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0 INTRODUCTION
1.2.1 Classical Theory for the Permeability of Porous Cakes and Beds
1.2.2 The Rate of Filtration through a Compressible Cake – The
Standard Filtration Equation
1.2.3 The Compression or Consolidation of Filter Cakes – Ultimate
degree of dewatering
1.2.4 The Rate of Consolidation
1.2.5 Useful Semi-Empirical Relations for Constant Pressure and
Constant Rate Cake Filtration
1.2.6 Constant Pressure Filtration
1.2.7 Constant Rate Filtration
1.2.8 Multiphase Theory of Filtration
2.1 Scale
2.2 Solids Recovery, Liquids Clarification or Feed stream
Concentration
2.3 Rate of Sedimentation
2.4 Rate of Cake Formation and Drainage
2.5 Batch vs Continuous Operation
2.6 Solids Loading
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4.1 Washing
4.1.1 Air-Blowing
4.1.2 Drying
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REFERENCES
TABLES
FIGURES
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Perhaps the most important of these involves the use of a porous medium
to effect the operation. The nature of the former may be tailored and
designed to best suit the requirements of both phases of the suspension
and the sort of dewatering action required. In contrast, all techniques
based on gravity separation are completely dependent upon the density
difference, ∆ρ, between solid and liquid phases. Since ∆ρ must be
regarded for many systems as an invariant, (It may be slightly perturbed
by a change in operating temperature), a small value for the quantity
almost Invariably means that gravity separation will prove difficult. This Is
often the case for biological particles (see Section 3.8). For such cases
filtration is then often to be preferred.
The penalty that has to be paid for this versatility of filtration process
design is usually greater expense and additional complexity when
continuous or automated operation is desired. It must be stressed that the
above statements are based on broad, generalized principles. For both
filtration and gravity separation, the ingenuity of solid/liquid separation
equipment designers has led to means of at least partly circumventing
many of the disadvantages associated with each [8].
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The purpose of this part is to provide the necessary theory on which the
rest of the section is based. It is intended that each of the following topics
should be self-contained and can therefore be read in isolation. The theory
pertaining to washing and dewatering by air-blowing is postponed until
Section 3.5.4.
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where V is the volume of filtrate at time t, Qo. the Initial flow rate
and k an empirical constant.
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Since the subject of deep bed filtrations falls outside the intended scope of
this guide, no further discussion of this mechanism or topic will be
presented. More Information may be found in the guide on clarification or
In the books by Svarovsky (Chapter 11 of [1] and Purchas (Chapters 3
and 6 of [12]. In addition, the role of the particle zero-potential has recently
been considered by Raistrick amongst others (J H Raistrick in [94]).
The equations (l)-(4) were developed to allow volume, flow rate and time
correlations to be tested for each mechanism under conditions of constant
pressure filtration. A simpler diagnostic means of distinguishing and
interpreting them was provided by the dependence of the rate of change
of total filtration resistance, r, (i.e. medium plus accumulated solids) with
filtration volume, dr/dV, with r. The three mechanisms described so far
were attributed the following dependence:
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Where,
Before presenting some of the basic theory for cake filtration it is important
to delineate the factors which relate to the fundamentals of dewatering
presented In Section 3.2. In general for a given cake filtration system one
might want to ask the following two questions:
(ii) What are the kinetics of the filtration process, ie do they allow the
process to operate near to or at the ultimate limit as in (1) above.
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Some insight into the nature of the constant, K1, is gained by assuming a
result from the Poiseuille [16] Equation for the flow of a liquid through a
capillary tube of radius, r, and length, L:
where the Influence of the fluid viscosity, Q, has been explicitly Included.
K2 hasdimensions of (length) 2.
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In this equation the bed properties SA and Ɛ represent the specific surface
area (m-1) and the fractional voidage, ie 1 - ɸ, where ɸ is the
dimensionless volume fraction of particles In the bed or filter cake.
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Rc, the cake resistance (units of m-l) may In turn be related to, w, the
weight of solids per unit volume of filtrate (kg rnm3) and a quantity, r, the
specific resistance of the cake (le resistance/weight of solids per unit area
or m kg-1):
As pointed out in (i) for many real systems it is necessary to take account
of the finite compressibility of the filter cake under an applied pressure. A
simple empirical correction to resistance has been very widely used
(1,12).
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Equation (15) may be Integrated to yield the total filtration volume after a
specified time provided that the functional dependence of the flow rate or
the pressure drop with time is known. It is, however, once again very
important to note the simplifications and approximations that are Inherent
In this equation.
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when this condition Is reached the internal stresses of the cohesive cake
are large enough in magnitude to fully resist the applied pressure ΔP.
