Color Maps and Figures: Appendix A

Appendix A
Color Maps and Figures
Figure 9.2. Estimated Total Inorganic Nitrogen Deposition, Wet and Dry, in 1860, Early 1990s, and Projected for 2050 (milligrams of
nitrogen per square meter per year) (Galloway et al. 2004)
585
................. 11430$ APPA 10-21-05 14:02:06 PS PAGE 585

586 Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Policy Responses
Figure 13.1. The Global Climate Models for the Twenty-first Century. The global climate in this century will depend on natural changes
and the response of the climate system to human activities. Climate models project the response of many variables—such as increases in
global surface temperature and sea level—to various scenarios of greenhouse gases and other human-related emissions. Graph A shows
the carbon dioxide emissions of the six illustrative SRES scenarios; B shows the projected carbon dioxide concentrations; C shows anthropo-
genic sulfur dioxide emissions. Emissions of other greenhouse gases and aerosols were included in the model but are not shown in the
figures. D and E show the temperature and sea level responses, respectively.
................. 11430$ APPA 10-21-05 14:05:35 PS PAGE 586

Color Maps and Figures 587
Figure 13.2. Reasons for Concern about Projected Climate Change Impacts. The risks of adverse impacts from climate change increase
with the magnitude of climate change. The left part of the figure displays the observed temperature increase relative to 1990 and the range
of projected temperature increase after 1990 as estimated by Working Group I of the IPCC for scenarios from the Special Report on Emissions
Scenarios. The middle panel displays conceptualizations of five reasons for concern regarding climate change risks evolving through 2100.
White indicates neutral or small negative or positive impacts or risks, yellow indicates negative impacts for some systems or low risks, and
red means negative impacts or risks that are more widespread and/or greater in magnitude. The assessment of impacts or risks takes into
account only the magnitude of change and not the rate of change. Global mean annual temperature change is used in the figure as a proxy
for the magnitude of climate change, but projected impacts will be the function of, among other factors, the magnitude and rate of global and
regional changes in mean climate, climate variability and extreme climate phenomena, social land economic conditions, and adaptations. The
right panel shows estimates of global mean temperature change by 2100 relative to 1990 for scenarios that would lead to stabilization of the
atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, as well as the full set of SRES projections, which are shown in the left panel. As shown in Table
13.1, the equilibrium changes in temperature associated with each of these stabilization levels is significantly higher than the projected
increase by 2100, for example, stabilization at 750 ppm is projected to result in an increase of 2.8–7.0C, compared to an increase of 1.9–3.4C
by 2100. Reasons for Concern: A. Risks to Unique and Threatened Systems: Extinction of species, loss of unique habitats and coastal
wetlands, and bleaching and death of coral; B. Risks from Extreme Climate Events: Health, property, and environmental impacts from
increased frequency and intensity of some climate extremes; C. Distribution of Impacts: Cereal crop yield changes that vary from increases
to decreases across regions but that are estimated to decrease in most tropical and sub-tropical regions; decrease in water availability in
some water-stressed countries, increase in others; greater risks to health in developing countries than in industrial countries; net market
sector losses estimated for many developing countries; mixed effects estimated for industrial countries up to a few degrees warming and
negative effects for greater warming; D. Aggregate Impacts: Estimates of globally aggregated net market sector impacts are positive and
negative up to few degrees warming and negative for greater warming. More people adversely affected than beneficially affected even for
warming of less than a few degrees; E. Risks from Future Large-Scale Discontinuities: Significant slowing of thermohaline circulation possible
by 2100; melting and collapse of ice sheets adding substantially to sea level rise (very low probability before 2100; likelihood higher on multi-
century time scale).
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Color Maps and Figures 589
Figure 13.5. Projections of GDP Losses and Marginal Costs in Industrial Countries in 2010. The reductions in projected GDP are for
2010 relative to the models’ reference case GDP. These estimates are based on results from nine modeling teams that participated in the
Energy Modeling Forum study. The models examined two scenarios. In the first, each region makes the prescribed reduction with only
domestic trading in carbon emissions. In the second, Annex B trading (i.e., includes countries with economies in transition) is permitted, and
thereby marginal costs are equal across regions.
................. 11430$ APPA 10-21-05 14:05:42 PS PAGE 589

Figure 13.6. Projected Costs of Stabilizing Carbon Dioxide Concentrations. The mitigation costs (1990 US dollars, present value dis-
counted at 5% per year for the period 1990–2100) of stabilizing carbon dioxide concentrations at 450 to 750 ppmv are calculated using three
global models, based on different model-dependent baselines. Avoided impacts of climate change are not included. In each instance, costs
were calculated based on two emissions pathways for achieving the prescribed target (S and WRE). The bars show cumulative carbon
emissions between the years 1990 and 2100. Cumulative future emissions until the carbon budget ceiling is reached are reported above the
bars in Gt C.
................. 11430$ APPA 10-21-05 14:05:43 PS PAGE 590

Appendix B
Authors
Australia Czech Republic

Joseph Baker, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Tomas Hak, Charles University
Colin Butler, Australia National University Bedrich Moldan, Charles University
Angela Cassar, Phillips Fox
Daniel P. Faith, Australian Museum Denmark
Matthew Kendall, Murray-Darling Basin Commission Frank Jensen, University of Southern Denmark
Mark Anthony Siebentritt, Murray-Darling Basin Commission Tipparat Pongthanapanich, University of Southern Denmark
Austria Ethiopia
Gunther Fischer, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Ernesto Gonzalez-Estrada, International Livestock Research Institute
Alexander Haslberger, University of Vienna Don Peden, International Livestock Research Institute
Mahendra Shah, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Thomas Randolph, International Livestock Research Institute
Ferenc Toth, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) D. Romney, International Livestock Research Institute
Harrij van Velthuizen, International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis France
David Wiberg, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Salvatore Arico, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
Bolivia
Peter Börkey, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
William Powers, Fundacion Amigos de la Naturaleza (FAN)
Development
Brazil Florent Engelmann, Centre for International Cooperation in
David Cleary, The Nature Conservancy Agronomic Research for Development
Fernando De Avila Pires, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina Jean-Marc Hougard, LIN-IRD
Luiz Martinelli, Universidade de São Paulo Lilian Saade, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Carla Morsello, Universidade de São Paulo Development
Marcia Muchagata, Consultora PCT MDA/FAO
Georgia
Canada Merab Machavariani, Georgia Forests Development Project
Lina Cimmarusti, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Debra Davidson, University of Alberta Germany
Hadi Dowlatabadi, University of British Columbia Pierre Ibisch, University of Applied Sciences Eberswalde
Anantha Kumar Duraiappah, International Institute for Sustainable Richard Klein, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research
Development Dagmar Lohan, United Nations University
Ted Gullison, Hardner Gullison and Associates Jens Mackensen, KfW Entwicklungsbank (German Development
Rebecca Hanson, University of Toronto Bank)
Monirul Qader Mirza, University of Toronto Maria Socorro Manguiat, IUCN—The World Conservation Union
Margot Parkes, University of British Columbia Arisbe Mendoza, University of Bonn
John Robinson, University of British Columbia Klaus Riede, University of Bonn
Colin Soskoln, University of Alberta
Myrle Traverse, IIFB Ghana
Chile Rose Enma Mamaa Entsua-Mensah, Council for Scientific and
Gilberto Gallopin, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Industrial Research
Caribbean
Benjamin Kiersch, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Greece
Nations Eftichios Sartzetakis, University of Macedonia
Sergio Pena-Neira, Universidad del Mar Anastasios Xepapadeas, University of Crete
China India
Ian Hunter, International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) Jayanta Bandyopadhyay, Indian Institute of Management
Kishan Khoday, United Nations Development Programme D.K.Bhattacharya, University of Delhi
Zhu Zhao-liang, Institute of Soil Science Abhik Ghosh, Panjab University
591
Pushpam Kumar, Institute of Economic Growth Nepal

Vinod Mathur, Wildlife Institute of India Motilal Ghimire, Tribhuvan University
K.S Murali, Indian Institute of Science
Jyoti Parikh, Integrated Research and Action for Development The Netherlands
(IRADe) Fabio de Castro, Pilot Program Tropical Forests
Anand Patwardhan, Indian Institute of Technology-Bombay Joyeeta Gupta, UNESCO—IHE Policy and Law in Water Resources
Asha Rajvanshi, Wildlife Institute of India and the Environment
Shekhar Singh, National Campaign for People’s Right to Information Marcel Marchand, WL/Delft Hydraulics
Madhu Verma, Indian Institute of Forest Management Rudy Rabbinge, Wageningen University
Henk Simons, RIVM
Indonesia Marja Spierenburg, Free University of Amsterdam
Brian Murray Belcher, Center for International Forestry Research
Bruce Campbell, Center for International Forestry Research New Zealand
Patricia Shanley, Center for International Forestry Research Simon Hales, Wellington School of Medicine and Health
Nigel Sizer, The Nature Conservancy Alistair Woodward, University of Auckland
Indah Susilowati, Diponegoro University (UNDIP)
Brent Swallow, World Agroforestry Centre Nigeria
Eva Wollenberg, Center for International Forestry Research Nimbe Adedipe, National Universities Commission
MKC Sridhar, Medical Statistics and Environmental Health College of
Italy Medicine
Jim Carle, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Mohammad Ehsan Dulloo, International Plant Genetic Resources Norway
Institute Indra de Soysa, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Jan Engels, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
Pablo Eyzaguirre, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute Philippines
Angela Guimaraes-Pereira, European Commission Ben Malayang, University of the Philippines Los Banos
Toby Hodgkin, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute Ida Siason, University of the Philippines in the Visayas
Devra Jarvis, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute Mercedita A. Sombilla, Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate
Wulf Killmann, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA)
Nations
Rabindra Roy, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Singapore
Nations Prisna Nuengsigkapian, International Institute for Sustainable
Development
Japan
W. Bradnee Chambers, United Nations University South Africa
Sofia Hirakuri, United Nations University Marjorie Pyoos, Science and Technology for Economic Impacts
Hiroji Isozaki, Meijigakuin University Belinda Reyers, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Alphonse Kambu, Ishikawa International Cooperation Research Mary Scholes, University of the Witwatersrand
Centre Sheona Shackleton, Rhodes University
Yumiko Kura Robyn Stein, Edward Nathan and Friedland
Gina Ziervogel, University of Cape Town
Kenya
Thierry de Oliveira, United Nations Environment Programme South Korea
Andrew Githeko, Kenya Medical Research Institute Euiso Choi, Korea University
John McDermott, International Livestock Research Institute
Robin Reid, International Livestock Research Institute Spain
Tom Tomich, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Diana Elizabeth Marco, Estacion Experimental del Zaidin—CSIC
Malaysia Sri Lanka

Helen Leitch, WorldFish Center Felix Amerasinghe, International Water Management Institute
V. Ramanatha Rao, International Plant Genetic Research Institute Karin Fernando, South Asian Co-operative Environment USAID
Blake Ratner, WorldFish Center
K.Kuperan Viswanathan, WorldFish Center Sweden
Ragnar Elmgren, University of Stockholm
Mexico Tage Klingberg, University of Gävle
David Barkin, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Elisabet Lindgren, Stockholm University
Eduardo Mestre Rodriguez, Red Latinoamericana de Organizaciones
de Cuenca Switzerland
Cecilia Tortajada, Third World Centre for Water Management Diarmid Campbell-Lendrum, World Health Organization
Carlos Corvalan, World Health Organization
Morocco Elaine Fletcher, World Health Organization
Abdelkader Allali, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and Wendy Goldstein, IUCN—The World Conservation Union
Fishing Pedro M. Rosabal Gonzales, IUCN—The World Conservation Union
Authors 593
Susan Mainka, IUCN—The World Conservation Union United States

Jeffrey McNeely, IUCN—The World Conservation Union Robin Abell, World Wildlife Fund
Thomas McShane, WWF International Heidi Albers, Oregon State University
Frederik Schutyser, IUCN—The World Conservation Union Bruce Aylward, Deschutes Resources Conservancy
Rie Tsutsumi, United Nations Development Programme Juan Carlos Belausteguigoitia, The World Bank
Eduardo Brondizio, Indiana University
Thailand
Carl Bruch, United Nations Environment Programme—RONA
Patrick Durst, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Mang Cheuk, University of Oklahoma
Nations
Carmen Cheung, Wesleyan University
Thomas Enters, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Christopher Delgado, International Food Policy Research Institute
Nations
Dennis Dykstra, USDA Forest Service
Trinidad and Tobago Kristie Ebi, Exponent Health Group
Marlene Attzs, University of the West Indies David Edmunds, University of California
Karen Polson, Caribbean Epidemiology Centre Paul Ferraro, Georgia State University
Dana Fisher, Columbia University
United Kingdom Jessica F. Green, United Nations University—Institute of Advanced
Neil Adger, University of East Anglia Studies
Tony Allan, King’s College Thomas P. Holmes, USDA Forest Service
Lousie Auckland, Ecosecurities Ltd Richard Howarth, Dartmouth College
Robert Barrington, F&C Asset Management Robert Howarth, Cornell University
Stephen Bass, International Institute for Environment and Robert Clay Kellison, Institute of Forest Biotechnology
Development
Sarah Laird
Carl Bauer, Resources for the Future
Nancy Lewis, East-West Center
Neil Maclean Bird, Overseas Development Institute
Jane Lubchenco, Oregon State University
Katrina Brown, University of East Anglia
Flavio Comim, University of Cambridge Laura Meadors, The Deschutes Resources Conservancy
Simon Counsell, The Rainforest Foundation UK Ruth Meinzen-Dick, International Food Policy Research Institute
Clive Davies, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Jerry Melillo, The Ecosystems Center
Tim Forsyth, London School of Economics and Political Science Suzanne Moellendorf, The Deschutes Resources Conservancy
Brian Groombridge, UNEP—World Conservation Monitoring Centre William Moomaw, Tufts University
John Hudson, Department for International Development Ian Noble, The World Bank
Saleemul Huq, International Institute for Environment and Jennifer Olson, Michigan State University
Development Carlton Owen, The Environmental Edge
Joy Hyvarinen, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Stefano Pagiola, The World Bank
Valerie Kapos, UNEP—World Conservation Monitoring Centre Cheryl Palm, The Earth Institute at Columbia University
Izabella Koziell, Department for International Development Steve Percy, CEO, BP America (formerly)
Julian Laird, Earthwatch Institute (Europe) William F. Perrin, Southwest Fisheries Science Center
Clay Landry, WestWater Research LLC Steve Polasky, University of Minnesota
James Mayers, International Institute for Environment and Robert Pontius Jr., Clark University
Development Francis Putz, University of Florida
David Molyneux, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine Kilaparti Ramakrishna, Woods Hole Research Center
Dominic Moran, Scottish Agricultural College Kent Redford, Wildlife Conservation Society
Adrian Phillips, Cardiff School of City and Regional Planning Carmen Revenga, The Nature Conservancy
Ina T. Porras, International Institute for Environment and
Claire Rhodes, Ecoagriculture Partners
Development
Jorge Rivera, George Washington University
Janet Riley, Rothamsted Research
Andrew Shea, Poseidon Resources Corporation
Elizabeth Robinson, University of Oxford
David Simpson, Environmental Protection Agency
Sergio Rosendo, University of East Anglia
Dale Rothman, The Macaulay Institute Neil Sampson, The Sampson Group, Inc.
Christopher Schofield, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Guido Schmidt-Traub, United Nations Development Programme
Medicine Andrea Siqueira, Indiana University
David Simpson, University College London Kenneth Strzepek, University of Colorado
Steven Sinkins, University of Oxford Sylvia Tognetti, Environmental Science and Policy
Kerry Ten Kate, Insight Investment Nikolay Voutchkov, Poseidon Resources Corporation
Sonja Vermeulen, International Institute for Environment and Diana Harrison Wall, Colorado State University
Development Robert Watson, The World Bank
Bhaskar Vira, University of Cambridge Gary Yohe, Wesleyan University
Appendix C
Abbreviations and Acronyms
AI aridity index CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research

AKRSP Aga Khan Rural Support Programme CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
AMF arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
CMS Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species
ASB alternatives to slash-and-burn
of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention)
ASOMPH Asian Symposium on Medicinal Plants, Spices and
Other Natural Products CONICET Consejo de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas y Técnicas
(Argentina)
AVHRR advanced very high resolution radiometer
COP Conference of the Parties (of treaties)
BCA benefit-cost analysis
CPF Collaborative Partnership on Forests
BGP Biogeochemical Province
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (South
BII Biodiversity Intactness Index Africa)
BMI body mass index CV contingent valuation
BNF biological nitrogen fixation
CVM contingent valuation method
BOOT build-own-operate-transfer
DAF decision analytical framework
BRT Bus Rapid Transit (Brazil)
DALY disability-adjusted life year
BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy
DDT dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane
Bt Bacillus thuringiensis
DES dietary energy supply
C&I criteria and indicators
DHF dengue hemorrhagic fever
CAFO concentrated animal feeding operations
DHS demographic and health surveys
CAP Common Agricultural Policy (of the European Union)
DMS dimethyl sulfide
CAREC Central Asia Regional Environment Centre
DPSEEA driving forces-pressure-state-exposure-effect-action
CBA cost-benefit analysis
DPSIR driver-pressure-state-impact-response
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBO community-based organization DSF dust storm frequency
CCAMLR Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine DU Dobson Units

