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Female Leadership: An Exploratory Research from Lebanon
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American Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 2301-2005 Issue 86 March, 2013, pp.28-52
http://www.americanjournalofscientificresearch.com
Female Leadership: An Exploratory Research from Lebanon
Hussin Hejase
Corresponding Author, Faculty of Business and Economics
E-mail: hhejase@aust.edu.lb
Ziad Haddad
Faculty of Business and Economics
Bassam Hamdar
Rasha Massoud
George Farha
Faculty of Arts and Sciences
Abstract
In spite of the massive admittance of women into the workplace, and the increasing
numbers of women holding mid-level managerial positions, top-level positions remain as
elusive to women today as they were more than a decade ago. Working in a world
dominated by male decision-makers and their established practices, women encounter a
variety of barriers that impede their progress towards top positions in their careers. One
widely accepted explanation for this small number of female executives is the persistence
of negative stereotypes, discrimination and glass ceiling against women as managers. As
for those women who succeed in reaching managerial positions, they are further subjected
to comparisons with their male counterparts regarding their leadership skills. Accordingly,
one wonders if gender has any direct effect in the pursuit of leadership.
This paper uses exploratory research to shed light on the different factors that affect
women’s actual behavior and performance at top positions, and on the real reasons that
prevent women from reaching the top positions in organizations. A survey questionnaire is
distributed to a convenient sample of Lebanese managers and employees with the aim of
assessing their attitude and behavior towards Lebanese female leadership, and to identify
factors that may lead to glass ceiling, discrimination, and bias against women in managerial
positions.
Keywords: Discrimination, glass ceiling, females, leadership, Lebanon.

Female Leadership: An Exploratory Research from Lebanon 29
1. Introduction
Anna Bird, acting chief executive of the Fawcett Society (cited in Snowdon, 2011) believes that "The
world of work has not caught up with the needs of modern families where both parents work, with few
senior positions offering flexibility around working hours – and it is still on the whole women who
require flexibility in order to manage childcare commitments, thus restricting their career. Sexism,
including women being passed over for top jobs, serves to further reinforce “glass ceiling” (p. 2).
Although the general public’s attitudes about the role of women in society are undergoing
continuous transformation, women are still perceived as being less suited than men for managerial
positions. Therefore, unless the root cause of this problem is addressed, glass ceiling will remain firmly
in place, and women's participation in leadership over the next decades will remain low.
Pillay (2005) contends that one of the greatest obstacles that face women is the attitude they
have of themselves. Historically, the idea that man is the jobholder and the breadwinner and females
are the home-caretakers or homemakers has been maintained to a large extent.
“In view of this, mothers have always treated their sons with a greater regard
than their daughters and this has caused the female self-image, a sense of inferiority. To
a large extent, women have developed a “mental block” and are afraid to break out of
this mindset. To overcome this imbalance, women must become more assertive and it is
imperative that they shed this inferiority complex” (p. 13).
Snowdon (2011) reports that most women aspiring to senior management positions believe the
glass ceiling to career progression still exists. Moreover, according to the survey of 3,000 members of
the Institute of Leadership and Management (ILM), it was found that 73% of female respondents felt
that barriers still existed for women seeking senior management and board-level positions in the UK.
In contrast, just 38% of men respondents believed that there is a glass ceiling (p. 1).
There is still hope though the aforementioned events are ongoing. The Economist (2006)
reports that in the U.K., far more women than men are now training to become doctors, and that
women consistently achieve higher financial returns than men do, making them more likely to provide
sound advice on financial investment (Para. 2). The article went on to state that the governments
should embrace the potential of women because they are not exploited enough: they are the world's
most under-utilized resource, and getting more of them into work is part of the solution to many
economic woes, including shrinking populations and poverty (ibid, Para 4).
However, in today’s fast-paced world, the need for females to balance between their work and
family roles has become a matter of paramount importance. They have to take care of their families,
and at the same time be professional and successful in their careers. Especially that in today’s
extremely competitive business world, women constitute half the workforce and are said to play an
extremely important role in the economic growth of their countries. But, what is most worrying is that
women are still not advancing to top board level positions, as they should (Jobsite.co.uk, n.d., Para.
