresses gas or air by

shrinking the volume of gas or air to increase the pressure of
gas or air.
Types of Compressors:
Centrifugal Compressors
Reciprocating Compressors
Axial Compressors
Why Centrifugal Compressors operate at high speed

and have many stages?
Liquids are heavy and can build up pressure in Centrifugal

pump at speeds of 1800 to 3600 rpm. Gases are lighter and
must rotate at speeds of 10,000 rpm and have many stages
to get the same pressures.
Centrifugal Compressors operate on the principle of

Centrifugal force.
Centrifugal Compressors can be single stage or multi

stage.
Major Parts of a Single Stage Compressor:

Suction Inlet
Impeller / Shaft
Diffuser
Volute
Casing
Discharge Outlet

Major Parts of a Multi-Stage Compressor:

Suction Inlet
Impellers/ Shaft
Diffusers: They direct gas from one impeller to another.
Diaphragms: Mounted on both sides of impeller, to form
passageways between impellers.
Labyrinth Seals: Used to seal leaks in multistage compressor
along the shaft.
Volute
Casing
Discharge Outlet


Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating Compressors operate on the principle of

reciprocating force.
Major parts of a Reciprocating Compressor:

Cylinder
Piston
Suction Valve
Discharge Valve
Crankshaft
Unloader: To protect compressor from overpressure
Reciprocating Compressors can be;

Single Acting or Double Acting
Cooling systems: Natural Air, Forced Air and Water
Axial Flow Compressors
Axial Flow Compressors: The flow of gas is along the axis

of the shaft in these types of compressors. They are more
efficient than Centrifugal Compressors.
The Compressor section of a Gas Turbine Engine is an Axial
Flow Compressor.
Instrument Air
Instrument air is supplied to Control valves, shutdown valves,
transducers etc and should be dry, free of solid particles
(sand etc), and at a constant pressure and temperature.
Instrument Air: Clean Air with Dew Point of -40 0 C.

Instrument Air Wet Air Receivers: Compressed wet air is

stored in these receivers, they act as Knockout drum,
removing free water that is entrained in compressed air.
Instrument Air Dryer: Two identical columns filled with

activated alumina desiccant, where moisture is removed to
get air at D.P. of -40 degree C. When one tower is on
adsorption, the other tower is on Regeneration.
An automatic timer changes over the columns from
adsorption to regeneration with the help of Quick Open
Valves.
Adsorption: A physical separation process in which a gas or

liquid mixture contacts the desiccant where the water vapor
is adsorbed and clean dry air alone leaves the column.
Regeneration: The column having the saturated desiccant

is de-pressurized. Drying of desiccant is done by passing dry
instrument air in the opposite direction of air flow during
adsorption. The wet air is disposed off to the atmosphere.
Absorption: A chemical separation process in which a

mixture contacts a liquid solvent (flowing counter-current to
the gas mixture) in which gas components like H2S & CO2
dissolve, leaving the other components of gas free to leave
the column.
Instrument Air is then sent to Distribution Main ring from

where various end users can take their requirement of
Instrument air.

Heat Exchange
Heat Exchange: Transfer of heat from one fluid to another
Heat Exchanger: An equipment in which heat is transferred

from one fluid to another fluid, without mixing the two
different fluids.
Heat Transfer is always from high temperature to low
temperature.
Transfer of Heat is by Convection, Conduction and Radiation.
Types of Heat Exchangers
Shell & Tube Plate Type Air Fin Fan Coolers

Heat Exchangers Heat Exchangers
Fixed Tube Sheet U-Tube Floating Head Kettle

Heat Exchanger Heat Exchanger Heat Exchanger Re-boiler
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers: Heat Exchanger most

commonly used. It consists of a number of parallel tubes
enclosed in a cylindrical shell.
Shell side fluid: The fluid flowing outside the tubes
Tube side fluid: The fluid flowing through the tubes
Tube bundle: Consists of tubes, tube sheets and baffles
Baffles : They direct the shell side fluid and support tubes
They increase the heat transfer area.