Living Resources EEA European Environment Agency
CCN cloud condensation nuclei
EEZ exclusive economic zone
CCS CO2 capture and storage
EGS ecosystem global scenario
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
EHI environmental health indicator
CEA cost-effectiveness analysis
EIA environmental impact assessment
CENICAFE Centro Nacional de Investigaciones de Café (Colombia)
EID emerging infectious disease
CFCs chlorofluorocarbons
EKC Environmental Kuznets Curve
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research EMF ectomycorrhizal fungi
595
E/MSY extinctions per million species per year HWB human well-being
ENSO El Niño/Southern Oscillation IAA integrated agriculture-aquaculture
EPA Environmental Protection Agency (United States) IAM integrated assessment model
EPI environmental policy integration IBI Index of Biotic Integrity
EU European Union ICBG International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups
EU ETS European Union Emissions Trading System ICDP integrated conservation and development project
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (United Nations) ICJ International Court of Justice
ICRAF International Center for Research in Agroforestry
FAPRI Food and Agriculture Policy Research Institute
ICRW International Convention for the Regulation of
FLEGT Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade
Whaling
FRA Forest Resources Assessment
ICSU International Council for Science
FSC Forest Stewardship Council ICZM integrated coastal zone management
GATS General Agreement on Trade and Services IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada)
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade IEA International Energy Agency
GCM general circulation model IEG international environmental governance
GDI Gender-related Development Index IEK indigenous ecological knowledge
GDP gross domestic product IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
GEF Global Environment Facility IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere Program
GEO Global Environment Outlook IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
GHG greenhouse gases IK indigenous knowledge
GIS geographic information system ILO International Labour Organization
GIWA Global International Waters Assessment IMF International Monetary Fund
GLASOD Global Assessment of Soil Degradation IMPACT International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural
Commodities and Trade
GLC Global Land Cover
IMR infant mortality rate
GLOF Glacier Lake Outburst Flood
INESI International Network of Sustainability Initiatives
GM genetic modification (hypothetical, in Scenarios)
GMO genetically modified organism INTA Instituto Nacional de Tecnologı́a Agropecuaria

(Argentina)
GNI gross national income
IPAT impact of population, affluence, technology
GNP gross national product
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
GPS Global Positioning System
IPM integrated pest management
GRoWI Global Review of Wetland Resources and Priorities for
IPR intellectual property rights
Wetland Inventory
IRBM integrated river basin management
GSG Global Scenarios Group
ISEH International Society for Ecosystem Health
GSPC Global Strategy for Plant Conservation
ISO International Organization for Standardization
GtC-eq gigatons of carbon equivalent
ITPGR International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for
GWP global warming potential Food and Agriculture
HDI Human Development Index ITQs individual transferable quotas
HIA health impact assessment ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization
HIPC heavily indebted poor countries IUCN World Conservation Union
HPI Human Poverty Index IUU illegal, unregulated, and unreported (fishing)
HPS hantavirus pulmonary syndrome IVM integrated vector management
Abbreviations and Acronyms 597
IWMI International Water Management Institute NFP national forest programs
IWRM integrated water resources management NGO nongovernmental organization
JDSD Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development NIH National Institutes of Health (United States)
JI joint implementation NMHC non-methane hydrocarbons
JMP Joint Monitoring Program NOAA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric

Administration (United States)
LAC Latin America and the Caribbean
NPP net primary productivity
LAI leaf area index
NSSD national strategies for sustainable development
LARD livelihood approaches to rural development NUE nitrogen use efficiency
LDC least developed country NWFP non-wood forest product
LEK local ecological knowledge ODA official development assistance
LME large marine ecosystems OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development
LPI Living Planet Index
OSB oriented strand board
LSMS Living Standards Measurement Study
OWL other wooded land
LULUCF land use, land use change, and forestry
PA protected area
MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
MAI mean annual increments
PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls
MBI market-based instruments
PEM protein energy malnutrition
MCA multicriteria analysis
PES payment for environmental (or ecosystem) services
MDG Millennium Development Goal PFT plant functional type
MEA multilateral environmental agreement PNG Papua New Guinea
MENA Middle East and North Africa POPs persistent organic pollutants
MER market exchange rate PPA participatory poverty assessment
MHC major histocompatibility complex ppb parts per billion
MICS multiple indicator cluster surveys PPI potential Pareto improvement
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology ppm parts per million
MPA marine protected area ppmv parts per million by volume
MSVPA multispecies virtual population analysis PPP purchasing power parity; also public-private partnership
ppt parts per thousand
NAP National Action Program (of desertification convention)
PQLI Physical Quality of Life Index
NBP net biome productivity
PRA participatory rural appraisal
NCD noncommunicable disease
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
NCS National Conservation Strategy
PSE producer support estimate
NCSD national council for sustainable development
PVA population viability analysis
NDVI normalized difference vegetation index
RANWA Research and Action in Natural Wealth Administration
NE effective size of a population
RBO river basin organization
NEAP national environmental action plan RIDES Recursos e Investigación para el Desarrollo Sustentable
NEP new ecological paradigm; also net ecosystem (Chile)
productivity RIL reduced impact logging
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development RLI Red List Index
NFAP National Forestry Action Plan RO reverse osmosis
RRA rapid rural appraisal TSU Technical Support Unit
RUE rain use efficiency TW terawatt
SADC Southern African Development Community UMD University of Maryland
SADCC Southern African Development Coordination UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
Conference
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and
SAfMA Southern African Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Development
SAP structural adjustment program UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
SAR species-area relationship UNDP United Nations Development Programme
SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
SBSTTA Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
Technological Advice (of CBD)
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
SEA strategic environmental assessment Organization
SEME simple empirical models for eutrophication UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change
SES social-ecological system
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
SFM sustainable forest management
UNRO United Nations Regional Organization (hypothetical
SIDS small island developing states body, in Scenarios)
SMS safe minimum standard UNSO UNDP’s Office to Combat Desertification and Drought
SOM soil organic matter USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
SRES Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (of the IPCC) USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
SSC Species Survival Commission (of IUCN) VOC volatile organic compound
SWAP sector-wide approach VW virtual water
TAC total allowable catch WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development
TBT tributyltin WCD World Commission on Dams
TC travel cost WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
TCM travel cost method WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre (of UNEP)
TDR tradable development rights WFP World Food Programme
TDS total dissolved solids WHO World Health Organization
TEIA transboundary environmental impact assessment WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
TEK traditional ecological knowledge WISP weighted index of social progress
TEM terrestrial ecosystem model WMO World Meteorological Organization
TESEO Treaty Enforcement Services Using Earth Observation WPI Water Poverty Index
TEV total economic value WRF white rot fungi
TFAP Tropical Forests Action Plan WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
TFP total factor productivity wta withdrawals-to-availability ratio (of water)
TFR total fertility rate WTA willingness to accept compensation
Tg teragram (10 grams)
12
WTO World Trade Organization
TK traditional knowledge WTP willingness to pay
TMDL total maximum daily load WWAP World Water Assessment Programme
TOF trees outside of forests WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
TRIPS Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights WWV World Water Vision
Appendix D
Glossary
Abatement cost: See Marginal abatement cost. they may have very different species composition. For example, all
Abundance: The total number of individuals of a taxon or taxa in an forests share certain properties regarding nutrient cycling, distur-
area, population, or community. Relative abundance refers to the bance, and biomass that are different from the properties of grass-
total number of individuals of one taxon compared with the total lands. Marine biomes are typically based on biogeochemical
number of individuals of all other taxa in an area, volume, or com- properties. The WWF biome classification is used in the MA.
munity. Bioprospecting: The exploration of biodiversity for genetic and bio-
Active adaptive management: See Adaptive management. chemical resources of social or commercial value.
Adaptation: Adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or Biotechnology: Any technological application that uses biological sys-
changing environment. Various types of adaptation can be distin- tems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof to make or modify
guished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation, private and products or processes for specific use.
public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation. Biotic homogenization: Process by which the differences between
Adaptive capacity: The general ability of institutions, systems, and biotic communities in different areas are on average reduced.
individuals to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of op- Blueprint approaches: Approaches that are designed to be applicable
portunities, or to cope with the consequences. in a wider set of circumstances and that are not context-specific or
Adaptive management: A systematic process for continually improv- sensitive to local conditions.
ing management policies and practices by learning from the out- Boundary organizations: Public or private organizations that synthe-
comes of previously employed policies and practices. In active size and translate scientific research and explore its policy implica-
adaptive management, management is treated as a deliberate experi- tions to help bridge the gap between science and decision-making.
ment for purposes of learning. Bridging organizations: Organizations that facilitate, and offer an
Afforestation: Planting of forests on land that has historically not con- arena for, stakeholder collaboration, trust-building, and conflict res-
tained forests. (Compare Reforestation.) olution.
Agrobiodiversity: The diversity of plants, insects, and soil biota found Capability: The combinations of doings and beings from which people
in cultivated systems. can choose to lead the kind of life they value. Basic capability is the
Agroforestry systems: Mixed systems of crops and trees providing capability to meet a basic need.
wood, non-wood forest products, food, fuel, fodder, and shelter. Capacity building: A process of strengthening or developing human
Albedo: A measure of the degree to which a surface or object reflects resources, institutions, organizations, or networks. Also referred to
solar radiation. as capacity development or capacity enhancement.
Alien species: Species introduced outside its normal distribution. Capital value (of an ecosystem): The present value of the stream of
Alien invasive species: See Invasive alien species. ecosystem services that an ecosystem will generate under a particular
Aquaculture: Breeding and rearing of fish, shellfish, or plants in ponds, management or institutional regime.
enclosures, or other forms of confinement in fresh or marine waters Capture fisheries: See Fishery.
for the direct harvest of the product. Carbon sequestration: The process of increasing the carbon content
Benefits transfer approach: Economic valuation approach in which of a reservoir other than the atmosphere.
estimates obtained (by whatever method) in one context are used to Cascading interaction: See Trophic cascade.
estimate values in a different context. Catch: The number or weight of all fish caught by fishing operations,
Binding constraints: Political, social, economic, institutional, or eco- whether the fish are landed or not.
logical factors that rule out a particular response. Coastal system: Systems containing terrestrial areas dominated by
Biodiversity (a contraction of biological diversity): The variability ocean influences of tides and marine aerosols, plus nearshore marine
among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, ma- areas. The inland extent of coastal ecosystems is the line where land-
rine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of based influences dominate, up to a maximum of 100 kilometers
which they are part. Biodiversity includes diversity within species, from the coastline or 100-meter elevation (whichever is closer to
between species, and between ecosystems. the sea), and the outward extent is the 50-meter-depth contour. See
Biodiversity regulation: The regulation of ecosystem processes and also System.
services by the different components of biodiversity. Collaborative (or joint) forest management: Community-based
Biogeographic realm: A large spatial region, within which ecosys- management of forests, where resource tenure by local communities
tems share a broadly similar biota. Eight terrestrial biogeographic is secured.
realms are typically recognized, corresponding roughly to continents Common pool resource: A valued natural or human-made resource
(e.g., Afrotropical realm). or facility in which one person’s use subtracts from another’s use and
Biological diversity: See Biodiversity. where it is often necessary but difficult to exclude potential users
Biomass: The mass of tissues in living organisms in a population, eco- from the resource. (Compare Common property resource.)
system, or spatial unit. Common property management system: The institutions (i.e., sets
Biome: The largest unit of ecological classification that is convenient of rules) that define and regulate the use rights for common pool
to recognize below the entire globe. Terrestrial biomes are typically resources. Not the same as an open access system.
based on dominant vegetation structure (e.g., forest, grassland). Eco- Common property resource: A good or service shared by a well-
systems within a biome function in a broadly similar way, although defined community. (Compare Common pool resource.)
599
Community (ecological): An assemblage of species occurring in the Desertification: land degradation in drylands resulting from various
same space or time, often linked by biotic interactions such as com- factors, including climatic variations and human activities.
petition or predation. Determinants of well-being: Inputs into the production of well-
Community (human, local): A collection of human beings who being, such as food, clothing, potable water, and access to knowl-
have something in common. A local community is a fairly small edge and information.
group of people who share a common place of residence and a set Direct use value (of ecosystems): The benefits derived from the ser-
of institutions based on this fact, but the word ‘community’ is also vices provided by an ecosystem that are used directly by an eco-
used to refer to larger collections of people who have something else nomic agent. These include consumptive uses (e.g., harvesting
in common (e.g., national community, donor community). goods) and nonconsumptive uses (e.g., enjoyment of scenic beauty).
Condition of an ecosystem: The capacity of an ecosystem to yield Agents are often physically present in an ecosystem to receive direct
services, relative to its potential capacity. use value. (Compare Indirect use value.)
Condition of an ecosystem service: The capacity of an ecosystem Disability-adjusted life years: The sum of years of life lost due to
service to yield benefits to people, relative to its potential capacity. premature death and illness, taking into account the age of death
Constituents of well-being: The experiential aspects of well-being, compared with natural life expectancy and the number of years of
such as health, happiness, and freedom to be and do, and, more life lived with a disability. The measure of number of years lived
broadly, basic liberties. with the disability considers the duration of the disease, weighted by
Consumptive use: The reduction in the quantity or quality of a good a measure of the severity of the disease.
available for other users due to consumption. Diversity: The variety and relative abundance of different entities in a
Contingent valuation: Economic valuation technique based on a sur- sample.
vey of how much respondents would be willing to pay for specified Driver: Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly
benefits. causes a change in an ecosystem.
Core dataset: Data sets designated to have wide potential application Driver, direct: A driver that unequivocally influences ecosystem proc-
throughout the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment process. They esses and can therefore be identified and measured to differing de-
grees of accuracy. (Compare Driver, indirect.)
include land use, land cover, climate, and population data sets.
Driver, endogenous: A driver whose magnitude can be influenced by
Cost-benefit analysis: A technique designed to determine the feasibil-
the decision-maker. Whether a driver is exogenous or endogenous
ity of a project or plan by quantifying its costs and benefits.
depends on the organizational scale. Some drivers (e.g., prices) are
Cost-effectiveness analysis: Analysis to identify the least cost option
exogenous to a decision-maker at one level (a farmer) but endoge-
that meets a particular goal.
nous at other levels (the nation-state). (Compare Driver, exogenous.)
Critically endangered species: Species that face an extremely high Driver, exogenous: A driver that cannot be altered by the decision-
risk of extinction in the wild. See also Threatened species. maker. (Compare Driver, endogenous.)
Cross-scale feedback: A process in which effects of some action are Driver, indirect: A driver that operates by altering the level or rate of
transmitted from a smaller spatial extent to a larger one, or vice change of one or more direct drivers. (Compare Driver, direct.)
versa. For example, a global policy may constrain the flexibility of a Drylands: See Dryland system.
local region to use certain response options to environmental Dryland system: Areas characterized by lack of water, which con-
change, or a local agricultural pest outbreak may affect regional food strains the two major interlinked services of the system: primary pro-
supply. duction and nutrient cycling. Four dryland subtypes are widely
Cultivar (a contraction of cultivated variety): A variety of a plant devel- recognized: dry sub-humid, semiarid, arid, and hyperarid, showing
oped from a natural species and maintained under cultivation. an increasing level of aridity or moisture deficit. See also System.
Cultivated system: Areas of landscape or seascape actively managed Ecological character: See Ecosystem properties.
for the production of food, feed, fiber, or biofuels. Ecological degradation: See Degradation of ecosystems.
Cultural landscape: See Landscape. Ecological footprint: An index of the area of productive land and
Cultural services: The nonmaterial benefits people obtain from eco- aquatic ecosystems required to produce the resources used and to
systems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, re- assimilate the wastes produced by a defined population at a specified
flection, recreation, and aesthetic experience, including, e.g., material standard of living, wherever on Earth that land may be lo-
knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic values. cated.
Decision analytical framework: A coherent set of concepts and pro- Ecological security: A condition of ecological safety that ensures ac-
cedures aimed at synthesizing available information to help policy- cess to a sustainable flow of provisioning, regulating, and cultural
makers assess consequences of various decision options. DAFs orga- services needed by local communities to meet their basic capabilities.
nize the relevant information in a suitable framework, apply decision Ecological surprises: unexpected—and often disproportionately
criteria (both based on some paradigms or theories), and thus iden- large—consequence of changes in the abiotic (e.g., climate, distur-
tify options that are better than others under the assumptions charac- bance) or biotic (e.g., invasions, pathogens) environment.
terizing the analytical framework and the application at hand. Ecosystem: A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism
Decision-maker: A person whose decisions, and the actions that fol- communities and their non-living environment interacting as a
low from them, can influence a condition, process, or issue under functional unit.
consideration. Ecosystem approach: A strategy for the integrated management of
Decomposition: The ecological process carried out primarily by mi- land, water, and living resources that promotes conservation and sus-
crobes that leads to a transformation of dead organic matter into tainable use. An ecosystem approach is based on the application of
inorganic mater. appropriate scientific methods focused on levels of biological organi-
Deforestation: Conversion of forest to non-forest. zation, which encompass the essential structure, processes, functions,
Degradation of an ecosystem service: For provisioning services, de- and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recog-
creased production of the service through changes in area over nizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral com-
which the services is provided, or decreased production per unit ponent of many ecosystems.
area. For regulating and supporting services, a reduction in the benefits Ecosystem assessment: A social process through which the findings
obtained from the service, either through a change in the service or of science concerning the causes of ecosystem change, their conse-
through human pressures on the service exceeding its limits. For quences for human well-being, and management and policy options
cultural services, a change in the ecosystem features that decreases the are brought to bear on the needs of decision-makers.
cultural benefits provided by the ecosystem. Ecosystem boundary: The spatial delimitation of an ecosystem, typi-
Degradation of ecosystems: A persistent reduction in the capacity to cally based on discontinuities in the distribution of organisms, the
provide ecosystem services. biophysical environment (soil types, drainage basins, depth in a
Glossary 601
water body), and spatial interactions (home ranges, migration pat- Existence value: The value that individuals place on knowing that a
terns, fluxes of matter). resource exists, even if they never use that resource (also sometimes
Ecosystem change: Any variation in the state, outputs, or structure known as conservation value or passive use value).
of an ecosystem. Exotic species: See Alien species.
Ecosystem function: See Ecosystem process. Externality: A consequence of an action that affects someone other
Ecosystem interactions: Exchanges of materials, energy, and infor- than the agent undertaking that action and for which the agent is
mation within and among ecosystems. neither compensated nor penalized through the markets. Externali-
Ecosystem management: An approach to maintaining or restoring ties can be positive or negative.
the composition, structure, function, and delivery of services of nat- Feedback: See Negative feedback, Positive feedback, and Cross-scale feed-
ural and modified ecosystems for the goal of achieving sustainability. back.
It is based on an adaptive, collaboratively developed vision of desired Fishery: A particular kind of fishing activity, e.g., a trawl fishery, or a
future conditions that integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and in- particular species targeted, e.g., a cod fishery or salmon fishery.
stitutional perspectives, applied within a geographic framework, and Fish stock: See Stock.
defined primarily by natural ecological boundaries. Fixed nitrogen: See Reactive nitrogen.
Ecosystem process: An intrinsic ecosystem characteristic whereby an Flyway: Areas of the world used by migratory birds in moving be-
ecosystem maintains its integrity. Ecosystem processes include de- tween breeding and wintering grounds.
composition, production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes of nutrients Forest systems: Systems in which trees are the predominant life forms.
and energy. Statistics reported in this assessment are based on areas that are domi-
Ecosystem properties: The size, biodiversity, stability, degree of or- nated by trees (perennial woody plants taller than five meters at ma-
ganization, internal exchanges of materials, energy, and information turity), where the tree crown cover exceeds 10%, and where the
among different pools, and other properties that characterize an eco- area is more than 0.5 hectares. ‘‘Open forests’’ have a canopy cover
system. Includes ecosystem functions and processes. between 10% and 40%, and ‘‘closed forests’’ a canopy cover of more
Ecosystem resilience: See Resilience. than 40%. ‘‘Fragmented forests’’ refer to mosaics of forest patches
Ecosystem resistance: See Resistance. and non-forest land. See also System.
Ecosystem robustness: See Ecosystem stability. Freedom: The range of options a person has in deciding the kind of
Ecosystem services: The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. life to lead.
These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating Functional diversity: The value, range, and relative abundance of
services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiri- traits present in the organisms in an ecological community.
tual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services such as Functional redundancy ( functional compensation): A characteris-
nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth. The tic of ecosystems in which more than one species in the system can
concept ‘‘ecosystem goods and services’’ is synonymous with ecosys- carry out a particular process. Redundancy may be total or partial—
tem services. that is, a species may not be able to completely replace the other
Ecosystem stability (or ecosystem robustness): A description of the species or it may compensate only some of the processes in which
dynamic properties of an ecosystem. An ecosystem is considered sta- the other species are involved.
ble or robust if it returns to its original state after a perturbation, Functional types ( functional groups guilds): Groups of organ-
exhibits low temporal variability, or does not change dramatically in isms that respond to the environment or affect ecosystem processes
the face of a perturbation. in a similar way. Examples of plant functional types include nitro-
Elasticity: A measure of responsiveness of one variable to a change in gen-fixer versus non-fixer, stress-tolerant versus ruderal versus com-
another, usually defined in terms of percentage change. For exam- petitor, resprouter versus seeder, deciduous versus evergreen.
ple, own-price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in the Examples of animal functional types include granivorous versus
quantity demanded of a good for a 1% change in the price of that fleshy-fruit eater, nocturnal versus diurnal predator, browser versus
good. Other common elasticity measures include supply and income grazer.
elasticity. Geographic information system: A computerized system organizing
Emergent disease: Diseases that have recently increased in incidence, data sets through a geographical referencing of all data included in
impact, or geographic range; that are caused by pathogens that have its collections.
recently evolved; that are newly discovered; or that have recently Globalization: The increasing integration of economies and societies
changed their clinical presentation. around the world, particularly through trade and financial flows, and
Emergent property: A phenomenon that is not evident in the constit- the transfer of culture and technology.
uent parts of a system but that appears when they interact in the Global scale: The geographical realm encompassing all of Earth.
system as a whole. Governance: The process of regulating human behavior in accordance
Enabling conditions: Critical preconditions for success of responses, with shared objectives. The term includes both governmental and
including political, institutional, social, economic, and ecological nongovernmental mechanisms.
factors. Health, human: A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-
Endangered species: Species that face a very high risk of extinction being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The health
in the wild. See also Threatened species. of a whole community or population is reflected in measurements
Endemic (in ecology): A species or higher taxonomic unit found of disease incidence and prevalence, age-specific death rates, and life
only within a specific area. expectancy.
Endemic (in health): The constant presence of a disease or infectious High seas: The area outside of national jurisdiction, i.e., beyond each
agent within a given geographic area or population group; may also nation’s Exclusive Economic Zone or other territorial waters.
refer to the usual prevalence of a given disease within such area or Human well-being: See Well-being.
group. Income poverty: See Poverty.
Endemism: The fraction of species that is endemic relative to the total Indicator: Information based on measured data used to represent a
number of species found in a specific area. particular attribute, characteristic, or property of a system.
Epistemology: The theory of knowledge, or a ‘‘way of knowing.’’ Indigenous knowledge (or local knowledge): The knowledge that is
Equity: Fairness of rights, distribution, and access. Depending on con- unique to a given culture or society.
text, this can refer to resources, services, or power. Indirect interaction: Those interactions among species in which a
Eutrophication: The increase in additions of nutrients to freshwater species, through direct interaction with another species or modifi-
or marine systems, which leads to increases in plant growth and cation of resources, alters the abundance of a third species with
often to undesirable changes in ecosystem structure and function. which it is not directly interacting. Indirect interactions can be tro-
Evapotranspiration: See Transpiration. phic or nontrophic in nature.
Indirect use value: The benefits derived from the goods and services Land use: The human use of a piece of land for a certain purpose (such
provided by an ecosystem that are used indirectly by an economic as irrigated agriculture or recreation). Influenced by, but not synon-
agent. For example, an agent at some distance from an ecosystem ymous with, land cover.
may derive benefits from drinking water that has been purified as it Length of growing period: The total number of days in a year during
passed through the ecosystem. (Compare Direct use value.) which rainfall exceeds one half of potential evapotranspiration. For
Infant mortality rate: Number of deaths of infants aged 0–12 months boreal and temperate zone, growing season is usually defined as a
divided by the number of live births. number of days with the average daily temperature that exceeds a
Inland water systems: Permanent water bodies other than salt-water definite threshold, such as 10 Celsius.
systems on the coast, seas and oceans. Includes rivers, lakes, reser- Local knowledge: See Indigenous knowledge.
voirs wetlands and inland saline lakes and marshes. See also System. Mainstreaming: Incorporating a specific concern, e.g. sustainable use
Institutions: The rules that guide how people within societies live, of ecosystems, into policies and actions.
work, and interact with each other. Formal institutions are written Malnutrition: A state of bad nourishment. Malnutrition refers both to
or codified rules. Examples of formal institutions would be the con- undernutrition and overnutrition, as well as to conditions arising
stitution, the judiciary laws, the organized market, and property from dietary imbalances leading to diet-related noncommunicable
rights. Informal institutions are rules governed by social and behav- diseases.
ioral norms of the society, family, or community. Also referred to as Marginal abatement cost: The cost of abating an incremental unit
organizations. of, for instance, a pollutant.
Integrated coastal zone management: Approaches that integrate Marine system: Marine waters from the low-water mark to the high
economic, social, and ecological perspectives for the management seas that support marine capture fisheries, as well as deepwater (⬎50
of coastal resources and areas. meters) habitats. Four sub-divisions (marine biomes) are recognized:
Integrated conservation and development projects: Initiatives the coastal boundary zone; trade-winds; westerlies; and polar.
that aim to link biodiversity conservation and development. Market-based instruments: Mechanisms that create a market for
Integrated pest management: Any practices that attempt to capital- ecosystem services in order to improving the efficiency in the way
ize on natural processes that reduce pest abundance. Sometimes used the service is used. The term is used for mechanisms that create new
to refer to monitoring programs where farmers apply pesticides to markets, but also for responses such as taxes, subsidies, or regulations
improve economic efficiency (reducing application rates and im- that affect existing markets.
proving profitability). Market failure: The inability of a market to capture the correct values
Integrated responses: Responses that address degradation of ecosys- of ecosystem services.
tem services across a number of systems simultaneously or that also Mitigation: An anthropogenic intervention to reduce negative or un-
explicitly include objectives to enhance human well-being. sustainable uses of ecosystems or to enhance sustainable practices.
Integrated river basin management: Integration of water planning Mountain system: High-altitude (greater than 2,500 meters) areas and
and management with environmental, social, and economic devel- steep mid-altitude (1,000 meters at the equator, decreasing to sea
opment concerns, with an explicit objective of improving human level where alpine life zones meet polar life zones at high latitudes)
welfare. areas, excluding large plateaus.
Interventions: See Responses. Negative feedback: Feedback that has a net effect of dampening per-
Intrinsic value: The value of someone or something in and for itself, turbation.
irrespective of its utility for people. Net primary productivity: See Production, biological.
Invasibility: Intrinsic susceptibility of an ecosystem to be invaded by Non-linearity: A relationship or process in which a small change in
an alien species. the value of a driver (i.e., an independent variable) produces an dis-
Invasive alien species: An alien species whose establishment and proportionate change in the outcome (i.e., the dependent variable).
spread modifies ecosystems, habitats, or species. Relationships where there is a sudden discontinuity or change in
Irreversibility: The quality of being impossible or difficult to return rate are sometimes referred to as abrupt and often form the basis of
to, or to restore to, a former condition. See also Option value, Precau- thresholds. In loose terms, they may lead to unexpected outcomes
tionary principle, Resilience, and Threshold. or ‘‘surprises.’’
Island systems: Lands isolated by surrounding water, with a high pro- Nutrient cycling: The processes by which elements are extracted from
portion of coast to hinterland. The degree of isolation from the their mineral, aquatic, or atmospheric sources or recycled from their
mainland in both natural and social aspects is accounted by the isola organic forms, converting them to the ionic form in which biotic
effect. See also System. uptake occurs and ultimately returning them to the atmosphere,
Isola effect: Environmental issues that are unique to island systems. water, or soil.
This uniqueness takes into account the physical seclusion of islands Nutrients: The approximately 20 chemical elements known to be es-
as isolated pieces of land exposed to marine or climatic disturbances sential for the growth of living organisms, including nitrogen, sulfur,
with a more limited access to space, products, and services when phosphorus, and carbon.
compared with most continental areas, but also includes subjective Open access resource: A good or service over which no property
issues such as the perceptions and attitudes of islanders themselves. rights are recognized.
Keystone species: A species whose impact on the community is dis- Opportunity cost: The benefits forgone by undertaking one activity
proportionately large relative to its abundance. Effects can be pro- instead of another.
duced by consumption (trophic interactions), competition, Option value: The value of preserving the option to use services in
mutualism, dispersal, pollination, disease, or habitat modification the future either by oneself (option value) or by others or heirs (be-
(nontrophic interactions). quest value). Quasi-option value represents the value of avoiding
Land cover: The physical coverage of land, usually expressed in terms irreversible decisions until new information reveals whether certain
of vegetation cover or lack of it. Related to, but not synonymous ecosystem services have values society is not currently aware of.
with, land use. Organic farming: Crop and livestock production systems that do not
Landscape: An area of land that contains a mosaic of ecosystems, in- make use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, or herbicides. May also
cluding human-dominated ecosystems. The term cultural landscape include restrictions on the use of transgenic crops (genetically modi-
is often used when referring to landscapes containing significant fied organisms).
human populations or in which there has been significant human Pastoralism, pastoral system: The use of domestic animals as a pri-
influence on the land. mary means for obtaining resources from habitats.
Landscape unit: A portion of relatively homogenous land cover Perturbation: An imposed movement of a system away from its cur-
within the local-to-regional landscape. rent state.
Glossary 603
Polar system: Treeless lands at high latitudes. Includes Arctic and Ant- Reforestation: Planting of forests on lands that have previously con-
arctic areas, where the polar system merges with the northern boreal tained forest but have since been converted to some other use.
forest and the Southern Ocean respectively. See also System. (Compare Afforestation.)
Policy failure: A situation in which government policies create ineffi- Regime shift: A rapid reorganization of an ecosystem from one rela-
ciencies in the use of goods and services. tively stable state to another.
Policy-maker: A person with power to influence or determine poli- Regulating services: The benefits obtained from the regulation of
cies and practices at an international, national, regional, or local ecosystem processes, including, for example, the regulation of cli-
level. mate, water, and some human diseases.
Pollination: A process in the sexual phase of reproduction in some Relative abundance: See Abundance.
plants caused by the transportation of pollen. In the context of eco- Reporting unit: The spatial or temporal unit at which assessment or
system services, pollination generally refers to animal-assisted polli- analysis findings are reported. In an assessment, these units are cho-
nation, such as that done by bees, rather than wind pollination. sen to maximize policy relevance or relevance to the public and thus
Population, biological: A group of individuals of the same species, may differ from those upon which the analyses were conducted
occupying a defined area, and usually isolated to some degree from (e.g., analyses conducted on mapped ecosystems can be reported on
other similar groups. Populations can be relatively reproductively administrative units). See also System.
isolated and adapted to local environments. Resilience: The level of disturbance that an ecosystem can undergo
Population, human: A collection of living people in a given area. without crossing a threshold to a situation with different structure
(Compare Community (human, local).) or outputs. Resilience depends on ecological dynamics as well as the
Positive feedback: Feedback that has a net effect of amplifying pertur- organizational and institutional capacity to understand, manage, and
bation. respond to these dynamics.
Poverty: The pronounced deprivation of well-being. Income poverty Resistance: The capacity of an ecosystem to withstand the impacts of
refers to a particular formulation expressed solely in terms of per drivers without displacement from its present state.
capita or household income. Responses: Human actions, including policies, strategies, and inter-
ventions, to address specific issues, needs, opportunities, or prob-
Precautionary principle: The management concept stating that in
lems. In the context of ecosystem management, responses may be of
cases ‘‘where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack
legal, technical, institutional, economic, and behavioral nature and
of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing
may operate at various spatial and time scales.
cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation,’’ as
Riparian: Something related to, living on, or located at the banks of a
defined in the Rio Declaration.
watercourse, usually a river or stream.
Prediction (or forecast): The result of an attempt to produce a most Safe minimum standard: A decision analytical framework in which
likely description or estimate of the actual evolution of a variable or the benefits of ecosystem services are assumed to be incalculable and
system in the future. See also Projection and Scenario. should be preserved unless the costs of doing so rise to an intolerable
Primary production: See Production, biological. level, thus shifting the burden of proof to those who would convert
Private costs and benefits: Costs and benefits directly felt by individ- them.
ual economic agents or groups as seen from their perspective. (Ex- Salinization: The buildup of salts in soils.
ternalities imposed on others are ignored.) Costs and benefits are Scale: The measurable dimensions of phenomena or observations. Ex-
valued at the prices actually paid or received by the group, even if pressed in physical units, such as meters, years, population size, or
these prices are highly distorted. Sometimes termed ‘‘financial’’ costs quantities moved or exchanged. In observation, scale determines the
and benefits. (Compare Social costs and benefits.) relative fineness and coarseness of different detail and the selectivity
Probability distribution: A distribution that shows all the values that among patterns these data may form.
a random variable can take and the likelihood that each will occur. Scenario: A plausible and often simplified description of how the fu-
Production, biological: Rate of biomass produced by an ecosystem, ture may develop, based on a coherent and internally consistent set
generally expressed as biomass produced per unit of time per unit of of assumptions about key driving forces (e.g., rate of technology
surface or volume. Net primary productivity is defined as the energy change, prices) and relationships. Scenarios are neither predictions
fixed by plants minus their respiration. nor projections and sometimes may be based on a ‘‘narrative story-
Production, economic: Output of a system. line.’’ Scenarios may include projections but are often based on ad-
Productivity, biological: See Production, biological. ditional information from other sources.
Productivity, economic: Capacity of a system to produce high levels Security: Access to resources, safety, and the ability to live in a predict-
of output or responsiveness of the output of a system to inputs. able and controllable environment.
Projection: A potential future evolution of a quantity or set of quanti- Service: See Ecosystem services.
ties, often computed with the aid of a model. Projections are distin- Social costs and benefits: Costs and benefits as seen from the perspec-
guished from ‘‘predictions’’ in order to emphasize that projections tive of society as a whole. These differ from private costs and bene-
involve assumptions concerning, for example, future socioeconomic fits in being more inclusive (all costs and benefits borne by some
and technological developments that may or may not be realized; member of society are taken into account) and in being valued at
they are therefore subject to substantial uncertainty. social opportunity cost rather than market prices, where these differ.
Property rights: The right to specific uses, perhaps including ex- Sometimes termed ‘‘economic’’ costs and benefits. (Compare Private
change in a market, of ecosystems and their services. costs and benefits.)
Provisioning services: The products obtained from ecosystems, in- Social incentives: Measures that lower transaction costs by facilitating
cluding, for example, genetic resources, food and fiber, and fresh trust-building and learning as well as rewarding collaboration and
water. conflict resolution. Social incentives are often provided by bridging
Public good: A good or service in which the benefit received by any organizations.
one party does not diminish the availability of the benefits to others, Socioecological system: An ecosystem, the management of this eco-
and where access to the good cannot be restricted. system by actors and organizations, and the rules, social norms, and
Reactive nitrogen (or fixed nitrogen): The forms of nitrogen that are conventions underlying this management. (Compare System.)
generally available to organisms, such as ammonia, nitrate, and or- Soft law: Non-legally binding instruments, such as guidelines, stan-
ganic nitrogen. Nitrogen gas (or dinitrogen), which is the major dards, criteria, codes of practice, resolutions, and principles or decla-
component of the atmosphere, is inert to most organisms. rations, that states establish to implement national laws.
Realm: Used to describe the three major types of ecosystems on earth: Soil fertility: The potential of the soil to supply nutrient elements in
terrestrial, freshwater, and marine. Differs fundamentally from bio- the quantity, form, and proportion required to support optimum
geographic realm. plant growth. See also Nutrients.
Speciation: The formation of new species. level. For example, the common mouse, Mus musculus, belongs to
Species: An interbreeding group of organisms that is reproductively the Genus Mus, the Family Muridae, and the Class Mammalia.
isolated from all other organisms, although there are many partial Taxonomy: A system of nested categories (taxa) reflecting evolution-
exceptions to this rule in particular taxa. Operationally, the term ary relationships or morphological similarity.
species is a generally agreed fundamental taxonomic unit, based on Tenure: See Property rights, although also sometimes used more spe-
morphological or genetic similarity, that once described and ac- cifically in reference to the temporal dimensions and security of
cepted is associated with a unique scientific name. property rights.
Species diversity: Biodiversity at the species level, often combining Threatened species: Species that face a high (vulnerable species), very
aspects of species richness, their relative abundance, and their dissim- high (endangered species), or extremely high (critically endangered species)
ilarity. risk of extinction in the wild.
Species richness: The number of species within a given sample, com- Threshold: A point or level at which new properties emerge in an
munity, or area. ecological, economic, or other system, invalidating predictions
Statistical variation: Variability in data due to error in measurement, based on mathematical relationships that apply at lower levels. For
error in sampling, or variation in the measured quantity itself. example, species diversity of a landscape may decline steadily with
Stock (in fisheries): The population or biomass of a fishery resource. increasing habitat degradation to a certain point, then fall sharply
Such stocks are usually identified by their location. They can be, but after a critical threshold of degradation is reached. Human behavior,
are not always, genetically discrete from other stocks. especially at group levels, sometimes exhibits threshold effects.
Stoichiometry, ecological: The relatively constant proportions of the Thresholds at which irreversible changes occur are especially of con-
different nutrients in plant or animal biomass that set constraints on cern to decision-makers. (Compare Non-linearity.)
production. Nutrients only available in lower proportions are likely Time series data: A set of data that expresses a particular variable
to limit growth. measured over time.
Storyline: A narrative description of a scenario, which highlights its Total economic value framework: A widely used framework to dis-
main features and the relationships between the scenario’s driving aggregate the components of utilitarian value, including direct use
forces and its main features. value, indirect use value, option value, quasi-option value, and existence
Strategies: See Responses. value.
Streamflow: The quantity of water flowing in a watercourse. Total factor productivity: A measure of the aggregate increase in
Subsidiarity, principle of: The notion of devolving decision-making efficiency of use of inputs. TFP is the ratio of the quantity of output
authority to the lowest appropriate level. divided by an index of the amount of inputs used. A common input
Subsidy: Transfer of resources to an entity, which either reduces the index uses as weights the share of the input in the total cost of pro-
operating costs or increases the revenues of such entity for the pur- duction.
pose of achieving some objective. Total fertility rate: The number of children a woman would give
Subsistence: An activity in which the output is mostly for the use of birth to if through her lifetime she experienced the set of age-
the individual person doing it, or their family, and which is a sig- specific fertility rates currently observed. Since age-specific rates
nificant component of their livelihood. generally change over time, TFR does not in general give the actual
Subspecies: A population that is distinct from, and partially reproduc- number of births a woman alive today can be expected to have.
tively isolated from, other populations of a species but that has not Rather, it is a synthetic index meant to measure age-specific birth
yet diverged sufficiently that interbreeding is impossible. rates in a given year.
Supporting services: Ecosystem services that are necessary for the Trade-off: Management choices that intentionally or otherwise change
production of all other ecosystem services. Some examples include the type, magnitude, and relative mix of services provided by eco-
biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil forma- systems.
tion and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning Traditional ecological knowledge: The cumulative body of knowl-
of habitat. edge, practices, and beliefs evolved by adaptive processes and handed
down through generations. TEK may or may not be indigenous or
Sustainability: A characteristic or state whereby the needs of the pres-
local, but it is distinguished by the way in which it is acquired and
ent and local population can be met without compromising the abil-
used, through the social process of learning and sharing knowledge.
ity of future generations or populations in other locations to meet
(Compare Indigenous knowledge.)
their needs.
Traditional knowledge: See Traditional ecological knowledge.
Sustainable use (of an ecosystem): Human use of an ecosystem so that
Traditional use: Exploitation of natural resources by indigenous users
it may yield a continuous benefit to present generations while main- or by nonindigenous residents using traditional methods. Local use
taining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future gen- refers to exploitation by local residents.
erations. Transpiration: The process by which water is drawn through plants
Symbiosis: Close and usually obligatory relationship between two or- and returned to the air as water vapor. Evapotranspiration is com-
ganisms of different species, not necessarily to their mutual benefit. bined loss of water to the atmosphere via the processes of evapora-
Synergy: When the combined effect of several forces operating is tion and transpiration.
greater than the sum of the separate effects of the forces. Travel cost methods: Economic valuation techniques that use ob-
System: In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, reporting units that served costs to travel to a destination to derive demand functions for
are ecosystem-based but at a level of aggregation far higher than that that destination.
usually applied to ecosystems. Thus the system includes many com- Trend: A pattern of change over time, over and above short-term
ponent ecosystems, some of which may not strongly interact with fluctuations.
each other, that may be spatially separate, or that may be of a differ- Trophic cascade: A chain reaction of top-down interactions across
ent type to the ecosystems that constitute the majority, or matrix, of multiple tropic levels. These occur when changes in the presence or
the system overall. The system includes the social and economic absence (or shifts in abundance) of a top predator alter the produc-
systems that have an impact on and are affected by the ecosystems tion at several lower trophic levels. Such positive indirect effects of
included within it. For example, the Condition and Trend Working top predators on lower tropic levels are mediated by the consump-
Group refers to ‘‘forest systems,’’ ‘‘cultivated systems,’’ ‘‘mountain tion of mid-level consumers (generally herbivores).
systems,’’ and so on. Systems thus defined are not mutually exclu- Trophic level: The average level of an organism within a food web,
sive, and are permitted to overlap spatially or conceptually. For in- with plants having a trophic level of 1, herbivores 2, first-order car-
stance, the ‘‘cultivated system’’ may include areas of ‘‘dryland nivores 3, and so on.
system’’ and vice versa. Umbrella species: Species that have either large habitat needs or other
Taxon (pl. taxa): The named classification unit to which individuals or requirements whose conservation results in many other species
sets of species are assigned. Higher taxa are those above the species being conserved at the ecosystem or landscape level.
Glossary 605
Uncertainty: An expression of the degree to which a future condition Vulnerability: Exposure to contingencies and stress, and the difficulty
(e.g., of an ecosystem) is unknown. Uncertainty can result from lack in coping with them. Three major dimensions of vulnerability are
of information or from disagreement about what is known or even involved: exposure to stresses, perturbations, and shocks; the sensi-
knowable. It may have many types of sources, from quantifiable tivity of people, places, ecosystems, and species to the stress or per-
errors in the data to ambiguously defined terminology or uncertain turbation, including their capacity to anticipate and cope with the
projections of human behavior. Uncertainty can therefore be repre- stress; and the resilience of the exposed people, places, ecosystems,
sented by quantitative measures (e.g., a range of values calculated by and species in terms of their capacity to absorb shocks and perturba-
various models) or by qualitative statements (e.g., reflecting the tions while maintaining function.
Vulnerable species: Species that face a high risk of extinction in the
judgment of a team of experts).
wild. See also Threatened species.
Urbanization: An increase in the proportion of the population living Water scarcity: A water supply that limits food production, human
in urban areas. health, and economic development. Severe scarcity is taken to be
Urban systems: Built environments with a high human population equivalent to 1,000 cubic meters per year per person or greater than
density. Operationally defined as human settlements with a mini- 40% use relative to supply.
mum population density commonly in the range of 400 to 1,000 Watershed (also catchment basin): The land area that drains into a
persons per square kilometer, minimum size of typically between particular watercourse or body of water. Sometimes used to describe
1,000 and 5,000 people, and maximum agricultural employment the dividing line of high ground between two catchment basins.
usually in the vicinity of 50–75%. See also System. Water stress: See Water scarcity.
Utility: In economics, the measure of the degree of satisfaction or hap- Well-being: A context- and situation-dependent state, comprising
piness of a person. basic material for a good life, freedom and choice, health and bodily
Valuation: The process of expressing a value for a particular good or well-being, good social relations, security, peace of mind, and spiri-
service in a certain context (e.g., of decision-making) usually in tual experience.
terms of something that can be counted, often money, but also Wetlands: Areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or
through methods and measures from other disciplines (sociology, artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flow-
ing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth
ecology, and so on). See also Value.
of which at low tide does not exceed six meters. May incorporate
Value: The contribution of an action or object to user-specified goals, riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands and islands or
objectives, or conditions. (Compare Valuation.) bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide laying
Value systems: Norms and precepts that guide human judgment and within the wetlands.
action. Wise use (of an ecosystem): Sustainable utilization for the benefit of
Voluntary measures: Measures that are adopted by firms or other humankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural
actors in the absence of government mandates. properties of the ecosystem
Index
Italic page numbers refer to figures, tables, and boxes. Bold page numbers refer to the Summary.
A crops, 179 Annan, Kofi, 26