14). In spite of the massive entry of women into the workplace and the increasing numbers of women
in mid-level managerial positions, top-level positions remain as elusive to women today as they were
more than a decade ago.
Success today requires organizations to best utilize the talent available to them, irrespective of
the gender. Accordingly, to be able to use that talent, barriers to upward mobility for women need to be
removed. Such barriers are represented in the discrimination against women in the workplace when it
comes to promotion, salary, and advancement opportunity to higher level managerial positions. And
this in turn is causing firms to underutilize a significant part of their work force, resulting in the loss of
millions of dollars annually.
Working in a world dominated by male decision-makers and their established practices, women
encounter a variety of barriers that impede their progress to the top of their careers. Placing a glass
ceiling ultimatum prohibits women from reaching the desired top level managerial positions. This glass
ceiling is based on stereotypes, discrimination, and cultural misunderstanding of women’s abilities and
30 Hussin Hejase, Ziad Haddad, Bassam Hamdar, Rasha Massoud and George Farha
managerial skills. As a result, very few women are represented at their organization’s board of
directors.
In many cases, women face discrimination when it comes to being hired for a job because
employers hold certain stereotypes against them. Employers still consider maternity leave and
pregnancy to be serious factors that negatively influence women’s ability to perform well on the job.
Furthermore, women are still believed to be more emotional (subjective), than their male counterparts
who are perceived as being logical (objective). This cultural prejudice minimizes the possible chances
of women reaching managerial positions.
Moreover, females face discrimination when it comes to their job pay. In Britain, a female
working full-time earns just 82% of her male colleague’s salary, a fee that for a part-time female
worker sinks to 60%. The pay gap costs a woman with average qualifications about £250,000, during
her lifetime (Jobsite.co.uk, n.d.).
In addition to glass ceiling practices, women are also facing lots of other barriers that are
eventually leading to fewer women reaching managerial positions. Some of these barriers are listed
below:
 Access to training and career paths
 The rights to a maternity leave
 The right to work part-time
 Access to child care services
 Subjection to sexual harassment
 Discrimination/absence of equal employment opportunity laws
For those women who have overcome all of the above barriers and have succeeded in reaching
managerial positions, they are further subjected to comparisons with their male counterparts regarding
their leadership skills, success in motivating their subordinates and attaining organizational goals.
Margaret Thatcher is often quoted as saying: “If you want something said, ask a man. If you
want something done, ask a woman” (Sangweni, 2010). Prohibiting women from advancing to top
managerial positions in organizations can lead to losing a great leadership potential and millions of
dollars in profit. This case is more apparent in the Arab society in general, including that of the
Lebanese society.
Hence, the current paper sheds light on the causes behind the lack of women representation at
top managerial positions in Lebanon. Moreover, the paper will suggest practices and applications that
organizations can adopt to remove the barriers that prevent women from advancing to upper positions.
Moreover, the researchers intend that this research help Lebanese managers overcome preconceptions
about female managers that may cause the firms to underutilize a significant part of the work force.
2. Literature Review
There is no doubt that the level of discrimination against women attaining education or well-paid jobs
has lessened in the last decades; however, the sad reality persists: there is still a fair amount of
inequality when it comes to getting paid, attaining promotions, or entering certain fields. Adding to
that, 27% of females vs. 7% of males admit having been discriminated during their professional career
(Mckinsey, 2007).
Women comprise 46% of the total U.S. labor force; a percentage that represents a major
progress when compared to the numbers of last decade. In 1900, fewer than 20% of women
participated in the labor market while today the number is around 75% and growing (Jobprofile.org,
2010, Para. 2). Furthermore, African-American women comprise 5.3% (2,751,000), Asian-American
women comprise 2.8% (1,437,000) and Latinas comprise 3.8% (1,952,000) of all people employed in
management, professional, and related occupations in the U.S. (Catalyst.org, 2011). Meanwhile, white
women make only 77.5 cents for every dollar that men earn while African-American women earn 64
cents to every dollar earned by white men, and Hispanic women just 52 cents per dollar. Whether it’s
attitudes about race or gender that are at play, it’s clear that something needs to be done to achieve
equality (Jobprofile.org, 2010, Para. 3).