Thus predicting the ultimte dewaterability simply requires a knowledge of
the function Py($) and this may be measured by a simple laboratory scale
determination. Examples of this procedure are given later and in Section
3.2.6 of the manual.
The Consolidation Model of Buscall and White, based on the Yield Stress
(Py) concept applied to sedimentation, has already been discussed in
some detail in Sections 3.2 and 3.3. This model automatically incorporates
the ultimate dewatering limit of Equation (16) for consolidation. This
follows from the choice of constitutive equation relating the time evolution
of the concentration of solids in the cake (the substantive derivative) in
terms of the yield stress parameter:
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(1) As for sedimentation the equation (17) encompasses the notion that
the driving force for solid/liquid separation is attenuated by the elastic
stress in the cake as described by Py(ɸ).
(2) Thus at low driving pressures (ΔP), Py(ɸ)) the rate of cake
consolidation may be enhanced by manipulation of those factors (Sections
3.2.6 and 3.3) that reduce Py(ɸ). Strategies for suspension conditioning
may utilize this type of reasoning and are considered later in Sections
3.5.3 and 3.5.4.
(3) In contrast at relatively higher driving pressures (ΔP >> Py(ɸ)), the
main factors controlling consolidation will involve properties of the primary
particles such as drag coefficients, together with dynamic drag coefficients
for the network (λ(ɸ) in Equation (17)). The pore structure and cake
permeability will therefore be relevant and hence In this case the
controlling factors are similar to those affecting the specific cake
resistance as discussed earlier (3.5.2(b)).
Until such a time as a full analysis of filtration in terms of the yield stress
concept has proved possible, the kinetics of consolidation of filter cakes
will remain a largely experimental science with understanding being at
best qualitative. Possible experimental approaches to the problem are
given In Section 3.5.6 and examples discussed in Section 3.5.7.
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As a starting point, the general cake filtration equation, (15), is rearranged in the
following form:
Integration of this simple form of the equation allows the relationships between
filtrate volume, time and Instantaneous filtration rate to be deduced. The results
are:
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Once the specific and medium resistances are known, from laboratory (or
plant) measurements of V-l versus V, the relations (19)-(22), and those
that follow for constant rate filtrations, may be applied In a predictive
fashion. It is, however, Important to recall the predictions and restrictions
that apply to equation (18) and were discussed in Section 3.5.2(b) (II). The
two most important caveats in this context involve the scaling up of the
quantities r o and Rm. The medium resistance Rm may be an important
parameter and may not hold the same value at plant-scale as measured in
the laboratory. Likewise, r o depends critically upon the mode of cake
formation and so also may vary with scale, Initial filtration rate.
For a constant rate filtration, the pressure drop will increase as the cake
builds up. In practical situations there will be a limit to the magnitude of ΔP
that can be applied or tolerated. Hence it is necessary to know the
cumulative volume, V*, and time, t*, associated with a given limiting
pressure drop, ΔP*. The volume- time relationship is trivial: cumulative
volume is given by the product of the time and constant rate.
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The theory and equations that have been presented in outline here, have
long been accepted as a reliable though somewhat empirical description
of the cake filtration process. However, more recently (- 1975 onwards),
various workers have re-examined this so-called "two resistance*
approach (ie r and ), and contrasted its basis with an alternative
description, the "multiphase filtration theory" [22,23].
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(2) Time and other dependence for average porosity and cake
resistance.
and now deviation from a linear relationship between V-l and V for
constant Po, are attributed to changes in the permeability and pressure
gradient developed In the septum and its Interface with the filter cake.
Willis et al have demonstrated that this theory is plausible by showing that
a given cake (formed by the filtration of a Lucite slurry> can be made to
undergo a transition from apparent “incompressible” to “compressible”
filtration merely by changing the nature of the septum.
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It must be stressed that equations such as (25) and (26) are by no means
applicable to all crossflow situations.
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2.1 Scale
The scale of the operation is not normally too stringent a constraint since
most devices are available in a range of sizes to handle a variety of
capacities. In ‘general, however, very small scale separations will not
usually command the most expensive filtration plant If thermal drying can
follow the mechanical dewatering stage. For high value feedstreams (e.g.
pharmaceuticals etc) other factors may override this option, however.
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The rate at which the height of a filter cake rises can easily be assessed
using simple laboratory filtration tests (see next section). It will depend on
both the solids loading and the porosity and structure of the cake itself.
This property has obvious repercussions on the geometry and necessary
dimensions of suitable filtration equipment.
As already explained, this factor will affect (Ill), (iv) and (v) above. In
addition it will strongly Influence the flow properties and hence the rate at
which the suspension can be presented to the filter If this proves to be
limiting.