Aarhus Convention, 433 biodiversity and, 148 Antarctic Treaty, 44. See also Madrid Protocol on
Acceptable trade-offs, xv, 74 crop breeding strategies, 190–191 Environmental Protection
Accountability, 530, 538–539 yields and technology, 9, 557–558 Aquaculture, 201–205, 202
Accounting of biological carbon, 392–393 developing countries and pastoral ecosystems, in Africa, 203
Acid rain, 304 206–207 eutrophication and, 329
Adaptation eco-agriculture to conserve ‘‘wild biodiversity,’’ future regulation of, 202–203
to climate change, 21, 378, 383–385 149–150 technological progress, 203–205
human health and, 476, 477 ecological problems confronting, 27 Aquatic weeds, 323–324
Adaptive management, 5–6, 89, 520–521 ex situ conservation, 148–149, 191 Aral Sea, 198–199
Administrative bureaucracy, 521, 521 fertilizer use. See Nutrient management ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and
Advocacy groups. See NGOs genetically modified organisms, 192–194, 504 Natural Resources, 44
Afforestation. See also Forests grazing systems, 180, 207 ASEAN Free Trade Area, 42
climate change and, 390, 391 human health and, 328 Asia. See also specific countries
flood and storm control and, 343–344, 344 in situ conservation, 147–148, 190 collectivization, discontinuance’s effect on
impacts of, 17, 543 of crop wild relatives, 149 agriculture, 206
Africa. See also specific countries international agriculture research, 191 education and gender equity, 560
agricultural conditions and trends, 298 livestock, 13, 178, 179–180 flooding and storms
precision agriculture, 191 animal wastes and runoff, 302–303 forecasting and warning, 346
human health and, 474
responses to insufficient nutrients, 301, 306 competition with wildlife, 207
forestry master plans, 266
aquaculture, 203 deforestation and, 207
Himalayan tourism, 416
devolvement of authority and biodiversity, 153 greenhouse gas emissions and, 207–208
Hindu Kush Himalaya region, 232, 233
forestry sector reviews, 266 human well-being and, 497–498
home gardens and biodiversity, 148
forests, local management of, 269 industrial or intensive livestock production
infectious diseases, 359, 361, 363, 364, 368, 368
HIV/AIDS, 565–566 systems, 205
outbreaks after disasters, 338
integrated coastal management efforts, 330 management, 205–208
irrigation with wastewater, 324
Lake Victoria and non-native species, 204 mixed crop systems. See this heading: mixed
Mekong River Commission, 230, 231
Lesotho Highlands Water Project, 221 farming systems
migratory birds, bilateral agreements on, 158
pastoral ecosystems, 206–207 manure, use of, 205–206
Singapore River, 323
public participation in decision-making, 45 mixed farming systems, 180, 205–206
Asian Development Bank, 55, 266
river basin initiatives, 231 water and, 197
Assessment
Sahel region, 61 mono-cropping, 472
agriculture, 193
tourism and conservation incentives, 133 nutrients and. See Nutrient management
biodiversity conservation and recovery
vector-borne diseases, 360, 361, 365, 366, 469 organic farming, 193–194, 509, 544
agriculture, 151
waste management, 319 pest management, 195
devolution of government authority, 153
water sector and private investment, 248 precision agriculture, 191, 508
education and communication, 161
African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), 360 research, 191
forestry, 151
Agenda 21. See United Nations subsidies, 497 landscape approach, 145
Agenda setting for decision-making, 530 urban agriculture, 326, 504 marine reserves, 151–152
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, 42 waste management and, 326–327 multilateral environmental agreements, 158–159
Agreement on the Conservation and Management of waste use in, 329 private sector involvement, 147
Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory water pollution and, 195–196, 543 regional planning, 145
Fish Stocks, 43 water resources and, 176, 194–196, 196, 219 wild species, 140–141
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Agrobiodiversity, 177, 192 of decision-makers’ responses, 71–93
Property Rights. See Trade-Related Aspects Agroforestry, 280, 378, 390, 411, 412, 544 domains used in, 74–75
of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) AIDS. See HIV/AIDS ecological context of, 74–75
Agriculture. See also Food provision Amazon area, 46, 135, 410, 410, 415, 445 economic context of, 74–75, 80–85
biodiversity and, 147–150 Animal diseases. See Zoonotic diseases environmental impact assessments. See
climate change and, 383, 390 Animal wastes and water pollution, 300, 302–303 Environmental impact assessments (EIAs)
607
Assessment (continued) fisheries and, 150–151 Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, 53