Major Parts of a Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger:

Shell
Channel
Tubes
Tube sheets
Baffles
Fixed Tube sheet Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Floating Head Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
U Tube Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Diagram showing arrangement of Segmental Baffles
Diagram showing arrangement of Impingement Baffle
Diagram showing arrangement of Channel Baffle

Flow Patterns in Heat Exchangers:
Parallel Flow: Both fluids enter and leave Exchanger in the

same direction.
Counter Flow: Both the fluids enter and leave Exchanger in
opposite directions.
Cross Flow : Mixed flow
Tube Arrangement: Tubes are spaced in tube sheets in

triangular or square pitch.
Tube Passes:
Single Tube Pass
Double Tube Pass
Multiple Tube Pass
Classification of Exchangers based on their function:

Exchanger
Cooler
Heater
Condenser
Vaporizer
Chiller
Re-boiler
Plate Type Heat Exchangers: They consist of a series of

plates in which the hot and cold fluids flow between alternate
plates in opposite directions.
Plate type heat exchangers are based on the principle: the
greater the surface area, the greater is the heat exchange.
The plates are sealed by gaskets to prevent leaks.

Diagram showing Plate type heat exchangers
Advantages of Plate type heat exchanger:

Heat Transfer rate is greater than Shell & Tube type
Temperature difference between fluids is very low (10 C)
Plates can be easily added or removed
Less installation space
Easy access for maintenance
Disadvantages of Plate type heat exchanger:

High possibility of leaks, can use for operating pressures up
to 300 psi only.
Cannot use for liquids having solids and combustible liquids.

Air Fin Fan Coolers: Heat exchangers using air to cool the
hot fluids. Fins increase surface area of heat exchange and
the heat exchange through the tubes.
Two types of Fin Fan Coolers:
1) Forced Draft: The fan is mounted below the tube

bundle.
2) Induced Draft: The fan is mounted above the tube

bundle.
Diagram showing types of fin fan coolers

Desalination and Potable Water
Desalination: Removal of salt. In this process seawater is

separated into fresh water and concentrated brine
Two types of desalination plants:
1) Vapor Compression: The process uses a positive

displacement compressor to compress the steam and
increase the temperature to desalinate seawater more
efficiently.
In Das Island this Vapor Compression method is known as
“Aiton”.
2) Reverse Osmosis: The process uses high pressure to

make the liquid flow from high concentration to low
concentration.
Osmosis: Liquid permeating across a membrane from low

concentration to high concentration.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure causing osmosis
Potable Water: Water that is suitable to drink
Desalination Plant Terms:
Feed: Seawater is feed, contains 44,000 ppm salt
Desalinated water: Water containing less than 1 ppm salt

Distillate: Pure water that is boiled out of sea water when

condensed. This water is tasteless, we add some minerals to
make it tasty to drink.
Condensate: Pure water when steam condenses
Brine: Concentrated sea water
Blowdown: Brine leaving the Aitons
Permeate: Fresh water that is squeezed through the RO

membranes.
Evaporator: The chamber where the feed is heated and

distillate flashes off.
Duplex Strainer: Double barrel Basket Strainer
Degasser: Tower packed with polypropylene saddles that

strip out any O2 or CO2 from seawater.
Soft scales: Deposits on inside of piping and equipment due

to Carbonates (Calcium and Magnesium)
Sulfuric Acid Injection: Small doses of sulfuric acid

injected to stop soft scales on the outside of evaporator
tubes

Steam Generation, Boilers, Furnaces
Steam Boilers: Fired heaters to produce steam by heating

water to its boiling point at high pressures.
Furnaces: Primary source of heat
Fired Heater: Another name for a Furnace
Two types of Furnaces:
Vertical Coil: Furnace in which the coils (tubes carrying the

fluid) are arranged in a vertical position.
Horizontal Coil: Furnace in which the coils (tubes carrying

the fluid) are arranged in a horizontal position.
Major parts of a Horizontal Furnace are:

Housing
Firebox
Tubes-Convection, Shock and Radiant tubes
Burners
Stack
Firebox: Area inside the housing where fuel is burned
Refractory lining: Special type of heat resistant bricks that

are used to line the inside walls and floor of firebox.
Tubes: Two or more long continuous coils that carry fluid to

be heated through the furnace.
Convection tubes: Tubes located at upper section of the

furnace.