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The above factors relate to the actual filters. In addition, there are more
subtle factors, some of them less well understood, that pertain to
suspension properties. Of these the most important is the cake
compressibility. For a perfectly incompressible cake (s = 0) and a constant
pressure filtration, equation (20) indicates that the filtration time for a given
slurry volume is inversely proportional to the driving pressure. Thus
potentially large gains in rate may be expected by the use of positive
pressure drops greater than a bar compared with the vacuum
configurations. For compressible cakes (s > 0) the same equation predicts
that the advantage to be gained may be considerably attenuated by the
pressure dependence of the cake resistance. An assessment of cake
compressibility, for example by using the methods described later, Is
therefore highly desirable if the efficiency of increasing the trans-septum
pressure drop is to be predicted.
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Using the term "filtration aid" in its broadest sense there are three general
classes of aid. The first class contains those pretreatment chemicals
which are added to modify the state of flocculation or coagulation of the
suspension prior to filtration [50,51].
(iv) To modify the wetting behavior of the medium on the suspended phase.
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The other two classes of filter aids are the so-called *pre-coat" and "body
aid" additives (1, 12). The purpose of the former is obvious and serves to
provide an enhanced filter medium surface on which a cake may be laid
down. It is usually formed by re-circulating a pre-coat slurry through the
filter (typically a rotary vacuum device or similar) prior to the application of
the suspension of Interest. A Body Feed on the other hand is completely
mixed with the suspension requiring filtration before it reaches the filter
device. It serves to Increase the porosity of the developing filter cake (i.e.
Factor (i) above > and hence to lengthen the filter cycle time. An indication
of the efficiency of either pre-coat or body-feed filtration aids may be
gained by incorporating these additives in a small scale laboratory
filtration trial such as those described in Section 3.5.6, In the main the
function of the former may be assessed by its effect on the measured
septum resistance, The body-feed aid on the other hand should have the
effect of reducing the specific resistance of the filter cake.
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(i) Shear Treatment - often employed to reduce the apparent viscosity of the
suspension [46-48].
(iii) Suspension Ageing - like (i), (iv), (v), this technique is aimed at improving
filtration performance via a modification of the flocculated structure of the
suspension, e.g. in the manufacture of catalyst supports.
(v) Acoustic Methods - generally used for biological systems (see Section 3.8)
[55].
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4.1.1 “Air-Blowing”
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It is not our intention to treat the subject of drying in any detail here.
However, a short discussion is included for completeness to highlight the
importance of considering the interaction between the filtration operation
and further downstream processes. It is hoped that a future release of the
Suspension Processing Manual will contain a more detailed chapter
(Chapter 10) based on those aspects of drying that will be alluded to In the
present context.
A general guiding principle that is invoked for most large scale dewatering
trains is to remove as much water as possible by mechanical means (i.e.
the filtration process here). This then minimizes the expenses of the
energy-intensive downstream drying operation. However, it is normally the
case that physical constraints imposed by the mechanical dewatering step
will intervene before the hypothetical economic optimum is reached (see
Section 3.10 - “Process Synthesis”).
In order to best utilize the principles and theory that have thus far been
presented, it is necessary to know as much as possible about the
"colloidal" properties of the suspension requiring filtration. Both the
properties of the pre-filtration suspension and those of any filter cake that
is formed are of importance. All or any of the following are likely to be
relevant:
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(v) The ease with which flocculated structure, and in particular the
above size distribution, may be modified by mechanical treatments
or inert/chemical additives. Such modifications will, of course, also
influence the other suspension properties above.
(i) The mechanical strength of the cake and hence its resistance
towards consolidation and the variation of this property with degree
of consolidation (Section 3.7, References [50-52]).
(i) Identification of the most appropriate plant and scale for the
filtration unit operation or suggestion of a better, alternative
dewatering means other than filtration (see Section 3.10).
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For the general case of the suspension processing of fine solids the most
common application of filtration involves cake formation and treatment. It
is therefore appropriate to consider the parameters and means by which
the properties of the filter cake may be characterized. The three principal
properties that define the behavior of the cake are its strength, its
permeability or, conversely, resistance, and the rate at which it is laid
down. Methods for determining these will now be given.
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This then assumes a long enough contact time such that kinetics will not
prove limiting. That Is It represents the equality Ps = Py(Ø), the ultimate or
structural limit. For the centrifuge technique Py(Ø) may, in principle, be
calculated from a single experiment. Using the shearometer cell a series
of determinations at different slurry concentrations must be made. In both
cases equation (29) is solved either by graphical or numerical integration.
An example of the calculation is provided in the next section. Finally it may
be noted for completeness that K may also be measured directly In a
compression cell (84) but, for practical purposes, one of the two methods
described above is usually more straightforward and of sufficient
accuracy. For further clarification of the definition, interpretation and
measurement of G(Ø), K(Ø) and Py(Ø) the reader is referred to Section
3.2.