framework used in assessing responses, 87–89, 87–89 flooding and, 342 integrated crop management program, 61
of implementation, 78 food provision and loss of biodiversity, 176–177, 179 integration of agrarian and environmental policies,
importance of, 4 forestry and, 150 445
institutional context of, 74–75, 77–80 governance support for, 152–153 nutrition and cultural perceptions, 412
of integrated responses, 429–430, 430 hotspots and, 114 Socio-environmental Institute, 407
knowledge, use in, 10 human actions, effect on, 164 Brown bears, reintroduction of, 408
political context of, 74–77 human health and, 471–472 Buddhist ecology, 409
procedure, stages of, 74, 74–75 human well-being and, 163, 495–496
Response Assessment Matrix, 87, 87 incentives for protection of, 164. See also Economic C
risk assessment, 35, 106–107 responses Calibration uncertainty, 98, 108, 110
social factors and, 85–86 integration of human and conservation activity, Campylobacteriosis, 477–478
tools used in MA, 34–35, 86–89 164–165 Canada
waste management responses, 325–330 invasive species. See Invasive species Aquaculture Action Plan, 202
Australia landscape approach to, 143–145 cod industry, 199
Bonaire Marine Park, 128 lessons learned, 161–163 flooding and storms, 342, 348
education and awareness raising, 416 local, national, regional, and global values for, 123 forecasting and warning, 346
emission reduction targets, 379 local people benefiting from, 131–137. See also forests and rights of indigenous people, 268
forests and rights of indigenous people, 268 Indigenous peoples large-scale watershed ecosystems, development of,
Murray-Darling Basin, 224, 224, 229, 234, 236, management of wild species, 137–141 541
238–239, 241, 454, 456 marine reserves and, 150–151 Model Forest Program, 89
salinity levels, 8, 240 Millennium Development Goals and, 124 national park management, assessment of, 127
strategy for zero solid waste management, 320, 324, monitoring and evaluation of policies, 539 wetlands, 342
325 multilateral environmental agreements and, Cap-and-trade systems, 8
water exchanges, 236, 238–239 153–159. See also Multilateral environmental design of, 499
Autonomy, 77, 79 agreements (MEAs) emissions under Kyoto Protocol, 395
Awareness raising. See Education and awareness raising national strategies on, 3 freshwater systems and, 233, 234
private sector involvement in conservation, Capacity-building, 7
B 145–147, 146 need for, 10
Baltic Sea, 300, 323 protected areas as response to loss of, 125–131, 138. for policy-making, 581–582
Bangladesh. See also Asia See also Protected areas waste management and, 324
flooding and storms in, 233, 338–339, 345 regional planning and, 141–145, 494 Captive breeding programs, 140
flood control projects, 342, 342–343, 345 reintroduction. See Reintroduction of species to Carbon dioxide, 377, 381, 381, 387, 590
land use planning and, 347 native habitats Carbon management, 282, 389, 389, 588–589
shrimp farming in, 202 research priorities for, 163–165 accounting of biological carbon, 392–393
Basel Convention, 42, 44, 63, 319, 324, 331, 491 responses’ approach to, 162–163, 536, 537 Carbon sequestration, 159, 207, 283, 450, 450
Basic material for a good life. See Human well-being social impacts of loss of, 164 Caribbean
Beef ban due to mad cow disease, 107–108 trade-offs and, 162–163 hurricane damage, 567
Behavioral responses. See Social and behavioral uncertainties and, 541 infectious disease control, 367
responses values and relationship to ecosystem services, 123, integrated coastal zone management, 455
Beneficial use doctrine for water, 235–236 163–164 protected areas, 128
Bilateral agreements, 63 vulnerability and risk considerations, 540 Cartagena Protocol, 42, 43, 44
Binding constraints, xv, 74, 77, 86 waste management and, 331 CBD. See Convention on Biological Diversity
Biodiversity, 119–172 World Summit on Sustainable Development and, CCD. See Convention to Combat Desertification
agriculture and, 147–150 124, 145 Certification, 414
assessments of conservation effectiveness. See World Trade Organization and, 125 accessibility to local communities and small
Assessment Biological invasions. See Invasive species producers, 19, 502
charcoal market and biodiversity conservation, 495, Biosphere Reserve Business Partners project, 416 forests and, 150, 274–276, 275, 414, 449, 498
496 Biotechnology, 276, 508. See also Genetically modified freshwater systems and, 242
climate change and, 139, 377, 378, 383–384 agriculture; Technological responses Chagas disease, 362, 364, 364
community-based responses, importance of, waste management and, 324–325 Charcoal, 281, 388, 498, 506, 516, 581
136–137 wood production and, 16, 505 market and biodiversity conservation, 495, 496
decision-making for, 164 Black Sea, 298, 300 Chemical control of vector-borne diseases, 362–363,
economic incentives and, 495–496 Bolivia. See also Latin America 369
ecosystem biophysical information and, 534–535 national strategy for biodiversity conservation, 155 Chemical inputs in food provision, 179
ecosystem services and, 29 water privatization, 226 Chesapeake Bay, 230, 300, 304, 505
education and awareness raising, 140, 159–161 Bonn Guidelines on Access and Benefit Sharing, 136, Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, 53
conditions for success, 160–161 137 Children
constraints on, 160 Botanic gardens, 149 education, Millennium Development Goals,
equity concerns and, 537–538 Brazil. See also Amazon area; Latin America 558–559, 559
extinction due to climate change, 378, 383 biological nitrogen fertilizer use, 301, 327 HIV/AIDS and, 565–566
Index 609
mortality reduction, Millennium Development sinks and, 389–393, 390 Access to Justice in Environmental Matters,
Goals, 562–563, 563 technological change and, 9, 395–396 433
Chile. See also Latin America vulnerability and risk considerations, 540 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
fisheries sector and transferable quotas, 497, 497 Coastal water systems captive management programs under, 140
water policy, 237–238, 240–241, 241 flood and storm control, 339, 340 decentralization of governance and, 152
China. See also Asia nitrogen pollution and, 300, 305 design of, 491, 492
agricultural improvements in, 298 red tides and, 330 dispute resolution under, 44
education and gender equity, 560 wastes and, 330 ecosystem approach endorsed by, 29, 436–438,
emission reduction targets, 379 Coastal zone management 437–438
family planning policy, 51 integrated responses, 452–454 effectiveness of, 3, 155
flooding and storms, 342 U.S. program, 306 environmental impact assessments (EIAs) under, 44
forests, 262, 269 Cod industry, 199 equity concerns and, 538
irrigation with wastewater, 324 Cognitive responses, 54–56. See also Knowledge forests and, 264, 266
Mekong River, 230 Collaboration. See Coordination Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism
nitrate pollution, 300, 300 Command-and-control interventions Development, 133
Yangtze River basin, 342 economic responses, 47–48 importance of, 155
Ciguatera (fish poisoning), 479, 479–480 compared to tradable permit systems, 49 mariculture and, 151
CITES. See Convention on International Trade in ‘‘Command and control’’ regulations, 44 participation levels, 3, 410
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Common Agricultural Policy (EU), 4, 100, 185, poverty reduction and, 520
Civil disobedience and protest, 53 188–189 preservation of traditional knowledge, 52, 55, 136,
Civil society awareness and ecosystem management, 41, Communication. See also Education and awareness 152, 410–411, 502
46, 51, 53, 432. See also Education and raising protected areas and, 126, 129
awareness raising environmental conventions’ need to improve, 9 purpose of, 132, 155, 379
Clean water. See Drinking water; Freshwater systems importance of, 160–161 regional planning recommendations, 141–142
Climate change, 21, 373–400, 586. See also Kyoto Communities. See Local communities 2010 Target, 3
Protocol Community-managed floodplains, 410 Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting
accounting of biological carbon, 392–393 Community-managed forests, 136, 136 from Activities Dangerous to the
adaptation to, 21, 378, 383–385 Composting, 320 Environment, 44
adverse impacts and reasons for concern, 587 Concentrated animal feeding operations. See Feedlots Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a
agriculture and, 390 and animal wastes Transboundary Context, 231
biodiversity and, 139, 377, 378, 383–384 Conceptual framework of ecosystem assessment, Convention on International Trade in Endangered
as driver of change, 57 25–36, 30 Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),
ecological systems and, 377–378 assessment tools, 34–35 42, 60, 63, 138, 154, 158
economic instruments, 394–396 cross-scale interactions and, 33 Convention on Migratory Species, 26, 138, 158
drivers of change and, 32–33 Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife
ecosystem services and goods and, 383–384
ecosystems and their services, 29, 30 and Natural Habitats, 43
energy technologies and policies to mitigate,
human well-being as focus of, 29 Convention on the Law of the Nonnavigational Uses
386–389
reporting categories used in, 31 of International Watercourses, 42
flooding and storms and, 338, 349, 349–350
responses assessment report and, xv Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 42, 43
food provision and, 177
statement of problem, 26–28 environmental impact assessments (EIAs) under, 44
forestry and, 389–391, 391, 393
strategies and interventions, 35–36 Convention on Wetlands. See Ramsar Convention on
geo-engineering options, 394
values associated with ecosystems, 33–34, 34 Wetlands
greenhouse gases and, 376–377, 381, 381–382
Conservation Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), 3, 26,
burden sharing/equity considerations, 382–383
business opportunities associated with, 544 42, 52, 55, 60
economic costs of reducing, 396
cultural services and, 406 forests and, 264, 267
mitigation of, 385–394, 386
economic incentives for, 495–499 links with UNFCCC and CBD, 379
non-carbon dioxide, 393–394
integrated responses, 450–452, 494 poverty reduction and, 520
regional implications of, 382
Conservation concessions, 272 Coordination
human behavior and, 384–385
Conservation easements, 134 across decision-making levels, 3, 429
human health and, 377–378, 474 Conservation Fund, 271 across international agreements, 492
human well-being and, 498–499 Constitutional law, 44–45 across sectors and scales. See Cross-sectoral responses
indirect anthropogenic effects, 391–392 Consumer action among international institutions, 2–3, 367–369
institutional responses, 396–398, 397 ‘‘fair trade’’ and, 414–415 at national and sub-national levels, 3
justification for setting targets to limit rate of climate forests and, 16, 271–274 Coral reefs, 158, 330, 377, 383
change, 380–381 Consumer preferences, expression of, 8, 544 Corruption, 521, 521
land use and cover changes and, 21, 389–391, 391, food provision and, 177–178 Cost-effectiveness, 83–84, 482
393 sustainable food consumption knowledge system, Costa Rica. See also Latin America
legal responses, 378–379 188–189 balancing ecotourism and environmental protection,
mitigation of, 378 Contextual uncertainty, 98 545
observed and projected changes, 377 Contingent valuation and uncertainty, 111–112 conservation policy of, 406, 406
rangeland systems and, 390 Convention on Access to Information, Public El Programa de Pago De Servicios Ambientales
response scale needed, 379–383 Participation in Decision-Making, and (PSA), 8, 129, 134, 135, 144
Costa Rica (continued) public participation in. See Participation and Dust formation, 207
watershed payment initiatives in, 242–243 transparency; Public participation in Dust storms, 340
Cost–benefit analysis, 105–106, 106, 110 decision-making
Crops. See Agriculture scenario building and, 5 E
Cross-scale interactions, 33, 542 sociopolitical information available for, 533–534 Earth Summit, 323, 359, 431, 566
decision-making process and, 542 strategies and interventions in, 35–36 East Coast fever, 360
Cross-sectoral responses, 2–3, 5 uncertainties and, 5. See also Uncertainties Eco-agriculture to conserve ‘‘wild biodiversity,’’
human health and, 482–483 vulnerabilities and. See Vulnerability analysis 149–150
promotion of, 522–523 Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific Ecolabels, 50
Cryopreservation for plant species, 149 Knowledge, 55 Ecology
Cultural and religious drivers, 59 Deforestation agriculture and ecological problems, 27
Cultural services, 18–20, 401–422 climate change and, 389, 391 assessment in ecological context, 74–75
cross-scale interactions and, 542 effect of, 262, 558 climate change and ecological systems, 377–378
defined, 29 government policy and, 45–46 infectious diseases, ecological conditions and vector-
dichotomy of nature vs. culture, 404–405, 499–500 livestock and, 207 borne disease, 357
drivers of change and, 405 Demographic drivers, 57. See also Population Tibetan and Buddhist ecology, 409
ecosystem biophysical information and, 535 Dendro power, 282, 506, 537, 544 Economic drivers, 57–58
equity concerns and, 538 Dengue, 361, 367, 368, 368, 369
freshwater systems and, 217
history of conservation and, 406 Desalination, 251, 251–252
Economic incentives, 7–8, 48–49, 544
human health and, 475 Deschutes River Conservancy (Oregon), 237
access to markets and, 137
international agreements and, 410–413 Developing countries
assessment of, 137
landscapes, cultural perceptions of, 19, 405–406 ‘‘fair trade’’ and, 414–415, 415
for biodiversity conservation, 495–496
local identities and, 500–501 pastoral ecosystems and, 206–207
local peoples and, 132–136
responses related to, 407–409, 536 waste management and, 321, 323, 327
combining incentive schemes, 134–136
types of, 405, 410–415 Direct drivers. See Drivers of change
direct pay systems, 134
sacred groves and areas, 19, 27, 409, 409, 500 Discounting, 82–83, 105
for freshwater systems, 232–248, 496–497
Tibetan and Buddhist ecology, 409 Diseases. See Infectious diseases
indirect systems, 132–133
tourism and, 415–417, 419 Displacement of population, 85
integrated conservation and development projects
traditional and local knowledge. See Knowledge Dispute resolution, 43–44, 154, 492
and, 452
vulnerability and risk considerations, 540 Distributional issues
for nutrient management, 305
Cultural tourism, 20, 417, 419, 544 of international responses, 492
for watershed management, 241–244, 242
Customary law, 42 of national and local responses, 494–495
Economic responses, 47–51, 56
Cyclones. See Flood and storm control Doha Trade Round, 440
assessment of, 74–75, 80–85
Domestic legal responses. See also National responses
command-and-control interventions, 47–48
constitutional law, 44–45
D compared to tradable permit systems, 49
enforcement system, 46, 494
Dams and reservoirs, 14, 248, 249, 339, 434, 505 cost-effectiveness of, 83–84
environmental regulations, 44
Danube Basin, 232, 343 financial and monetary measures, 50
non-environmental legislation, 45–46
DDT, 323, 369, 566 human well-being and, 495–499
Downstream Response to Imposed Flow
Debt swaps, 50 incentive-based interventions. See Economic
Transformations (DRIFT), 221, 223
Decentralized government control of forests, 261, incentives
Drinking water. See also Freshwater systems
268–270 international trade policy, 50
effect of access to, 543
Decision-making process, xv–xvi, xvi, 5–6, 529–546 property rights, 84–85, 134
fundamental right to (MDG), 43, 218, 568, 570,
agenda setting for, 530 synthesis in response strategies, 112–113
570–572
biodiversity and, 164 value. See Value associated with ecosystem services
Drivers of change, 32–33. See also specific types of drivers
cross-scale interactions and, 542 voluntarism-based instruments, 49–50
cultural services and, 405
deliberative tools for, 5, 89, 89 waste management and, 320–321
decision-making process and, 32
drivers of change and, 32 Economic valuation. See Value associated with
defined, 33
ecosystem biophysical information and, 534–535 direct drivers, 33, 57, 60 ecosystem services
effective implementation of, 530, 535–536 endogenous drivers, 32 Ecosystem approach as framework for integrated
efficiency and, 535–536 exogenous drivers, 32 responses, 436–438, 437–439
equity concerns and implications, 537–538 flood and storm control and, 340 Ecosystem biophysical information and decision-
evaluation as part of, 530–531, 538–539 for food provision, 175–177 making, 534–535
in health sector, 480 for forest products, 261–262 Ecosystem services
information-gathering tools for, 5, 89, 90 for freshwater systems biodiversity and, 29
integrated responses and, 459, 460 direct drivers, 216–217, 217 climate change and, 383–384
key ingredients of, 531–542, 532 indirect drivers, 217–218 in conceptual framework, 29–32
knowledge, use in, 10 indirect, 32, 57–59, 60 cultural. See Cultural services
methods and frameworks for, 6, 110 interactions of, 32–33, 518–519 defined, 27
monitoring and, 530–531 relationship to response options, 57–60, 58–59 direct provision of, 47
planning tools for, 5, 89, 90 for waste management, 317–319 flood and storm control and, 339
policy formulation for, 530 within MA conceptual framework, 32 freshwater systems providing, 216, 218–219
Index 611
linkages among ecosystems Environmental impact assessments (EIAs), 44, 45 education to allow restoration, 9
flood and storm control and, 349 biodiversity issues and, 143 flooding and its beneficial impacts, 339
with human well-being, 28, 470–471, 471–472, transboundary environmental impact assessments as food source, 176, 180, 196–205
478–479, 483, 483 (TEIAs), 230–231, 539 future demand for, 27
response options for, 6–10 Equity between social groups, 85, 85, 537–538 future governance, 201
effect of, 507–514, 512, 512 and decision-making process, 537–538 human well-being and, 497
restoration of and technology, 9 Espoo Convention, 231 Lake Victoria and introduction of non-native
trade-offs of. See Trade-offs and synergies Ethics, environmental, 52 species, 204
values associated with. See Value associated with EU bubble, 379 management of open-access fisheries, 200, 200
ecosystem services Europe marine reserves. See Marine reserves
vector-borne diseases, effect of responses to, 362 brown bears, reintroduction of, 408 poverty and, 497
Ecosystems, 29 Danube Basin, 232, 343 protected areas for, 128
boundaries for, 29 environmental education, 51 technological advances and, 509
defined, 27 flood control strategies, 342, 343, 344, 344 time and area closures, 201
degradation of, 27 nutrient management, 299–300, 302, 305, 307–308 Fish poisoning (ciguatera), 479–480
Ecotourism, 20, 27, 133, 417, 417, 495, 545. See also open access fisheries, 200, 201 Fixed quota systems, 47–48
Tourism Rhine Basin, 457 Flood and storm control, 17–18, 335–352
Education and awareness raising, 9, 41, 46, 49–50, 51, Rhön Biosphere Reserve in Germany, 416, 416, 536 adverse impacts, 337–338, 338
546 waste management, 323 beneficial impacts, 338–339
biodiversity, 140, 159–161 wetlands restoration, 343 climate change and, 338, 349, 349–350
business opportunities for, 544 European Court of Justice, 107–108 coastal floods, 339, 340
cost of, 53 European Union (EU) conflict between short- and long-term objectives for,
cultural diversity and, 534 clean air laws, 107 349
effectiveness of, 544 Common Agricultural Policy. See Common cross-scale interactions and, 542
flood and storm control, 17, 346–347, 350 Agricultural Policy (EU) cyclones, 339–340, 345–346
food provision and, 185–190 emission reduction targets, 379 drivers of change and, 340
human well-being and environmental education, emissions trading system, 395 ecosystem biophysical information and, 535
503 environmental policy integration, 442, 443 ecosystem services and, 339
linkage of global and local institutions, 407 forests and, 265 education and access to information about, 17,
Millennium Development Goals, universal primary Habitats Directive, 100 346–347, 350
education, 558–559, 559 Nitrate Directive, 305 equity concerns and, 538
vector-borne diseases, 364–365 ombudsman system, 46 financial services and insurance for, 17, 347
waste management and, 21, 322, 331 organic waste in landfills, 320 flash floods, 339
EIAs. See Environmental impact assessments protected areas and, 127 forecasting and warning, 346–347
‘‘Embedded Autonomy,’’ 79 trade challenges by, 439 human health and, 338, 474
Emission permits, tradable, 48 Water Framework Directive, 229, 230, 305 infectious diseases and, 338
Empowerment Eutrophication, 329 institutional issues for, 349
devolvement of authority and, 153 Evaluation as part of decision-making process, land use planning and, 18, 347–348, 348
of indigenous and local communities, 9, 52, 57 lessons learned, 348–350
530–531, 538–539
of women, 9, 560–562 linkages among ecosystems and, 349
Ex situ conservation
Enabling conditions natural environment and, 17, 342–346
agriculture and biodiversity, 148–149, 191
adaptive management and, 520 physical structures and, 17, 341–342, 342
wild species and biodiversity, 140
for designing effective responses, 7 pre-flood preparedness systems, 341
Explicit controls, 47
integrated responses and, 457–458 protection mechanisms for, 340
Export restrictions. See Trade policies
national responses and, 447–448 rainfall floods, 339
Extinction. See Biodiversity
Endangered species. See Biodiversity; Convention on responses
International Trade in Endangered Species analysis and assessment of, 341–348
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES); U.S. F selection of, 340–341
Endangered Species Act ‘‘Fair trade,’’ 19, 414–415, 415 risk assessment and, 346
Energy. See also Fuelwood Family planning, 51 riverine flooding, 339, 340
dendro power, 282, 506, 537, 544 FAO. See Food and Agriculture Organization substitutability of ecosystems, 348–349
efficiency improvements, 388–389 FBI report on youth crime, 53 sustainable development and, 341–348
Millennium Development Goals and, 580–581 Feedlots and animal wastes, 302–303, 307–308 technological responses, 504–505
nuclear power, 387 Fertilizer, application of. See Nutrient management types of events, 339–340
reduction of fossil fuel emissions, 387 Field gene banks, 148 uncertainties and, 542
renewable energy technologies, 387–388 Financial incentives. See Economic incentives upland reforestation/afforestation, 344
technologies and policies to mitigate climate change, Fire as forest management tool, 283 upland reforestation/afforestation and, 343–344
9, 386–389 Fire management, 282–283 urbanization and, 340
transition to less carbon-intensive energy sector, 389, Fish and fisheries, 43 vulnerability and risk considerations, 540
389 biodiversity and, 150–151 wetlands and flood moderation, 342–343
Environmental flow regimes, implementation of, capture fisheries, 199–201 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
222–223 cod industry, 199 aquaculture policy, 202, 203
Food and Agriculture Organization (continued) consumer action and, 16, 271–274 burden sharing/equity considerations, 382–383
fertilizer, documentation of use, 557 decentralized government control of, 261 Clean Development Mechanism, 7