The more education a woman has, the greater the disparity is shown in the wage that she gets :
Women in professional specialty occupations were found to earn just 72.7% of what men in the same
position earned, and women in upper level executive, administrative and managerial occupations
earned even less, at 72.3% (Jobprofile.org, 2010, Para. 4). Also, the higher women climb up the
corporate ladder, the fewer children they have. In the 41-55 age range, 49% of the best paid women are
without children, compared to 19% of men (Mckinsey, 2007).
Four in ten businesses worldwide have no women in senior management positions. This
shouldn’t be a surprise given the way many countries feel about women in the workplace. Only 53% of
employers provide at least some replacement pay during periods of maternity leave. While there is no
law requiring companies to offer paid maternity leave, considering it is an issue that primarily affects
women, it’s certainly a blow to their income potential and ability to care for their families and
themselves (Jobprofile.org, 2010, Para. 9).
As for law students and graduates, in the U.S., for the 2009-2010 academic year, women made
up 47.2% of law school students. In 2010, 31.5% of all lawyers, 45.4% of all associates, and 19.4% of
all partners were women (Catalyst.org, 2011).
Women’s Status in the Workplace

Of the 10 million women-owned businesses in the U.S., only 3% have annual revenue of more than $1
million dollars, as compared to 6% of all male-owned businesses; only 2 percent of Fortune 500 CEOs
are women, and only 15 percent of the seats on boards of directors are held by women
(Briefcaseessentials.com, 2010), as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Women’s share of Fortune 500 Leadership (Catalyst.org, 2011)
Executive Officer Positions Board Seats

2009 2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
13.5% 14.4% 14.6% 14.8% 15.2% 15.2% 15.7%
Moreover, every day, an average of 1,400 to 1,600 women leaders are leaving Fortune 500
companies to start their own businesses or work for competitors, twice the rate of their male
counterparts. This fact might imply that women are really feeling that glass ceiling in these companies
is keeping them from fulfilling their ambitions, and that it is advisable to start up their own company
(Briefcaseessentials.com, 2010).
According to College Times (2012), “women may work longer to receive the promotions that
provide access to higher pay: One example provided by the National Center for Education Statistics
shows that women often have to work three years longer than their counterparts in a teaching position
to be promoted to a principal (Para. 5). While, Singh, Kumra, and Vinnicombe (2002, April) suggest
that the aforementioned discrepancy is because women and men adapt different strategies when it
comes to management and the pursual of promotions; for example, they found that “many women (and
some men too) seem uncomfortable with using impression management (IM). Women do not always
want to play "the organizational game" by the male-constructed unwritten rules, but prefer to trust
good management and systems fairness for just rewards. Younger and junior level women managers
often recognize that IM may be a useful tool but reject its use for themselves. Women seem to prefer to
rely on extra high performance and commitment for visibility to their seniors rather than the
networking, ingratiation and self-promotion strategies used more by males. An important consequence
is that as ambitious young males use job-focused IM in addition to self and manager-focused
strategies, this is likely to leave young women at a considerable disadvantage for promotion” (Singh et
al., 2002, p. 77)
Sangweni (2010), quoting Ann Daly, PhD, an executive coach and the author of the book Do
Over! How Women are Reinventing Their Lives, stresses that men generally get hired on their promise
and women on their demonstrated experience: “A woman in the workplace doesn’t get sufficient
feedback. Professional development depends upon rigorous, comprehensive, ongoing feedback. But a
male boss may not feel comfortable delivering that feedback to a female subordinate; a fact that can
keep her from improving her performance” (Para. 2).
Surveys suggest that women anticipate the discrimination even before it happens, which results
in them having lower self-confidence, and average career ambition. So when compared with men,
women were found to aspire more to running their own companies than achieving higher rank within a
firm (Bbc.co.uk, 2011).