Shock tubes: Tubes located between radiation and

convection sections. They absorb both radiant and
convection heat.
Radiant tubes: Tubes located along walls of the firebox.

Combustion gas temperature in firebox is 2000 0 C.
Coking: Coke is carbon layer inside furnace tubes due to

excess heat. Burner flames touching the tubes can cause
coking.
Flame Impingement: A flame touching the outside of the

tubes
Major Parts of a Vertical Coil Furnace:

Housing
Tubes-Convection Tubes and Radiant Tubes
Burners
Radiating Cone
Baffle Sleeve
Stack: A vertical duct that rises from top of furnace, that
allows flue gas to escape out
Draft: The flow of air and combustion gas through the

firebox and out of the stack.
Natural Draft: Produced by stacks alone
Induced Draft: Using fans above convection section to suck

the air inside combustion chamber.
Forced Draft: Using fans around the burners to push air

into the combustion chamber.

Balanced Draft: Combination of forced and induced draft

fans.
Damper: To control the draft in furnace, located on the

stack.
Boiler: A device that produces steam by using heat from a

gas fired furnace to boil water at high pressures.
Saturated Steam: Steam produced by boiling water, which

is at the same temperature as water.
Superheated Steam: Steam heated to a higher

temperature.
Superheated steam is extremely dangerous, we cannot see it
or hear it when it vents to the atmosphere.
Dry Steam: Superheated steam

Steam used in heat exchangers must be saturated steam, as
superheated steam will erode the tubes of heat exchanger.
De-superheated Steam: Pure water sprayed into the

superheated steam. The extra superheat is used to evaporate
the water resulting in saturated steam.
Boiler Feed Water (BFW): Water used for boilers. In

ADMA Utility area it is the distillate from the desalination
plant.
Why BFW has to be treated?
BFW has to be treated due to:

1) BFW has traces of mineral salts (Calcium Carbonate and

Magnesium Sulfate) that form hard scale on the inside of the
tubes, and cause tubes to overheat and burst.
2) Corrosion is very fast at high temperature and in the
presence of water. Hence the free oxygen or CO2 dissolved
in water are to be removed.
De-aerators: Removal of oxygen and CO2 is done by these

vessels where they are stripped off by low-pressure steam.
Chemical Dosing of BFW:
The following chemicals added to BFW:
Nal-floc (Sodium Bi-sulfite) added to BFW after de-aerator to

remove traces of Oxygen.
Caustic soda (Sodium Hydroxide) added to BFW to keep the

pH of water basic.
Sodium Phosphate is added to prevent formation of hard

scales.
Nal-fleet, which is a complex amine, is added to maintain

correct pH.
Economizer: A heat exchanger to utilize the heat going out

of the stack
Boilers can be fire tube boilers or water tube boilers

Water tube Boilers: They have water flowing through the
tubes and flue gas on the outside of the tubes.
Major Parts of a Water Tube Boiler:

Economizer: not in Das island
Steam Drum: Steam and water are separated
Boiler Tubes: Downcomers taking water from steam drum to

headers near firebox, Risers which are water tubes returning
to steam drum.
Mud Drum: Precipitate or solids settle at this lowest point in

the water system, that are blown down regularly.
Super-heater: set of tubes fixed at end of radiant section to

produce superheated steam from saturated steam.
Combustion Chamber (Firebox)

Burner: Fuel gas burners to mix gas evenly with the air
Blow-down System: Continuous and Intermittent blow down

Inert Gas Nitrogen Plants
Inert: Not moving or not reacting or doing nothing
Inert Gas: Gas that does not burn or cause something else
to burn.
Inert gases are Nitrogen, Argon, Freon etc.
Inert Gas-N2 produced in 3 ways:

1) By Pressure Swing Adsorption –PSA method :
Adsorbing oxygen in the air by ”Carbon Molecular
Sieves”
2) Cryogenic Separation of Air: Air is cooled to very low

temperature and then N2 and O2 separated by
distillation
3) Inert Gas Generator: Combustion of Diesel and

Compressed Air to remove oxygen and leave N2
Uses of Inert Gas in the plant:
1) To purge out flammable gas before equipment is

opened for maintenance
2) To purge air out of equipment before it is commissioned
3) To keep air from entering flare lines if no gas is being
flared
4) To purge marine loading arm before and after use
Purging: To remove (impurities or unwanted substances) by

cleansing.
Electrical Fundamentals

Electricity: It is the flow of free electrons between atoms in

a circuit. We cannot see electricity.
Voltage: The electrical force or potential difference that

pushes electrons in a circuit.
Unit of measurement is in volts or millivolts (V and mV)
Current/Amperage: The rate of electron flow.

Unit of measurement is in Amperes (amps) and milliamps (A
and mA)
Resistance: The opposition to the flow of current.

Unit of measurement is in Ohms ().
Ohm’s Law: A law or statement explaining the relationship

between voltage, current and resistance in a circuit.
Ohm’s law states:

Current is inversely proportional to resistance
Current is directly proportional to voltage
E=I *R
Conductors: Materials having low resistance to electron

flow. Copper and Aluminum have very low resistance, used
to make electrical wires.
Insulators: Materials having very high resistance to electron

flow. Plastic, Wood, Ceramic are good insulators used to
cover electrical conductors to prevent short circuit.
Polarity: Refers to the positive and negative poles or

terminals of power supply.
Direct Current: The electron flow is in one direction only,
from negative side to positive side of voltage source at all

times. A DC Voltage source (like Batteries) does not change

polarity.
Alternating Current: The polarity of the AC Voltage source

is constantly reversing many times in a second (50 times per
second).
Single Phase Power: Power having 1 hot conductor and 1

grounded conductor.
Three Phase Power: Three sets of coils positioned 120

degrees apart, used to generate 3 separate currents on 3
power lines.
Transformers: Electrical equipment that transfers energy

from one circuit to another with a change in voltage
Transformers can be either step-up or step-down types.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second. Measurement

is in Hertz (Hz). Most AC is generated at 60 cycles or 50
cycles per second.
Earth-fault: The leakage between live lines and earth
Fuses: Electrical devices that prevent electrical equipment

from drawing too much current. The link melts and blows off
the fuse, when current exceeds a set limit.
Circuit Breakers: Electrical devices that prevent electrical

equipment from drawing too much current. They will trip
when current in circuit exceeds a set limit.

General Information,Drawings
Calculation of Chemical Injection rate based on dose

concentration:
Q(BPD) x Dose Concentration(ppm) x 159

Chemical Injection Rate =
1,000,000
= L/D
Q(BPD) X Dose Concentration(ppm) x 42

Chemical Injection Rate =
1,000,000
= G/D
Chemical Injection
required for
production of 200MPD 200,000 x 6 x 159
=
at a dose 1,000,000
concentration of 6
ppm
= 191 L / D
AREA, VOLUME
Area is the amount of surface. The units for area are square
inches, square centimeters, Square meters etc.
Volume is the amount of space and the units are cubic
centimeters, cubic feet, cubic meters etc.
RECTANGLE, SQUARE

The area of a rectangle is it's length multiplied by it's width.