fishing policy, 199–200 development, 15, 264 design of, 491
Globally Important Ingenious Agricultural Heritage devolution and local management, 268–270 forests and, 264, 267
Systems, 411 drivers of change in ecosystems that provide forest justification for setting targets to limit rate of climate
plant genetic resources, 149 products, 261–262 change, 380
Food provision, 173–212, 185–188. See also ecosystem biophysical information and, 535 poverty reduction and, 520
Agriculture environment processes and, 264 Free-riders, 81
agrobiodiversity and, 177, 192 extra-sectoral policy processes and, 263–268 Freedom and choice. See Human well-being
aquaculture, 201–205, 202 fire as forest management tool, 283 Freshwater systems, 13, 213–255. See also Water
biodiversity loss and, 176–177, 179 human well-being and, 498, 513 resources
chemical inputs and, 179 indigenous peoples’ management of, 15, 268 beneficial use doctrine for, 235–236
climate change and, 177 integrated management responses, 448–450 cap-and-trade systems for, 233, 234
consumption and, 177–178, 188–189 land management institutions and investments in, certification and labeling, 242
crops. See Agriculture 279–283 conditions and trends of, 216–217, 222
drivers of change and, 175–177 lessons learned, 280–281 dams and reservoirs. See Dams and reservoirs
ecosystem biophysical information and, 535 management and land rights, 268–271 desalination and, 252–252
ecosystem impacts, 180–181 national governance initiatives and forest programs, direct drivers in, 216–217, 217
fish. See Fish and fisheries 15, 266–268, 267, 534 Downstream Response to Imposed Flow
forestry and, 262 non-wood forest products. See Non-wood forest Transformations (DRIFT), 221, 223
Green Revolution and, 503, 504 products economic incentives for, 232–248
human health and, 472–473 plantation forestry, 16, 276, 280–281, 543 partnerships and, 244–248
human well-being and, 497–498 policy challenges for watershed management, 241–244, 242
increase in food supplies per person, 298 certification, 275 ecosystem services provided by, 216, 218–219
integrating ecological and socioeconomic responses, company-community forestry partnerships, 271 ecosystem water requirements, determination of,
189–190 consumer action, 274 221–225
knowledge and education and, 185–190 devolution and local management, 270 effectiveness of market approaches, 236–241
land for, 178 fuelwood, 282 environmental flow regimes, implementation of,
livestock. See Agriculture governance, 280 222–223
natural resources and, 176–177 indigenous peoples’ management, 268 equity concerns and, 538
nutrition and, 412, 472–473 international development assistance, 264–265 financing sources, 245
population and, 176 national forest programs, 267–268 future challenges for, 218
production and, 178–180, 185–188, 193–194 non-wood forest products, 278–279 governance and, 220, 220–232
responses associated with, 181–208 trade liberalization, 265–266 human health and, 473
gender issues, 181, 184
tree plantation management, 281 human well-being and, 216–220, 496–497
globalization and trade policies, 181–185,
poverty reduction and, 267 indirect drivers in, 217–218
182–185
privatization of, 261 infrastructure financing and, 244
sugar markets, 186–187
protected areas, 127 instream water acquisition programs, 236, 237, 238
sustainable food consumption knowledge system,
reduced impact logging and, 279 markets for provision of fresh water, 14, 235–236
188–189
responses methodologies for defining ecosystem water
sustainable food production knowledge system,
assessment of, 285–290, 537 requirements, 222–223
193–194
selection of, 262–263, 284, 536 monitoring and evaluation of policies, 539
technological responses and, 190–194, 504
small-scale private and public–private ownership and pollution. See Water pollution
trade-offs and, 536
management, 15, 270, 536, 542 poverty and, 218
uncertainties and, 541
sustainability of, 42, 150, 267, 448–450 property rights and, 235–236
vulnerability and risk considerations, 540
trade-offs between ecosystem services and human public participation in decision-making regarding,
water resources and, 176, 194–196
well-being, 450 13, 227–229
Food security, 43, 176, 177, 412, 504. See also Food
third-party voluntary forest certification, 16, public-private partnerships and, 244–245, 246–247
provision
Forced displacement of population, 85 274–276, 275 regulatory responses and, 14, 231–232
Forecasting of floods and storms, 346–347 trade and, 264, 265–266 responses, selection for assessment, 219–220, 220,
Forest Stewardship Council, 273 transnational companies and, 265 536
Forests. See also Deforestation; Tropical forests uncertainties and, 542 responsibilities for provision of, 225–227
accountability, monitoring, and enforcement, 539 U.S. national and state forests, views on use of, 417, reverse osmosis, 251, 252
biodiversity and, 150 417 river basin organizations and, 229–231
certification and, 150, 274–276, 275, 414, 496, 498 voluntary initiatives, 265, 274–276, 275 socioeconomic impacts, 241–242
changing patterns of wood consumption and, vulnerability and risk considerations, 540 technologies and, 248–252, 543
261–262 Fossil fuel emissions, 386–387, 387. See also Nitrous third-party impacts of water transfers, 239–241, 241
climate change and, 389–391, 391, 393 oxide emissions tradable development rights (TDRs) and, 242
community-managed forests, 136, 136, 534 Framework Convention on Biological Diversity, 41, 42 transfer payments and, 242
company-community forestry partnerships, 15, Framework Convention on Climate Change, 21, 41, uncertainties and, 541
270–271, 271–273 42, 63, 376, 378–379 values used in responses, 537
Index 613
voluntary contractual arrangements and, 242 reform, importance of, 6–7, 522 flood and storm control and, 474
waste management and, 328–329 uncertainties and, 101 food and, 472–473
water banks, 236, 238, 240, 241, 496 Government policies, 4, 45–46. See also specific level of fresh water and, 473
water-borne diseases. See Water-borne diseases government fuelwood and, 473
water exchanges, 236, 240 as responses, 60, 61, 62, 63–64 genetically modified organisms and, 192
watersheds. See Watershed management trade policies. See Trade policies interventions, methods for selecting, 481–482
wetlands. See Wetlands Gray water treatment and use, 324, 504 knowledge systems and, 501–502
Fuelwood, 16, 281–282 Grazing systems, 180, 207 linkages with well-being and ecosystem services,
ecosystem impacts of, 281 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, 227, 228 470–471, 471–472, 478–479, 483, 483
human well-being and, 473, 498, 513 ‘‘Green Golden Rule,’’ 83 maternal health, 563–564, 564
new business opportunities represented by, 544 Green Revolution, 503, 504, 513, 543 nutrient management and, 473, 498
policy challenges for, 282, 498 Greenhouse gases, 376–377, 381, 381–382 poverty and, 469, 484
response options for, 281–282, 537 burden sharing/equity considerations, 382–383 response options by health sector, 480–482
as source of energy for poor and rural communities, economic costs of reducing, 396 response options outside of health sector, 476–480
262 livestock and, 207–208 risk perception and communication, 482
technology and, 505–506 mitigation of, 21, 385–394, 386 scenario-building and, 475
user impacts of, 281 non-carbon dioxide, 393–394 typology of responses and, 475–476
Funding regional implications of, 382 waste management and, 325, 326, 473
by corporations, 543 water management and, 478–479
for freshwater systems, 245
H horizontal coherence and, 519, 520
Haribon Foundation, 9, 159
for governance, 79 institutional coherence and, 519
Hazardous wastes, 324, 327–328
for microcredits and loans, 50 key questions from decision-makers on, 491,
Health. See Human well-being; Public health
521–523
implications
G legal responses, 490–495
Health impact assessments (HIAs), 481
GEF. See Global Environmental Facility instrument design, 491–492
Hedonic valuation methods, 111
Gender issues. See Women international level, 490–493
Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 42, national and local instruments, 493–494
International Rivers, 43
44, 438. See also World Trade Organization linkage with ecosystem services, 28
Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation on youth with
(WTO) material needs, 29
HIV/AIDS, 53
General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS), 42 nutrition as social indicator of, 412
Hindu Kush Himalaya region, 232, 233
Genetic modification of vector species, 365–367 organizational coherence and, 519
HIV/AIDS, 53, 356, 359, 469, 540, 564–566, 565
Genetically modified agriculture, 192–194, 504, 508, policy coherence and, 519–520
Home gardens and biodiversity, 148
514 poverty and, 29–32, 43. See also Poverty
Horizontal coherence, 519, 520
Geo-engineering options, 394 recreation and, 502–503
Hotspots and biodiversity, 114
Geographic information system software, 481, 511 response options, 6–10
Human waste and wastewater, 300, 304
Global Assessment of Soil Degradation, 327 effect of, 507–514, 512, 512
Human well-being, 487–526
Global Environmental Facility (GEF), 41, 129, 146, spatial and administrative scales of, 518
basic material for a good life, 29, 512–513
264 temporal scales of, 517, 517–518
biodiversity and, 163, 495–496
Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP), 139 security and, 29, 507
climate change responses and, 498–499
Global responses, 63 social issues. See Social and behavioral responses
defined, 27
Global Water Partnership, 456 technological interventions and, 503–507
development policies and, 515
Globalization tourism and, 502–503
economic and financial responses and, 495–499
food provision and, 181–185, 182–185 trade-offs of constituents of, 4
environmental education and, 503
net impact on ecosystem services and human well- vertical coherence and, 519, 519–520
food provision and, 497–498
being, 523 waste management and, 317, 318, 325, 326, 329,
forests and, 498, 513
wood and fiber production, 261 473, 505, 513
freedom and choice, 30, 513–514, 520, 520–521
‘‘Glocalization,’’ 500 water management and, 216–220, 478–479,
freshwater systems and, 216–220, 496–497
Governance. See also Decision-making process 496–497, 505
fuelwood and, 498, 513
as barrier to sustainability, 6 health, 29–30, 467–486, 484, 507, 512
biodiversity, support for, 152–153 agriculture-related problems, 328 I
capacity for, 77–80 biodiversity and, 471–472 IEG (international environmental governance),
defined, 77, 152 ciguatera (fish poisoning) and, 479–480 431–434
domestic, 79 climate change and, 377–378 Import restrictions. See Trade policies
financial resources for, 79 climate regulation and, 474 In-vitro techniques for plant species, 148–149
freshwater systems and, 217, 220, 220–232 cross-sectoral response options, 482–483 Incineration, 323
international, 77–79 cultural, spiritual, and recreational services and, India. See also Asia
legitimacy, 78 475 agricultural improvements in, 298, 504
local, 79–80 decision-making in health sector, 480 community-managed forests in, 136, 136, 514
participation and accountability in, 530. See also ecosystem change and, 478 dam building in, 77
Participation and transparency; Public environmental influences on, methods for education as fundamental right in, 51
participation in decision-making measuring and prioritizing, 480–481 emission reduction targets in, 379
India (continued) tick-borne diseases, 477, 512 sub-national and multiscale, 20, 448–458
flooding and storms in, 345 vulnerability and risk considerations, 540 trade-offs in, 458–459
forecasting and warning, 346 waste management and, 325 vulnerability and risk considerations, 540
forests, local management of, 269 water-related diseases, 473, 474, 477–478 Intellectual property rights, 42, 411, 419, 502
gender issues in, 514–515 Information access, 49–50, 160, 433 Interactions among drivers and ecosystems, 33,
National Policy and Action Plan on Biodiversity, 60 flood and storm control, 17, 346–347, 350 518–519
Plant Variety Protection and Farmers’ Rights Act, Inland water systems, 43. See also Freshwater systems Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
137 pollution. See Water pollution 55, 63, 105, 112, 349, 378
regional development and privatization in, 514 response options for, 219–220, 220 greenhouse gas emissions, 376–377, 379
sacred groves in, 27, 409 Insecticides and elimination of infectious diseases, indirect anthropogenic effects, 392
traditional medicine and plant cultivation in, 413 362–363, 365, 369 Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES),
Indigenous peoples Institutional coherence, 519 381–382
biodiversity benefits for, 55, 131–137 Institutional framework International agreements, 3, 41–43, 63. See also Trade
economic incentives, 132–136 as basis of intervention, 40–56 policies; specific agreement or convention
forest management by, 15, 268 international level, 77–79 compliance, 78, 78
language diversity and, 411 Institutional responses, 77–79 cultural services and, 410–413
organizing as NGOs, 411 climate change, 396–398, 397 customary law, 42
taking advantage of global institutions and coordination, 2–3 design of, 491–492
conventions to receive attention, 407 coordination among, 2–3, 78–79 domestic context and, 493
traditional knowledge of. See Knowledge decision-making process and, 7, 545–546 as drivers of change, 57
Indirect anthropogenic effects and climate change, infectious diseases, 369 effectiveness of, 521–522
391–392 reform, importance of, 522 enforcement system, 43–44
Indirect drivers. See Drivers of change waste management, 321–322 human well-being and, 490–493
Indonesia Instream water acquisition programs, 236, 237, 238 negotiation of, 492–493
biodiversity and decentralization of responsibility in, Insurance outside environmental sector, 42–43
153 environmental accountability and, 539 policy coherence and, 493
forests in, 262 for flood and storm control, 17, 347 ‘‘soft law,’’ 42
Komodo National Park, 128 Integrated management, 7, 89, 101–102 treaties, 41–42
property rights in, 226 coastal management, 144 International Commission for the Protection of the
Infant mortality reduction, Millennium Development pest (IPM), 195, 504 Rhine, 230, 518
Goals, 562–563, 563 river basins, 144 International Convention for the Control and
Infectious diseases, 18, 353–372. See also specific disease vector (IVM), 18, 359–360, 360–361, 366, 369 Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and
biological control/natural predators, 18, 361–362 wastes, 324 Sediments, 43
burden of, 469–470, 470 water resources, 518 International Convention for the Regulation of
chemical control, 18, 362–363, 369 Integrated responses, 20, 425–465. See also Integrated Whaling, 138
climate change and, 475 management International Coral Reef Initiative, 158
current status of, 356 assessment of, 429–430, 430 International Court of Justice’s environmental
dam construction and, 505 coastal zone management, 452–454 decisions, 42
development policies, importance of, 359 collaboration between different actors, stakeholders, International environmental governance (IEG),
ecological conditions and vector-borne disease, 357 and institutions, 429 431–434
ecosystem services and, 362, 472 conservation and development projects, 450–452 International Institute for Sustainable Development,
environmental data, linkage to, 481 decision-making process and, 459, 460, 535 378
floods and storms causing, 338 defined, 428 International Labour Organization, 55
future projections of, 356 ecosystem approach as framework for, 436–438, International legal responses. See International
genetic modification of vector species, 18, 365–367 437–439 agreements; specific conventions and agreements
global trends as indirect drivers, 357–359 enabling conditions and constraints, 457–458 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 41, 516
health awareness and education, 18, 364–365 international level, 440 International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 148
human settlement patterns and, 18, 363–364 forest management, 448–450 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for
indirect and direct influences on transmission, 358 horizontal and vertical integration, 429 Food and Agriculture, 43, 136, 149
institutional responses, 369 international responses, 430–440. See also International Tropical Timber Agreement, 43, 491
integrated vector management, 18, 359–360, Multilateral environmental agreements International Tropical Timber Organization, 264
360–361, 366, 369 (MEAs); specific agreement or convention International Union for Conservation of Nature and
inter-sectoral cooperation among health, international trade and environmental governance, Natural Resources. See IUCN
environment, and development institutions, 438–440 Interventions
367–369 legal responses, 457 criteria for choosing, 47
Millennium Development Goals, 564–566, 565 limits to integration, 458 human health, methods for selecting, 481–482
poverty and, 356 linkages between social and natural systems, MA assessment of, 35–36
responses, analysis and assessment of, 369–370, 536 428–429 Invasive species
social and behavioral responses to, 363–365, 364, national responses, 20, 440–448, 441. See also biodiversity and, 138–139
369 National responses international agreements and, 43
technological advances in overcoming, 365–367 river basin management, 454–457 national responses and, 494
Index 615
prevention, control, or eradication of, 138–139, 408, land use, land use change, and forestry, 389, 391 Legitimacy, 78, 101
499 legal responses, 319 Leishmaniasis, 357, 361, 363
South African policy on, 408 sinks, use of, 390, 392 Lesotho Highlands Water Project, 221, 224
IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Liability, civil and criminal, 46
Change L Linking Poverty Reduction and Environmental Management
Irrigation, 176, 194–195 Lake Victoria and introduction of non-native species, (World Bank), 514
ferti-irrigation, 323 204 Livestock. See Agriculture
management of, 228–229, 558 Lakes. See Inland water systems Living landscapes, 142
markets in reallocation, 237–239 Land use and cover changes. See also Agriculture; Loans, 50
mixed farming systems and, 197 Deforestation; Urban growth and Local communities
technological advances and, 509 urbanization benefiting from biodiversity, 131–137. See also
wastewater, use of, 324 climate change and, 21, 389–391, 391, 393 Indigenous peoples
Island systems and waste management, 328 cultivation and, 207, 558 culture of. See Cultural services
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of as drivers of change, 57 empowerment of, 52, 57
Nature and Natural Resources), 125, 135, flooding and, 344, 344 governance, 79–80
137, 138, 140, 141 indices to track, 99 ICDPs, 132–133
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 138–139 Land use planning and flood and storm control, 18, knowledge of. See Knowledge
347–348, 348 responses available to, 61, 62, 64, 67
J risk perception of, 482
Landfills. See Waste management
Japan. See also Asia Local institutions and ecosystem change, 41
Landscape approach to biodiversity, 143–145
migratory birds, bilateral agreements on, 158 Local knowledge. See Knowledge
Landscapes, cultural perceptions of, 19, 405–406,
‘‘Job blackmail,’’ 76 Logging. See Timber
499–502
Johannesburg Summit. See World Summit on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollutants regime, 492
Language diversity, 411
Sustainable Development Louisiana coast and wetlands project, 343
Latin America. See also specific countries
Judicial review, 46 Lyme disease, 358, 477
carbon sequestration in Andes, 159
Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, 53
K
Kaldor-Hicks criterion, 80
constitutional provisions on environment, 45 M
forests, local management of, 269 MA. See Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Kenya. See also Africa
home gardens and biodiversity, 148 Macroeconomic policies, 4, 523
devolvement of authority and biodiversity in, 153
hurricane damage, 567 Madagascar and biodiversity, 61
pyrethrum cultivation in, 60
infectious diseases, 357, 359, 362, 364, 368 Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, 44
Knowledge
outbreaks after disasters, 338 Malaria, 356, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362, 364, 366,
acquisition and acceptance, 55–56
credibility of, 56 river basin initiatives, 231 368–369, 469, 564–566, 565
food provision and, 185–190 tourism and conservation incentives, 133 Mali. See also Africa
gaps in, 6, 9–10 water rights, 226 NGO and traditional approach to environmental
human well-being and, 501–502 watershed management, economic incentives for, management, 414
information provision and, 49–50, 160 242–243 Mangroves, 344–345, 345, 505
scientific knowledge, 55–56, 502 Least developed countries, Millennium Development Manure, agricultural use of, 205–206, 306. See also
traditional and local knowledge, 19, 409–410 Goals, 575–577 Nutrient management
‘‘best practices,’’ 413 Legal responses, 41–47, 56 Marine protected areas (MPAs), 128, 150–151
biodiversity preservation and, 52 climate change and, 378–379 Marine reserves
CBD and. See Convention on Biological ‘‘command and control’’ regulations, 44 biodiversity and, 150–151
Diversity (CBD) domestic constitutional law, 44–45 ecosystems and wastes, 330
combining with scientific knowledge, 502 domestic enforcement system, 46 food provision and, 180–181, 205
compensation for, 19, 413 domestic environmental regulations, 44 Market-based valuations and uncertainties, 110, 522
contributions of, 34–35, 412 domestic non-environmental legislation, 45–46 Markets for provision of fresh water, 235–236, 544
human well-being and, 500–502 environmental impact assessments (EIAs), role of, 45 Marrakesh Accords, 390
legitimization of, 54–55 guidelines, standards, codes of practices, etc., 42 Material needs and human well-being, 29, 512–513
marginalization of, 86 human well-being and, 490–495 Maternal health, Millennium Development Goals,
resource ownership and control based on instrument design, 491–492 563–564, 564
responses, 413–414 international level, 490–493 MDGs. See Millennium Development Goals
sociopolitical context of, 534 national and local instruments, 493–494 MEAs. See Multilateral environmental agreements
usable knowledge, 534 integrated responses, 457 Medicine, traditional, 52, 52, 413, 561–562
Komodo National Park, 128 international customary law, 42 Mekong River Commission, 230, 231
Kyoto Protocol, 42, 43, 63 international enforcement system, 43–44 Melanesia, land and environmental ethics in, 52
‘‘Brazilian Proposal,’’ 383 level and effectiveness of, 522 Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge, 128
carbon management, 282 ‘‘soft law,’’ 42 Microcredits, 50
accounting of biological carbon, 393 treaties, 41–42 Migratory birds, 158
design of, 491 uncertainties and, 99–100 Millennium Development Goals, 2–3, 549–583
economic aspects of, 21, 394–395 waste management and, 319, 323 background to, 323, 551–554
emission reduction, 379 wild species, management of, 138 biodiversity and, 124
Millennium Development Goals (continued) N Nuclear power, 387