Females and Leadership

Leadership and management are inseparable; the two skills need to work together. In order to be fully
rounded, the person in the managerial role must have the ability to manage the day-to-day tasks and
deliver results, while seizing the opportunity to change. Demonstrating good leadership skills without
the management skills to support them will leave that person unable to fulfill his/her visions. Likewise,
being a good manager without good leadership skills will cause continual challenges in motivating
his/her team and producing the results needed. Being able to blend these two skills is truly a unique
talent. There are loads of managers in the world, but very few truly embody the characteristics of a
leader (Coach4growth, n.d.). Consequently, to be efficient and effective in their managerial roles, both
women and men should have the two skill sets. The 1st set (managerial skills) can be learned easily and
trained on; this learning process does not vary across genders. Whereas leadership skills are not
acquired as easily as managerial skills and they are difficult to master, not forgetting that women’s
leadership skills and styles differ from those of men.
Based on the aforementioned facts, the researchers of the current paper have chosen to evaluate
the ability of women to “Lead” and not to “Manage”. Anyone can manage if taught appropriately, yet
there are certain skills, characteristics and qualities that distinguish women leaders from men leaders.
How do they differ? Which style is more beneficial? Which style increases the company’s bottom line?
And which style is preferred by subordinates? The researchers intend to find the answers to all of the
above questions.
Balda (2010) refers to Peter Drucker who claims that "the only definition of a leader is someone
who has followers” (Para. 5). But to gain followers, a person requires influence. While Saxena (2009)
quotes John Maxwell, who sums up his definition of leadership as "leadership is influence- nothing
more, nothing less" (p.124). This goes beyond simply defining what a leader is, to looking at the ability
of the leader to influence others, both those who would consider themselves followers, and those
outside that circle. Moreover, Saxena quotes Warren Bennis’ definition of leadership which is focused
on the individual capability of the leader: "Leadership is a function of knowing yourself, having a
vision that is well communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to
realize your own leadership potential" (ibid).
Kurnik (n.d.) defined leadership as a process that influences followers to
 Attain the right direction in order to achieve goals.
 Positively impact others through motivating them to excel.
 Put high goals.
 Inspire other people with a dream and help them transform it to reality for the sake of the
betterment of society.
 Persuade people to go where they do not want to go necessarily but which they ought to
go to.
Finally, Kaye (2010), an expert on leadership, asked an audience of leaders to define
leadership, and to describe the most important characteristics of an ideal leader. Their combined
answers can be summarized as follows: An ideal leader is
“A good listener, enthusiasm, passion, shows appreciation, a visionary, role

model, trusting, integrity, organized, knowledgeable, credibility, persuasive, charisma,
team building, clarity of purpose, problem solver, attitude of service, leads by example,
patience, willing to act without complete knowledge, understands followers, consistent,
empowers other people, and adapts to change” (p. 1).
The aforementioned characteristics reflect a positive humane side of leadership; traits that
requires the leader to possess strength of character and personality. This point is further highlighted
when one takes into consideration the type of characteristics that is missing from this list, namely,
stern, mean, serious, short tempered, vindictive, tough, angry, harsh, punitive, controlling, violent, or
ruthless. Those characteristics, which have hard and tough connotations, are the refuge of those
individuals who lack the strength to apply the humane leadership.
Kiamba (2008) asserts that historically, leadership has carried the notion of masculinity, and the
belief that men make better leaders than women is still common today. Although the number of female
leaders has increased, they are still named as leader as an afterthought (Para 4). Gumbi (2002)
ascertains that the societal conventions regarding gender and leadership have traditionally excluded
women, and that top leadership is viewed as a masculine domain. The Middle Eastern societies
including Lebanon still emphasize the aforementioned notion.
Based on the aforementioned opinions, one may surmise that research on leadership and gender
has drawn the attention of many researchers worldwide. Consequently, several questions may be
asked: does gender really matter? Is there a difference between women leaders and men leaders? If so,
what are the most obvious differences that eventually affect the leadership style of each?