Hence, Area = Length X Width
The area of a square is square of one side length.
For example, area of a square with one side length 5
centimeters, is 5x5= 25 square centimeters.
For example, if the Length of the Control Room is 20 Meters
and the Width is 10 Meters, the total area is 20 X 10 = 200
Square Meters.
The Circumference of a rectangle is 2 X ( L + W ),
The Circumference of the Control Room will be 2 X ( 20 + 10 )
= 60 Meters.
CIRCLE
The area of a circle is calculated from it's radius (R) or from

it's diameter (D).
Area (A) = (PI) X R X R
Or
Area (A)= (PI) X D X D /4

PI is equal to 22/7 or 3.14
So, area of a pipe of diameter 6 inches is
Pipe Area = 3.14 X 6 X 6 / 4 = 12.56 Square inches.
The circumference of a circle will be PI X D ( or, also 2 X PI X
R)
Circumference of a pipe with a diameter of 6 inches would be
3.14 X 6 = 18.84 inches.
CYLINDER

The volume of a cylinder equals its area multiplied by its

height.
The formula is Volume = (PI /4) X D X D X H
So, the volume of a tank, of diameter 10 Meter and Height
12 Meters, would be
Volume = (3.14/4) X 10 X 10 X 12 = 942 Cubic Meters.
VELOCITY
When a body moves from point A to point B at a constant

rate, the rate is called the SPEED of the body. If the direction
of the motion is also specified, then the rate is more properly
called VELOCITY. In common usage, however, SPEED and
VELOCITY are taken to mean the same thing.
The units for Velocity are Meter / second, Feet / second,

Kilometers / hour etc.
To convert 4.2 meters / second to kilometers / hour:
One kilometer equals 1000 meter.
One hour contains 3600 seconds ( 60 minutes of 60 seconds
each ).
4.2 meters / second Velocity = 4.2 X 3600 / 1000 = 15.12
kilometers / hour (km/h)

Base Units
Quantity Equivalent Values

Mass 1Kg = 1000gm = 2.2 lbs.
Length 1m = 100cm = 39.37in = 3.2 ft.
Moles 1000 g-mole =1 mole
Time 1hr = 60 min. = 3600 sec.
Temp. 1C = 34 F
Derived units
2
Area = Length* width = m * m = m
Volume = Length * width * height = m * m * m
3
=m
Force = 1N = 1kg.m / sec2
Pressure = Force / area = kg / cm2

1atm = 14.7 PSI = 10.33 m H2O
=760 mmHg
Energy = 1Joule = 1kg. m2./s2

Power = 1w = 1J /s = 1kg. M2 / s3

Common units using in oil industry
BPD = barrel per day, production rate
SCFD = standard cubic feet per day (ft3/day),

Gas Flow rate
PPM = Major Parts of a Centrifugal Pump.

parts per million, chemical dosage
Lt./Hr = Chemical injection Rate (flow rate)

Metric and U.S. Conversion Formulas
Instructions: Multiply the units in column #1 by the factor in

column #2 to obtain the units in column #3. Conversely, one
can take the units in column #3 and divide by the factor in
column #2 to obtain the units in column #1.
Unit (1) Factor (2) Unit (3)

Atmospheres 14.7 PSI
Atmospheres 33.9 Feet of Water
Atmospheres 29.9 Inches of Mercury
Bar 1.0197 Kilograms/cm2
Bar 14.5038 PSI
Barrels (Oil) 42.0 U.S. Gallons
Barrels (Oil) 35.0 Imperial Gallons
Centimeters 0.3937 Inches
Centipoises 0.01 Poises
Centistokes 0.01 Stokes
Centistokes = Centipoises / Specific Gravity
Cubic Centimeters 1.0 Milliliters
Cubic Centimeters 0.061 Cubic Inches
Cubic Centimeters 0.000264 U.S. Gallons
Cubic Centimeters 0.000218 Imperial Gallons
Cubic Feet 7.48 U.S. Gallons
Cubic Feet 6.23 Imperial Gallons
Cubic Feet 1728.0 Cubic Inches
Cubic Feet 28.32 Liters
Cubic Feet (Water) 62.4 Pounds
Cubic Feet (Water) 998.8 Ounces
Cubic Inches 0.00433 U.S. Gallons
Cubic Inches 0.00364 Imperial Gallons
Cubic Inches 16.39 Cubic Centimeters
Cubic Inches 0.00058 Cubic Feet
Cubic Inches 0.0164 Liters
Cubic Feet/Second 448.83 U.S. Gallons/Minute
Cubic Meters 264.0 U.S. Gallons