capacity-building for policy-making, 581–582 NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement Nutrient management, 17, 206, 295–311, 299, 557,
child mortality, reduction of, 562–563, 563 National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), 81 585
crosscutting analysis of, 577–580, 578–579 National Hurricane Center (U.S.), 346–347 animal wastes and, 302–303
direct and indirect impacts, 580 National responses, 63, 65, 67. See also Domestic legal hybrid approaches, 307–308
ecosystem services and, 5, 514, 553, 575 responses cross-scale interactions and, 542
education, 558–559 conservation strategies, 266 ecosystem biophysical information and, 535
energy services and, 580–581 effectiveness of, 522 fossil fuel sources, 303–304, 308
environmental sustainability, 566–568, 577 enabling conditions and constraints for, 447–448 human health and, 473
forestry assistance and, 264 environmental action plans (NEAPs), 266, 444–446, hybrid approaches, 307–308
gender equality, 560–562, 561 446 leaching and runoff from agriculture, 301–302, 302
global partnership for development, 575–577, 576 environmental policy integration, 442, 442–444 hybrid approaches, 307
hunger reduction, 556–558, 557 forest programs and, 15, 266–268 lessons learned, 308–309
infectious diseases and, 359, 367, 564–566, 565 human well-being and, 493–494 marketable permits, 307
least developed countries, special needs of, 575–577 instruments responses
maternal health, 563–564 for national sustainable development strategies, analysis and assessment of, 304–308
poverty reduction, 554–556, 555 447 to excess nutrients, 301–304
purpose of, 41, 551 for NEAPs, 445 to insufficient nutrients, 301
research agenda, 582–583 for policy integration, 443–444, 444 taxes and fees, 307, 498
safe drinking water, 218, 568, 570, 570–572 integrated, 20, 440–448, 441 technological change and, 9, 298, 300, 300
slum dwellers, improving lives of, 573–574, outcomes technology-based standards, 306
573–575 of national sustainable development strategies, 447 total maximum daily loads, 306–307
summary of, 552 of NEAPs, 445–446 urban and suburban sources, 304, 308
time trade-offs, 580 of policy integration, 444 voluntary approaches, 305–306
transport services and, 580–581 sustainable development strategies, 446–447 waste conversion to organo-mineral fertilizer, 320
2010 goals for reducing species loss, 144 Natural disasters. See Flood and storm control water pollution and, 298, 299, 299–300
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) Nature Conservancy, 61 watershed vs. nationally uniform responses, 304–305
assessment tools for, 34–35 Nature–culture dichotomy, 404–405, 499–500 wetlands and, 304, 308
conceptual framework. See Conceptual framework Negotiation of international agreements, 492–493 Nutrient trading, 234
of ecosystem assessment New business opportunities, 544–545 Nutrition. See Food provision
Millennium Development Goals and, 553–554 New York Biosphere Reserve, 408 NWFPs. See Non-wood forest products
reporting categories of, 31 New York City
Mining, effect of, 45–46 waste management, 323 O
‘‘Missing market,’’ 81 water management, 505 Ocean water and desalination, 251–252
Mixed farming systems, 180, 205–206 New Zealand Ombudsman system, 46
water and, 197 cyclones and flooding in, 342, 345 Onchocerciasis Control Program, 362–363, 365
Modeling, 34 forests and rights of indigenous people, 268 Opportunity costs, 83
Monitoring health concept in, 470 Organic farming, 193–194, 509, 544
biodiversity maintenance and recovery, 145 ombudsman system in, 46 Organic waste in landfills, 320
decision-making and, 530–531, 538–539 open access fisheries in, 200, 201 Organizational coherence, 519
importance of, 4 Taieri Catchment & Community Health Project, Overexploitation of fish. See Fish and fisheries
technological advances in, 511 479 Overgrazing, 207
treaty implementation and, 44, 154, 492 NGOs, 41, 45, 53, 432 Ozone production, 304
waste management and, 21 local and indigenous communities organizing as,
Mono-cropping, 472 411, 414 P
Montreal Protocol, 42, 43, 154, 394, 395, 480, 491, responses available to, 61, 62, 67 Pakistan. See also Asia
492 Tropical Forests Action Plan and, 266 irrigation with wastewater, 324
Mosquitoes and vector-borne diseases, 357, 367, 368 Nigeria. See also Africa Pan American Health Organization, 367
genetic modification of vector species, 366 education and awareness raising, 416, 534 Pareto efficient, 80, 81
Mountain systems and waste management, 328 waste management, 320, 322, 324 Parks. See Protected areas
MPAs. See Marine protected areas Nitrogen fertilizer. See Nutrient management Participation and transparency, 3–4, 537, 543. See also
Multicriteria analysis and uncertainties, 107, 110 Nitrous oxide emissions, 299, 299, 303–304, 308, 394, Stakeholders
Multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), 63, 395 Partnerships
153–159, 156–157, 433, 434–438. See also Non-utilitarian value paradigm, 34 benefits for conservation from, 137
International agreements Non-wood forest products, 150, 276–279 company-community forestry partnerships, 15,
effective implementation of, 153–158 commercializing of, 16, 278, 498, 544–545 270–271, 271–273
funding for, 438 as food source, 277 freshwater systems, 14, 244–248
list of major agreements, 435–436 policy challenges for, 278–279 public-private partnerships and, 244–245,
poverty and, 154, 513–514 poverty and, 277–278 246–247
problems of, 158 Nonmarket valuations and uncertainties, 110–112 innovative, 7
Murray-Darling Basin, 224, 229, 234, 236, 238–239, North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), private sector-government partnerships, 60
454, 456 42–43, 265 strategic partnerships, 543
Index 617
People, Land Management, and Ecosystem Privatization, 152, 226, 513, 523 Religion. See Cultural and religious drivers; Cultural
Conservation program, 413 of forest resources, 261 services
Permanent Court of Arbitration Optional Rules for Prohibition, 47 Renewable energy technologies, 387–388
Arbitration of Disputes Relating to Natural Projection uncertainty, 98, 110 Reporting mechanism in international agreements, 154,
Resources and/or the Environment, 44 Property rights, 7, 19, 84–85, 100, 521. See also 492. See also specific agreement or convention
Persistent Organic Pollutants Protocol, 43 Intellectual property rights Reputation of businesses, 543
Pest management, 195, 504, 535 conservation of biodiversity and, 134 Research and development
Pesticides, 323, 327, 557, 566 forest management and, 268–271 biodiversity priorities, 163–165
Phosphorus fertilizer. See Nutrient management freshwater systems and, 225–227, 235–236 insufficient investment in, 6
Physical structures as means for flood and storm control, Protected areas, 100 international agriculture research, 191
17, 341–342, 342 adequacy of, 125–126 Millennium Development Goals, 582–583
Pigovian taxes, 84 assessment of, 131 Reservoirs. See Dams and reservoirs
Plantation forestry, 16, 276, 280–281, 543 basis of assessment of, 126–127 Resilience, institutional, 77
Plants. See also Agriculture design of, 129 Response Assessment Matrix, 87, 87
traditional medicine and, 52, 413 diverse views on use of, 417, 417, 500 Responses
Plastic waste, 319–320 global network of, 126 characteristics of successful responses, 2–5
Polar systems and waste management, 328 linking to landscape, 143–145 choice of, 5–6, 527–548
Policy coherence, 519–520 local participation and effectiveness, 3 coordination across sectors and scales, 2–3
Political drivers. See Sociopolitical drivers of change management of, 127–129 definition of, 73
Pollen storage, 149 marine protected areas, 128, 150–151 effectiveness of assessed responses, 10–21
Pollution. See Waste management; Water pollution regional and global planning for, 129–130 enabling conditions for. See Enabling conditions
Population as response to biodiversity loss, 125–131, 494 typology of, 37–70. See also Typology of responses
food provision and, 176 for species conservation, 138 Responses Working Group’s assessment methodology,
government policies on, 51, 57 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic xv
Post-materialism hypothesis, 86 Treaty. See Madrid Protocol on Restoration of ecosystem services, 9
Potential Pareto Improvement, 80 Environmental Protection wetlands, 14, 250–251, 343
Poverty Provisioning services, 29. See also specific type of service Reverse osmosis, 251, 252
adaptive management and, 520–521 Public health implications Rhine Basin, 457
concepts and measures of, 512 vector-borne disease and, 357 Rhön Biosphere Reserve in Germany, 416, 416, 536
ecosystem degradation and, 27, 86 waste management and, 331 Rio Declaration, 42, 52, 107, 359, 432, 482, 566,
forests and, 267 Public participation in decision-making, 32, 45, 569–570. See also Earth Summit
freshwater systems and, 218 227–229, 522 Risk assessment, 35, 106–107, 110, 346, 539–541
gender issues and, 514–515, 516 for freshwater systems, 13, 227–229 Risk perception and human health, 482
human health and, 469, 484 integrated responses and, 457–458 RiskMap as vulnerability analysis tool, 109
human well-being and, 43 River basin management
hunger and, 472 R
human health and, 478–479
infectious diseases and, 356 Radical uncertainty, 99
integrated responses, 454–457
Millennium Development Goals and, 554–556, 555 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 3, 26
monitoring and evaluation of policies, 539
participatory poverty assessments (PPAs), 516 amendment of, 42
organizations, 13, 229–231
poverty reduction strategies (PRSPs), 4–5, 267, 516 financial support for, 158, 492
Rivers. See Inland water systems
reduction responses, 29–32, 514–516, 523 integrated river basin management and, 456
Runoff. See Nutrient management
technological development and, 506 monitoring and reporting, 44, 158
Rural peoples, 534. See also Agriculture; Indigenous
trade-offs with ecosystem services, 219 restoration under, 250
peoples
tropical forests and, 515 Rangeland systems and climate change, 390
waste management and, 331 Recreation, 415–417. See also Tourism
water management and, 497 human health and, 475 S
human well-being and, 502–503 Sacred groves and areas, 19, 409, 409, 500
Poverty and Famines (Sen), 504
Precautionary principle, 107–108, 110 Recycling, 323, 325–326, 329 Safe drinking water. See Drinking water
Precision agriculture, 191, 193, 508 Red tides, 330 ‘‘Safe stopping rules,’’ 107–108
Predators Reduced impact logging, 279 St. Lucia charcoal market and biodiversity conservation,
loss of, 140 Reforestation. See also Forests 495, 496
vector-borne diseases and, 361–362 climate change and, 390, 391 Samoa and protected areas, 128
Prediction uncertainty, 98, 110 flood and storm control, 343–344, 344 Sand dunes, 345
Preferences, expression of, 8, 82 impacts of, 17 Sand storms, 340
Pregnancy and maternal health, Millennium Regional planning and biodiversity, 141–145, 494 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement, 42
Development Goals, 563–564, 564 Regulating services, 29 SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), 359, 480,
Private sector responses, 60–61, 62, 494 Regulatory responses 566
biodiversity conservation and, 145–147, 146 climate change and, 397 Scale of responses, 62–65
new business opportunities for, 544–545 freshwater systems and, 231–232 bilateral agreements, 63
partnerships. See Partnerships human well-being and, 494 challenges and issues, 64, 65
public policy consideration of, 545 Reintroduction of species to native habitats, 138, 408, global/universal, 63
reputation of businesses and, 543 494 local, 64
Scale of responses (continued) Stakeholders, 3–4. See also Local communities Technological responses, 9, 53–54, 56. See also
multilateral agreements, 63 forests and, 262 Scientific and technological drivers;
national policies, 63 heterogeneity of, 516–517, 517 Substitutions
plurilateral agreements, 63 importance of, 28 agriculture and, 9, 504
state/provincial policies, 63–64 institutional responses, involvement of, 100–101 citizen’s eye-view of, 506
Scenario-building, 103–104, 104 motivations of, 109 climate change, 9, 395–396
definition of scenario, 103 participation of, 7, 32. See also Public participation in definition of technology, 53
human health and, 475 decision-making effectiveness of, 522
purpose of, 35 political feasibility of response and, 75–76 energy and, 543–544
Schistosomiasis, 481 risk perception of, 482 flood and storm control, 504–505
Scientific and technological drivers, 59. See also social learning of, 161 food provision and, 190–194
Technological responses trade-offs among, 4 freshwater systems and, 248–252
Seagrasses, 345 waste prevention and resource recovery, human well-being and, 503–507
Security and human well-being, 29, 507 involvement in, 321 infectious diseases, 365–367
Seed banks, 148, 504 State/provincial policies, 63–64 nutrient management and, 306
Sen, Amartya, 504, 520 Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the operative, 54
Seven Islands Land Company, 271 Management, Conservation, and Sustainable opportunities and incentives for, 543–544
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. See SARS Development of All Types of Forests, 42, 52 poverty and, 506
Sewage. See Waste management Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, preventive, 54
Sinks and climate change, 389–393, 390 42 rehabilitative, 54
Sleeping sickness, 360 Subsidies sustainable use of biological diversity and ecosystem
Slum dwellers, improving lives of as Millennium elimination of, 8, 522 conservation and, 508–511
Development Goal, 573–574, 573–575 fertilizer, 306 targets of responses, 54
Small-scale private and public–private ownership and food production, 185, 497 timing of responses, 54
forest management, 15, 270, 536, 542 problems caused by, 47, 135–136, 522 transfer mechanisms, 492
Social and behavioral responses, 8–9, 56, 499–503 types of, 48 climate change and, 395–396
as barrier to sustainability, 6 Substitutions waste management and, 319–320, 324–325, 329,
changing perceptions of ecosystems and, 499–502 for ecosystems due to floods and storms, 348–349 505
civil disobedience and protest, 53 feasibility of, 32 water management and, 505, 543
climate change and, 384–385 for wood products, 263 wood and, 262, 276, 277
cognitive differences and ecological beliefs, 85–86 Sugar markets, 186–187 Technology regulation, 48
empowerment, 51–53. See also Empowerment Sustainability, 27, 32. See also World Summit on as drivers of change, 57
equity, 85, 85 Sustainable Development TEIAs. See Transboundary environmental impact
human well-being and, 29, 30, 513 barriers to, 6 assessments
infectious diseases and, 363–365, 364, 369, 534 definition of sustainable development, 341, 341 Tennessee Valley Authority, 229, 229, 231
population policies, 51 flood and storm control and sustainable Thailand. See also Asia
in synthesis in response strategies, 112–113 development, 341–348 tourism and conservation incentives, 133, 495
waste management and, 322 forests and, 42, 150, 267 Theory of Value, The (Debreu), 80
Social impacts of loss of biodiversity, 164 history of concept of, 41 Third-party impacts of water transfers, 239–241, 241
Social vulnerability, 108 integrated and sustainable waste management, 322 Third-party voluntary forest certification, 16, 274–276,
Socio-environmental Institute in Brazil, 407 Millennium Development Goals, 566–568 275
Socioeconomic impacts of freshwater systems, 241–242 Rio Declaration. See Rio Declaration Tibetan and Buddhist ecology, 409
Sociopolitical drivers of change, 58–59 uncertainty and, 101 Tick-borne diseases, 477, 512
public participation. See Public participation in wild species and sustainable use programs, 139–140 Timber. See also Forests
decision-making Sweden International Tropical Timber Agreement, 43
Sociopolitical information available for decision- forest management in, 270 reduced impact logging, 279
making, 533–534 nitrogen-polluted water in, 300 Time consistency and discounting, 83
‘‘Soft law,’’ 42 tick-borne diseases in, 477 Time scale of assessments, 34
Soil contamination, 327–328 Synergies. See Trade-offs and synergies Tourism, 20. See also Ecotourism
Solar energy, 251 Synthesis of responses, 65–67, 66, 99–102 cultural services and, 415–417, 419
South Africa political, economic, and social factors, 112–113 cultural tourism, 20, 417, 419, 544
balancing ecotourism and environmental protection, human well-being and, 502–503
545 T rural and urban tourism, 417
biodiversity and, 143 Tampa Bay, 251, 300, 305, 505, 542 Tradable development rights (TDRs)
climate stress and food insecurity, 539–540 Taxes conservation of biodiversity and, 134
invasive species policy, 408 carbon emissions and, 395 effectiveness of, 495
water rights, 226, 227 conservation of biodiversity and tax credits, 134 freshwater services and, 242
South America. See Latin America effectiveness of tax credits, 495 wetland mitigation banks and, 242
Species, extinction of. See Biodiversity nutrient management and, 307, 498 Tradable permit systems, 48–49. See also Cap-and-trade
Sri Lanka. See also Asia as resource management tool, 8 systems
national environmental action plan, 446 TDRs. See Tradable development rights nutrient management and, 307, 498
Index 619
Trade-offs and synergies, 4 drivers of change and, 57–60, 58–59. See also Drivers UNCLOS. See Convention on the Law of the Sea
acceptable trade-offs, xv, 74, 86 of change UNECE Convention on Access to Information, Public
biodiversity and, 162–163 economic responses, 47–51, 56. See also Economic Participation in Decision-Making, and
businesses’ role in, 542–545 responses Access to Justice in Environmental Matters,
identification of, 87 government responses, 60 433
integrated responses, 458–459 human health and, 475–476 UNEP. See United Nations Environment Programme
Millennium Development Goals institutional framework as basis of intervention, UNESCO
child mortality, 563 40–56 Biosphere Reserve, 408
environmental sustainability, 567, 567–568 legal responses, 41–47, 56. See also Legal responses Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems in a
gender equality, 560–562 nature of intervention and, 40–56 Global Society, 412
infectious diseases, 565 private sector responses, 60–61 World Heritage Program, 411, 412, 499
maternal health, 564, 564 scale of operation of decision-maker and, 62–65. See UNFCCC. See Framework Convention on Climate
poverty reduction, 556 also Scale of responses Change
primary education, 559, 559 social and behavioral responses, 51–53, 56. See also UNICEF on primary education, 560
time trade-offs, 580 Social and behavioral responses Unintended consequences, 60, 74, 102
trade policies, 575, 576 sources of, 40 United Kingdom
poverty and, 219 synthesis of, 65–67 agriculture policy, 100, 194
qualitative assessment of, 88, 88 technological responses, 53–54, 56. See also flooding, 338
quantitative assessment of, 88, 88 Technological responses invasive species, 139
sustainable forest management, 450 Local Agenda 21 National Campaign, 432
Trade policies, 4, 42–43, 50 U private sector and biodiversity action, 146
‘‘fair trade,’’ 19, 414–415, 415 Ubuntu Declaration, 51 water public-private partnerships, 246
food provision and, 181–185, 182–185 Uganda. See also Africa United Nations. See also Millennium Development
forests and, 264, 265–266 vector-borne disease in, 360 Goals; specific conventions
integrated responses and environmental governance, Uncertainties, 5, 95–116, 541–542 Agenda 21, 43, 323, 359, 431, 432, 433, 439, 454,
438–440 accommodation of, 104–105 458, 482, 514
liberalization, 113, 265–266, 523, 575 calibration uncertainty, 98, 108, 110 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Millennium Development Goals, 575, 576 carbon management and, 282 Rights, 43
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights challenges of, 113–114 Conference on Environment and Development
(TRIPS), 42, 136 contextual uncertainty, 98, 110 (UNCED), 55, 323, 441, 458
Traditional knowledge. See Knowledge contingent valuation and, 111–112 Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Traditional medicine, 52, 52, 413 cost–benefit analysis and, 105–106, 106, 110 Peoples, 55
Transboundary environmental impact assessments cross-cutting issues and, 112 forest policy of, 263, 267, 458
(TEIAs), 230–231, 539 decision analytic frameworks and, 105–109 Forum on Forests, 263
Transfer payments and freshwater systems, 242 governance and, 101 People, Land Management, and Ecosystem
Transnational companies and forests, 265 hedonic valuation methods and, 111 Conservation program, 413
Transnational linkages, benefits and negatives, 407 human demand ecosystem services and, 100 sustainable approach of flood and storm control of,
Transparency. See Accountability; Participation and institutional responses and 341
transparency to ecosystem protection, 100 World Water Assessment Program, 221
Transport services, Millennium Development Goals, stakeholder involvement, 100–101 United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), 41,
580–581 land tenureship and, 414 323, 432
Travel cost methods, 111 legal and control responses and, 99–100 Urban agriculture, 326, 504
Treaties, 41–42. See also Multilateral environmental market-based valuations and, 110 Urban Biosphere Group, 408
agreements (MEAs) methods for analyzing, 102–105, 110 Urban growth and urbanization
Trees. See Forests; Timber multicriteria analysis and, 107, 107, 110 agriculture and, 326
TRIPS. See Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual nonmarket valuations and, 110–112 flood and storm control and, 340
Property Rights precautionary principle and, 107–108, 110 infectious diseases and, 363–364
Tropical cyclones. See Flood and storm control prediction uncertainty, 98, 110 Millennium Development Goals, improving to lives
Tropical forests. See also Amazon area; International projection uncertainty, 98, 110 of slum dwellers, 573–574, 573–575
Tropical Timber Agreement radical uncertainty, 99 nitrogen pollution and, 304, 308
carbon and, 208 response options and assessment methods, 98–99 tourism and, 417
downstream hydrological function and, 242 risk assessment and, 106–107, 110 waste management and, 325–326, 326
poverty and, 515 ‘‘safe stopping rules’’ and, 107–108 U.S. air pollution
Rainforest Harvest, 414–415 subjective and estimated perceptions of, 98 Clean Air Act, 79, 299, 303
Tropical Forests Action Plan, 266 synthesis in response strategies, 99–102 emission reduction targets, 379
Trypanosomiasis. See Chagas disease political, economic, and social factors, 112–113 U.S. Endangered Species Act, 60, 239
Tuberculosis, 566 taxonomy of sources of, 98 U.S. Interagency Ecosystem Management Task Force,
Typology of responses, 37–70 unintended consequences. See Unintended 439
actors’ responses, 60–62, 62, 531 consequences U.S. National Hurricane Center, 346–347
cognitive responses, 54–56. See also Knowledge valuation techniques and, 109–112 U.S. nutrient management, 299–300, 301, 304–305,
difficulty in differentiating, 39–40 vulnerability analysis and, 108–109, 110 306
U.S. waste management financial and economic responses, 320–321 economic incentives and, 241–244, 242
Federal Energy Technology Center, 325 freshwater ecosystems and, 328–329 nutrient management and, 304–305
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 323 gray water treatment and use, 324, 504 Wealth-poverty gap. See Poverty
Solid Waste Disposal Act, 323 hazardous wastes, 327–328 Weather patterns. See Climate change
Toxic Release Inventory, 322 historical considerations, 322–323, 324 Well-being. See Human well-being
U.S. water management human waste and wastewater, 300, 304 Wetlands
Carey Act, 236 human well-being and, 317, 318, 325, 326, 329, Convention on. See Ramsar Convention on
Clean Water Act, 232, 306, 307, 498 473, 505, 513 Wetlands
flow regulation in Pacific Northwest, 239 institutional responses, 321–322 flood moderation and, 342–343
instream water acquisition programs, 236, 237, 238 integrated and sustainable waste management, 322 mitigation banking, 234
large-scale watershed ecosystems, development of, integrated design of responses, 324 nutrient sinks in, 304, 308
541 legal responses, 319, 323 restoration and mitigation, 14, 250–251, 343
Mississippi flood control, 342 marine ecosystems and, 330 technological advances and, 509
Safe Drinking Water Act, 251 minimization, 325–326 waste management and, 323, 329–330
third-party impacts of water transfers, 239, 241 organic waste in landfills, 320 WHO. See World Health Organization
water banks, 236, 238, 241 political interest in responses, 323 Wild species, management of, 137–141
water exchanges, 236 positive impact of responses, 323–324 Wildstock in competition with livestock, 207
water ‘‘grab,’’ 237 poverty reduction and, 331 WIPO. See World Intellectual Property Organization
Utilitarian value paradigm, 34 public health implications of, 331 Women
recycling, 323, 325–326, 329 empowerment of, 13, 52, 560–562
V remote ecosystems and, 328 food provision and, 181, 184
Value associated with ecosystem services, 33–34, 34, responses Millennium Development Goals
81–83 assessment of, 325–330 gender equality, 560–562, 561
best information available, use of, 536–537 selection of, 319–322 maternal health, 563–564, 564
biodiversity and, 123, 163–164 sociocultural responses, 322 poverty and, 514–515, 516
importance of, 499 technological responses and, 20, 319–320, 324–325, traditional medicine and, 52
uncertainties and valuation techniques, 109–112 329, 505 Wood fuel. See Fuelwood
watershed management and, 101 typology of, 316, 316–317 Woodlands. See Forests
Vector-borne diseases. See Infectious diseases
urban agriculture, 326 World Association of Zoos and Aquariums, 140
Vehicle emissions, 323. See also Nitrous oxide emissions
urban and terrestrial ecosystems and, 325–326, 326 World Bank
Vertical coherence, 519, 519–520
Water banks, 236, 238, 240, 241, 496 BioCarbon Fund, 390
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Water-borne diseases, 473, 474, 477–478 consumer actions targeting for effect on world
Layer, 42
Water exchanges, 236, 240 forests, 273
Viruses. See Infectious diseases
Water hyacinth, 323 environmental issues and, 2, 41
Volition, 103
Water pollution, 198, 572 on flooding and its beneficial impacts, 339
Volunteer responses
agriculture and, 195–196, 301–302, 302, 543 forestry sector reviews required by, 266
economic, 49–50
animal wastes and, 300, 302–303 indigenous people, ensuring benefits for, 55
forests and, 265, 274–276, 275
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, 227, 228 local involvement in projects, 61
freshwater systems and voluntary contractual
human wastewater and, 300, 304 national environmental action plans and, 266
arrangements, 242
nutrient runoff and, 298, 299 poverty reduction strategies (PRSPs) of, 4–5, 267,
nutrient management, 305–306
Water resources 516
private sector responses, 61–62
climate change and, 378 protected areas and, 127
Vulnerability analysis, 108–109, 539–541
coastal. See Coastal water systems World Commission on Dams, 249, 433, 434
definition of vulnerability, 108
dams and reservoirs. See Dams and reservoirs World Food Summit, 181
response options and, 476, 477
floods. See Flood and storm control World Health Organization (WHO)
uncertainties and, 108–109, 110
food provision and, 176, 194–196 ‘‘burden of disease’’ assessments, 480, 566
W fresh water. See Freshwater systems definition of health from, 470
WAINIMATE and traditional medicine, 52, 561–562 groundwater. See Inland water systems environment and health awareness, 368
Waste management, 20–21, 313–334 human well-being and, 216–220, 478–479, Malaria Eradication Campaign, 362
agricultural ecosystems and, 326–327 496–497, 505 vector-borne disease, 356
agricultural uses of, 329 inland. See Inland water systems World Heritage Convention, 52, 158, 491
animal. See Animal wastes and water pollution integrated management, 518 World Heritage Program (UNESCO), 411, 412, 499
biodiversity conservation and, 331 irrigation. See Irrigation World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO),
coastal ecosystems and, 330 marine. See Marine reserves 411, 502
conversion to organo-mineral fertilizer, 320 mixed farming systems and, 197 World Parks Congress, 127, 129
damaging impact of responses, 324 permits (U.S.), 521 World Summit on Sustainable Development, 124, 145,
drivers of change and, 317–319 pollution. See Water pollution 201, 205, 323, 359, 431, 433, 482, 492, 493
ecosystem and, 317, 318 pricing in irrigated agriculture, 194–195, 196 World Tourism Organization, 133
education and knowledge to change practices and watersheds. See Watershed management World Trade Organization (WTO), 41, 42, 265, 575
attitudes, 21, 322, 331 Watershed management, 14, 101. See also River basin Agreement on Agriculture, 185
eutrophication, 329 management biodiversity and, 125
Index 621
World Trade Organization (continued) WTO. See World Trade Organization tourism in, 418
dispute resolution, 43–44, 439 WWF. See World Wildlife Fund Zoning, 47
Doha Trade Round, 440 Zoo populations, 140
rule violations under, 439 Y Zoonotic diseases, 361, 512
World Wide Fund for Nature, 343 Youth, empowerment of, 52–53
World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 61, 127, 133, 274
Z
World Zoo Conservation Strategy, 140
Zimbabwe. See also Africa
WSSD. See World Summit on Sustainable
sacred areas and land reform in, 409
Development
Island Press Board of Directors
Victor M. Sher, Esq. (Chair), Sher & Leff, San Francisco, CA
Dane A. Nichols (Vice-Chair), Washington, DC
Carolyn Peachey (Secretary), Campbell, Peachey & Associates, Washington, DC
Drummond Pike (Treasurer), President, The Tides Foundation, San Francisco, CA
Robert E. Baensch, Director, Center for Publishing, New York University, New York, NY
David C. Cole, President, Aquaterra, Inc.,Washington, VA
Catherine M. Conover, Quercus LLC, Washington, DC
Merloyd Ludington, Merloyd Lawrence Inc., Boston, MA
William H. Meadows, President, The Wilderness Society, Washington, DC
Henry Reath, Princeton, NJ
Will Rogers, President, The Trust for Public Land, San Francisco, CA
Alexis G. Sant, Trustee and Treasurer, Summit Foundation, Washington, DC
Charles C. Savitt, President, Island Press, Washington, DC
Susan E. Sechler, Senior Advisor, The German Marshall Fund, Washington, DC
Peter R. Stein, General Partner, LTC Conservation Advisory Services, The Lyme Timber Company,
Hanover, NH
Diana Wall, Ph.D., Director and Professor, Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University,
Fort Collins, CO
Wren Wirth, Washington, DC