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In this final part of the filtration section of the dewatering chapter, some
exemplification of the foregoing principles and theory is appropriate. To
this end, three different examples of processes involving an important
filtration operation will be presented. These have been selected to provide
an indication of the variety of suspensions that may be encountered and
the concomitant considerations and difficulties that apply to each.
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The material for this example has been taken from a recent report, IC
01713 C853, by Asher and Stewart - "Prediction of CaC03 Dewatering and
Other Processing Characteristics from “Suspension Property
Measurements". The main body of the report involves a comparison of
theoretically-predicted and experimentally-observed moisture contents in
pressure-dewatered CaC03 magmas. The shear and uniaxial
compressional moduli, G and K, were measured by Shearometry and
centrifugation respectively as described in Sections 3.2 and 3.5.6. Results
for three typical samples are reproduced in Figure 6. It is interesting to
correlate the different behavior of these samples with their colloidal
properties. Curve (a) shows the greatest resistance to densification which
is in good accord with the behavior expected of a suspension of very small
particles. For curves (b) and (c) the form of the network modulus, K(Ø), is
more similar. The slightly larger slope for curve (b) may be rationalized in
terms of a stronger flocculated structure resulting from the MPBD (3%
maleinized polybutadiene) coating.
From the data of Figure 6, Asher and Stewart obtained the form of the
pressure dewatering curve, Figure 7. This was achieved by the simple
numerical integration, described in Section 3.2 and I251 using equation
(29) which Is reproduced below:
In order to test the predictions arising from the figure, Asher and Stewart
made laboratory measurements of the moisture content remaining in the
samples at various pressures, using a laboratory piston press. The results,
expressed in terms of moisture content rather than solids concentration,
and calculated by the conventional theory (1), are shown in Figure 8. It
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The predicted residual moisture was then derived using the mean of the
two calculations (Equation 3 of Figure 8). The agreement with experiment
was then found to be excellent and this is also illustrated in Figure 8. A
subsequent computer simulation study of the problem demonstrated, the
validity of the approach of taking the mean value of the modulus from Its
upper and lower bounds. This procedure may be compared with the
mathematically more rigorous approaches of Buscall and White (Section
3.2).
Two other aspects of the CaCO3 work are relevant to this discussion of
suspension filtration. The first involved a calculation of the pressure at
which a significant dewatering would occur due to "air blowing". By
combining the Bartell I861 equation for capillary pressure in a porous plug
of powder with a relationship for the effective pore size, the following
relationship was utilized [87] after the paper of White:
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The final feature of Interest concerns the rate at which the CaCO3 slurries
were observed to filter. Asher and Stewart adopted an approach to
filtration rate predictions akin to equations (18) and (20) of Section
3.5.2(b). In particular they looked at the variation in rate with applied
pressure drop, ΔP. Increasing ΔP has two main effects on the rate. Firstly
it tends to increase it for obvious rheological reasons, le because of the
Poiseuille-like flow rate,
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Thus a control of the precipitation stage can greatly enhance both the
filtration time and also the degree of dewatering obtained. Part of the
influence of the physical form on the filtration rate may be attributed to the
greatly improved rheological characteristics of slurries of the aggregated
material relative to the other possibilities. Figure 10 is a reproduction of a
plot of viscosity as a function of shear rate for all three cases. It can be
seen that the apparent viscosity of the aggregate form is an order of
magnitude lower than the crystalline form.
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(1) A crystal shape that allows rapid filtration yet yields a cake that Is
sufficiently well packed so as not to occupy too much volume for a given
amount of feed. Clearly these requirements are to some extent opposing
and a compromise in porosity and cake structure must be met.
(II) The cake structure should enable facile washing of the product (see
Section 3.5.5(a)).
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Once again a favorable crystal form, rhombic shaped crystals (~ 100 x 250
µm), was identified as that which yielded the most satisfactory filtrations,
though the latter performance was sometimes masked by the presence of
“fines”. The cake formed from the rhombic crystals was found to be
significantly compressible. Hence it was concluded that a Vacuum filter
would be a more appropriate choice of dewatering strategy than the 40 psi
Filter Press then currently employed.
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In contrast the slope and position of the modulus curve for the heat treated
material (RNA-) is quite different. Since most of the hyphae have
undergone only very small changes in their physical dimensions, It is
deduced that the change In colloidal properties is due to a reduction of
cell-internal pressure or turgor. The network of hyphae is now in effect
much more compressible and this factor Is of key Importance in relation to
the use of a second filtration step in the process to generate the
dewatered cake [93].
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