Genetic and Biological Differences

Biological/genetic differences impact gender orientation significantly. According to Gelman et al
(1981; cited in Kelley, 1997), “men and women experience the world differently based upon their
hormones.” He believes that hormones not only contribute to external sexual characteristics, but also
affect how an individual views the world (p. 5). Kelley (1997) adds that other researchers, who have
been conducting brain lateralization studies in the last few years, claimed that the female brain is
organized to function more symmetrically; thus, allowing integration of left and right brain functions
more readily than that of the male brain (Kelley, 1997, p. 5).
According to Smalley and Trent (1988; cited in Kelley, 1997), other medical studies have
shown that between the 18th and the 26th week of pregnancy, testosterone and other sex-related
hormones wash over a baby boy’s brain. This causes changes that never happen to a baby girl....This
actually separates males from females forever (p. 6). So, in summary, evidence seems to point to a
genetic difference which may, in fact, affects the way a person interacts with his/her surroundings.
Cultural Differences
In the majority of countries’ cultures, and continents, little girls are brought up to be obedient, to be a
good friend, to keep a diary that expresses their deepest feelings, to take care of their dolls, and to help
their mothers. They are always teased by their older and younger brothers to the point of tears. Yet,
when girls complain to their mothers or fathers, they are told to just ignore them, are patted on the
head, and told to “run along” (coaching-for-new-women-managers.com, n.d.). Little boys, on the other
hand, are brought up to build castles forts and form secret clubs for themselves and their friends. This
conditioning have made them view themselves as superior to girls who are unable to compete, and who
certainly do not belong in their well-fortified “boys only” world (ibid). So, in fact, men have been
prepared since a very young age to assume leadership positions; whereas, women were brought up to
be obedient followers.
Self-Promotion
According to McKinsey (2007), 70% of women rate their own performance as equivalent to that of
their male coworker, while 70% of men rate themselves higher than their female co-workers. While
Lips (2009), found that when women promote their own accomplishments, they are seen as more
competent, yet at the expense of their likeability. Followers and subordinates tend to rate these women
low on their agreeableness. On the other side, men who promote their own accomplishments do not
reap the same mixed outcomes: they are evaluated as more competent and more likeable.
Office Politics and Power

With a management position, comes a certain aura of power. But men and women define and exercise
their authority differently. Business women use positions of authority to create a supportive, nurturing
environment. Men use positions of authority to create a hierarchal environment in which they issue
orders and expect obedience (Coaching-for-new-women-managers.com, n.d.).
Communication Style
Good communication is always one of the most difficult skills to master and probably a great source of
friction and problems in any organization. Ways of talking associated with leadership and authority
tend to be masculine, which places females at a disadvantage. Women and men who work together
often get tied up in communication knots, especially over issues that involve power, advocacy and
management of their teams. That’s because the sexes have distinct ways of communicating. They
request action and advice differently, their responses and timing are different, and they have different
styles for expressing work-related demands and needs (ibid).
Furthermore, the biological differences between the two genders affect a woman’s style of
talking, discussing, presenting data, and even arguing with others. Female brain is better organized for
communication between its two halves (right and left brain side). Whereas men are more of left brain
users… it can be therefore said that women are better communicators than men, due to differences in
how their brain functions (Covey, 1993, p. 44). But unfortunately for women, they may be judged
differently, even when they communicate in the same style as that of men.
According to Deborah Tannen (1990; cited in Kelley, 1997), “men and women can interpret the
same conversation differently, even when there is no apparent misunderstanding”. She claims that the
key element that guides female communication is intimacy, which is needed in the world of
negotiation; whereas the key element in male conversation is independence key that is put in effect to
reach high status. Though all humans need intimacy and independence, women tend to focus on the
first and men on the second (pp. 13-14).
Moreover, women frequently report that they offer good comments to improve their firms, yet
their comments are ignored; a fact that may be attributed to male participants in the group. Lips (2009)
confirms this fact by stating that field studies of small group meetings in organizations show that
women leaders are subjected to negative emotion more than men leaders, even when both sets of
leaders are viewed as equally competent. Again, this may also be attributed to differences in the
communication style. According to Kelley (1997): “Women tend to phrase their ideas as questions,
take less time when phrasing questions, speak in a lower volume and higher pitch.” This style does not
resemble male’s communication style and therefore anything women say is undermined. On the other
hand, when women adopt a more masculine style, they may be considered more credible, but less
feminine (which deeply affects their womanhood).