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Australia Czech Republic

Pushpam Kumar, Institute of Economic Growth Nepal

Malaysia Sri Lanka

Susan Mainka, IUCN—The World Conservation Union United States

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AI aridity index CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research

CCAMLR Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine DU Dobson Units

ENSO El Niño/Southern Oscillation IAA integrated agriculture-aquaculture

EPI environmental policy integration IBI Index of Biotic Integrity

EU European Union ICBG International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups

GHG greenhouse gases IK indigenous knowledge

GIS geographic information system ILO International Labour Organization

GIWA Global International Waters Assessment IMF International Monetary Fund

GMO genetically modified organism INTA Instituto Nacional de Tecnologı́a Agropecuaria

IWMI International Water Management Institute NFP national forest programs

IWRM integrated water resources management NGO nongovernmental organization

JI joint implementation NMHC non-methane hydrocarbons

JMP Joint Monitoring Program NOAA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric

MICS multiple indicator cluster surveys PPI potential Pareto improvement

MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology ppm parts per million

MPA marine protected area ppmv parts per million by volume

RRA rapid rural appraisal TSU Technical Support Unit

RUE rain use efficiency TW terawatt

SADC Southern African Development Community UMD University of Maryland

SAR species-area relationship UNDP United Nations Development Programme

A crops, 179 Annan, Kofi, 26

Assessment (continued) fisheries and, 150–151 Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, 53

Millennium Development Goals (continued) N Nuclear power, 387

Victor M. Sher, Esq. (Chair), Sher & Leff, San Francisco, CA

Dane A. Nichols (Vice-Chair), Washington, DC

Carolyn Peachey (Secretary), Campbell, Peachey & Associates, Washington, DC

Drummond Pike (Treasurer), President, The Tides Foundation, San Francisco, CA

David C. Cole, President, Aquaterra, Inc.,Washington, VA

Catherine M. Conover, Quercus LLC, Washington, DC

Merloyd Ludington, Merloyd Lawrence Inc., Boston, MA

William H. Meadows, President, The Wilderness Society, Washington, DC

Henry Reath, Princeton, NJ

Alexis G. Sant, Trustee and Treasurer, Summit Foundation, Washington, DC

Charles C. Savitt, President, Island Press, Washington, DC

Susan E. Sechler, Senior Advisor, The German Marshall Fund, Washington, DC

Wren Wirth, Washington, DC

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