Cubic Meters 220.0 Imperial Gallons

Cubic Meters 35.3 Cubic Feet
Cubic Meters 1.308 Cubic Yards
Cubic Meters/Hour 4.403 U.S. Gallons/Minute
Cubic Yards 27.0 Cubic Feet
Cubic Yards 0.765 Cubic Meters
Drams (Fluid) 3.7 Milliliters
Feet 30.48 Centimeters
Feet of Water 0.0295 Atmospheres
Feet of Water 0.4336 PSI
Feet of Water 0.8826 Inches of Mercury
Gallons (U.S.) 231.0 Cubic Inches.
Gallons (U.S.) 0.833 Imperial Gallons
Gallons (U.S.) 128.0 Ounces (Fluid)
Gallons (U.S.) Water 8.337 Pounds
Gallons (U.S.) 3.785 Liters
Atmospheres 14.7 PSI
Gallons (U.S.) 0.0038 Cubic Meters
Gallons (Imperial) 277.3 Cubic Inches
Gallons (Imperial) 1.2 U.S. Gallons
Gallons (Imperial) 154.0 Ounces (Fluid)
Gallons (Imperial) 4.546 Liters
Gallons (Imperial) 0.0045 Cubic Meters
U.S. Gallons of Water 8.33 Pounds of Water
Imperial Gallons of Water 10.02 Pounds of Water
Horsepower 33,000.0 Foot Pounds/Minute
Horsepower 746.0 Watts
Inches 2.54 Centimeters
Inches of Mercury 1.133 Feet of Water
Inches of Mercury 0.4912 PSI
Inches of Mercury 0.0334 Atmospheres
Inches of Water 0.074 Inches of Mercury
Inches of Water 0.036 PSI
Kilograms/cm2 0.9807 Bar
Kilograms/cm2 14.22 PSI
Kilograms/cm2 28.96 Inches of Mercury

Kilograms/Cubic Meters 0.001 Specific Gravity

Kilograms/Hour 0.0044 U.S. Gallons/Minute
Kilowatts 1.341 Horsepower
Kilopascals (kPa) 0.145 PSI
Liters 1,000.0 Cubic Centimeters
Liters 0.264 U.S. Gallons
Liters 0.220 Imperial Gallons
Liters 33.8 Ounces (Fluid)
Liters/Minute 0.2642 U.S. Gallons/Minute
Meters 39.37 Inches
Meters 3.281 Feet
Micron 0.00003937 Inches
Mil 0.001 Inches
Millimeters 0.06 Cubic Inches
Millimeters 0.03937 Inches
Millimeters of Mercury 0.0394 Inches of Mercury
Ounces (Fluid) 1.805 Cubic Inches
Pounds/Cubic Foot 0.1198 Specific Gravity
Pounds/Gallon 0.0160 Specific Gravity
Pounds/Hour 0.002 U.S. Gallons/Minute
Pounds of Water 0.12 U.S. Gallons of Water
Pounds of Water 0.10 Imperial Gallons of Water
PSI 2.306 Feet of Water
PSI 6.895 Kilopascals (kPa)
PSI 2.037 Inches of Mercury
PSI 0.068 Atmospheres
PSI 0.06895 Bar

Abbreviations
a/c Alternating Current
API American Petroleum Institute
ASH Air Supply Heater
BA Breathing Apparatus
BBL Barrel
BFW Boiler Feed Water
C Centigrade
CAF Compressed Asbestos Fibre
CCR Central Control Room
CPU Computer Processing Unit
CSC Car Seal Closed
CSO Car Seal Open
d/c Direct Current
DCS Distributed Control System
DP Differential Pressure
ESD Emergency Shut Down
ETP Effluent Treatment Plant
F Fahrenheit
FAR Field Auxiliary Room
FC Fail Close
FL Fail Lock
FO Fail Open
H2S Hydrogen Sulfide
HSE Health Safety and Environment
I/O Input /Output
IA Instrument Air Supply
IJ Insulation Joint
IMCS Integrated Motor Control System
IDS Instrument Data Sheet
ISO International Standards Institute
LC Locked Close
LEL Lower Explosive Limit
LO Locked Open