The aforementioned arguments apply to the Lebanese society as well. Since men and women
communicate differently, misunderstandings can easily occur and efficiency can plummet in the
workplace.
Leadership Style
Leadership is defined as: "an interpersonal influence directed toward the achievement of a goal or
goals." Cheryl de la Rey (2005; cited by Kiamba, 2008), lists the traits commonly associated with
leadership: “effective communication skills, task completion, responsibility, problem solving,

originality, decision making, action taking, vision, self awareness, confidence, experience and power”
(Para. 5).
Growe and Montgomery (2000) defined leaders as people “who provide vision and meaning for
an institution and embody the ideals toward which the organization strives” (p. 1). From that
perspective, leaders are alike and genderless. However, there is still skepticism when women lead, and
in many situations, gender, more than age, experience or competence determines the role (position) one
is assigned.
For example, in male dominated societies, women are perceived as possessing less leadership
ability than men. When both men and women are surveyed today, the successful managerial stereotype
remains masculine (self-confident, dominating, competitive, decisive, aggressive and independent).
Surprisingly, no man or woman describes the successful manager using traditionally feminine traits
and styles such as consultative, conciliatory, partnership-oriented and collaborative; even though many
researchers, including Stephen Covey (1993), principle centered leadership guru, agree that feminine
traits are the dominant trend of the future. Stephen Covey also added that leadership is “more of a
right-brained intuitive, visionary approach toward building relationships with people”, inferring that
women have the edge in today’s leadership challenges (Covey, 1993, p. 44; Kelley, 1997, p. 12).
And since the attributes of leadership (which are masculine in nature) do not always relate to
women’s feminine traits, women leaders are often required to “soften” their leadership styles to gain
the approval of their followers and subordinates: Women who lead with an autocratic style risk being
disliked as compared to those using the democratic style; whereas, men face no such necessity to be
agreeable while exercising power (Lips, 2009).
The different styles and strategies adopted by men/women leaders are summarized in Exhibit 1.
Exhibit 1: Men/women leadership styles and strategies
1. Men view leadership as leading, while women see leadership as facilitating (Porat, 1991).
2. Men are autocratic; they rely on the power that comes from their organizational position and authority (Employee
performance is driven on the basis of rewards and punishments, command and control). Whereas, women are
participatory and democratic; they share power and information with employees (employee performance and
commitment is driven through esteem-building) (Kelley, 1997).
3. Women are less hierarchical. They organize on a broader base and prefer structures that are less like pyramids (ibid).
4. Women naturally are more “people persons” than men because they are comfortable in relating on one-to-one basis
with people at all levels of an organization. Whereas, men tend to act impersonally and do not interact at all levels;
they are exclusive (Spencer, 2011).
5. Women are better at conflict management since they have better communication and listening skills and show more
tolerance and empathy (Kiamba, 2008).
6. Women are able to be more creative because they tend to be more empathetic. Women’s empathy enables them to
look at business issues through a wide-angle lens verses men who tend to have tunnel vision (Spencer, 2011).
7. Women attend more to the individuals they work with, by mentoring them and taking the latter’s particular situations
into account. According to negotiation research, women bosses tend to fight harder for their subordinates, getting
better salaries and raises for their teams (The Editors, 2009).
8. The majority of women are better at “mind-reading,” than most men; they can read the emotions written on people’s
faces more quickly and easily (ibid).
9. The theory of transformational leadership is a perfect example of successful leadership (inspirational, positive role
models, concerned about followers, empowering, and push followers to be creative and take chances); research has
shown that women have more transformational qualities than men (Riggio, 2010).