LNG Liquefied Natural Gas

MCC Motor Control Center
MOV Motor Operated Valve
MR Material Request
NC Normally Closed
NNF Normally No Flow
NRV Non Return Valve
NO Normally Open
OWD Oily Water Drain
P&ID Pipe and Instrument Diagram
PFS Process Flow Scheme
PP Production Platform
PPE Personal Protection Equipment
PSA Pressure Swing Adsorption
PSFS Process Safeguarding Flow Scheme
PSIA(G) Pounds Per Square Inch Absolute(Gauge)
PSV Pressure Safety Valve
PV Process Variable
RB Reduced Bore
RFSU Ready For Start Up
RO Restriction Orifice
RVP Reid Vapor Pressure
SC Sample Point/Connection
SDV Shut Down Valve
SER Sequence of Events Recorder
SG Specific Gravity
SGS Safeguarding System
SP Set Point / Special Plant
TLV Threshold Limit
TSO Tight Shut Off
UEL Upper Explosive Limit
u/s Unserviceable
UV Ultra-Violet
WHO World Health Organization

Basics Process PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Basics Process PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Definitions and Technical Terms Process/Production

Hydrocarbon Processing Fundamentals 8

Well Completion & Well-head Development 33

Separation & Treatment 36

Basic Instrumentation & Control Loops 41

Reading Drawings PFD's and P&ID's 51

Valves & Piping 61

Table of Contents "Continued"

Gas Turbine Engines 71

VTC 2nd Edition May 2007 1 of 115

Meter Bank and Prover 79

Compressors & Instrument Air Systems 80

Desalination and Potable Water 92

Steam Generation , Boilers,Furnaces 94

Inert Gas Nitrogen Plants 99

Electrical Fundamentals 100

General Information,Drawings 102

Safety Rules & Procedures

Safety: Protection, well being, security

Rules: Set of laws to be followed without any deviation

Procedures: An orderly way of doing things

Accident: Crash, Mishap, Mistake

Incident: Event, Happening

VTC 2nd Edition May 2007 2 of 115

PPE: Personal Protective Equipment

Safety Equipment: Fire Extinguishers, Fire Blankets, Eye

Potential safety hazards: Likelihood of hazard to occur

Unsafe act: Action of person, which can cause accidents or

Unsafe condition: Situation in an area where there is a

ICC Cards: Isolation completion certificate used to avoid

Danger Notice Cards: Used on Electrical Equipment to

H2S gas or killer gas

Properties of H2S: colorless, rotten egg smell at low

TLV: Threshold Limit Value: H2S is below 10 PPM, at this

VTC 2nd Edition May 2007 3 of 115

The limits refer to the maximum exposure concentration

Effects of H2S at various concentrations:

Identifying hazardous concentration of H2S: Yellow

Safety in H2S Areas: B.A. sets / Escape Respirators and

Fire: is a chemical reaction, which produces Heat, Light and

Fire Triangle: Fuel, Heat, and Oxygen

VTC 2nd Edition May 2007 4 of 115

Types of Fire Extinguishers: Fire extinguishers using

Ignition temperature: The minimum temperature at which

Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which sufficient

VTC 2nd Edition May 2007 5 of 115

UEL- Upper Explosive Limit: The concentration of gas/air

LSA: Low Specific Activity

NORM: Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material

Hazardous Areas: Areas in which explosive gas- air mixture

Classification of Hazardous Areas: Zone –0, Zone-1 and

Zone 0: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is

Zone 1: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is

Zone 2: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is

VTC 2nd Edition May 2007 6 of 115

Non Hazardous Areas: An area where an explosive

Purpose of area classification: for Selection of

Emergency Alert system: Severity of an emergency

Blue Alert: A relatively minor emergency like minor leak of

Yellow Alert: An emergency that has potential to escalate

Red Alert: A serious emergency situation which leads to

VTC 2nd Edition May 2007 7 of 115

Hydrocarbon Processing Fundamentals