Exhibit 1 shows that the leadership style of women is not simply unique but possibly at odds
with what men practice. According to Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt (2001, pp. 17-20), in a changing
marketplace, creativity and group decision-making are necessary for much-needed innovation
(feminine qualities). Yet, effective analysis and methodology are also critical to the proper
implementation of new ideas (male qualities).Well thought-out decisions are a benchmark of
management success (feminine qualities); and without the push to action (male qualities), little
happens. Furthermore, accurate perceptions of employees and customers make valuable data for
business strategies (female qualities), and delegating responsibility effectively allows for greater
leverage of time and talent (male qualities).
Learning what works from others, whether men or women, gives leaders the opportunity to
build upon their own strengths, reduce the liabilities of their own weaknesses, and improve the chances
of business success. There is little to be won in a battle between the sexes. But there is much to be
gained in the blending of talents and capabilities which elevates everyone (female and male) to a
higher standard of performance.
Contemporary work environments could definitely benefit from female leaders. Yet, women in
the workplace are adopting male leadership styles in order to conform to the norms in their
organizations. In their view, utilizing men’s methods of leadership is not only the easiest way for a
woman to be hired for any position of leadership, but is the most successful method of attracting
promotion and recognition (Growe & Montgomery, 2000).
Barriers to Women in Leadership Positions

In today’s extremely competitive and dynamic business world, women constitute half the workforce,
and are said to play an extremely important role in the economic growth of their countries. However, it
has become a well-known phenomenon that women rarely make it to executive and top managerial
positions. According to Snowdon (2011), a survey of 3,000 members of the Institute of Leadership and
Management (ILM) found 73% of female respondents felt barriers still existed for women seeking
senior management and board-level positions in the UK. In contrast, just 38% of men believed that
there was a glass ceiling (Para. 2). Working in a world dominated by male decision-makers and their
established practices, women encounter a variety of barriers that impede their surge to the top of their
careers; accordingly, and tend to experience unfavorable experiences at the workplace. Moreover,
Abdallah (1996) found that Arab women are willing to accept more responsibilities in the political,
occupational, educational and social spheres, but Arab men are not willing to share these
responsibilities with them.
Some typical assumptions about women in the workplace are discussed by Güney, Gohar,
Akıncı, and Akınci (2006):
 Women work for supplemental income; as a result, they lack the necessary drive to
succeed in business.
 Women tend to place family demands above work considerations. They have children to
care for; thus, they lose time for, and interest in their jobs.
 Women take negative feedback personally rather than professionally.
 Women are unsuitable for top management positions because they are too emotional and
lack aggressiveness (pp. 194-195).
To some extent, these assumptions may be true for many women in the workforce. However, it
is questionable whether they accurately describe women who have made the decision to pursue a
managerial career. The generalization of the above negative assumptions to all women in the workforce
is the result of a basic social psychological process called: “stereotyping”.
Stereotyping
Solovic (2010) asks in her online essay, “is stereotyping harmful in the workplace? Quite simply, the
answer is Yes. Stereotyping, or in other words placing labels on people, results from making general
assumptions about an individual with little or no personal knowledge about them” (Para 2). Harlan and
Berheide (1994) contend that “stereotyping lies at the heart of the factors creating glass ceiling. The
"glass ceiling" metaphor (referred to as the invisible barriers) keeps women from reaching the very top,
and limits their progress toward employment equity. Stereotypes in the first place, and other factors
mentioned next, limit women’s mobility from the "sticky floor" of low-paying, low-mobility jobs at the
bottom, all the way to the glass ceiling at the top” (Para 1).
Some of the common stereotypes which can impact the workplace are illustrated by Lips (2009)
and are delineated herein.
1. Attitude toward Women and Men in Leadership Roles

Female and male leaders elicit different responses from those around them. A woman leader stimulates
a different reaction than a male leader because of learned expectations, which are shaped and supported
by the surrounding social structure that invalidate and undercut women’s attempts to be effective,
influential, and powerful (Para. 5).
2. Women Leadership Versus Compassion

People think “male” when they think “leader”; a concept that transcends many cultural differences.
Because of perceived incompatibility between the requirements of femininity and those of leadership,
women are often required to “soften” their leadership styles to gain the approval of their constituents.
When women demonstrate competent leadership within an explicitly masculine arena—something that
often requires the application of a “harder” leadership style, they are disliked and disparaged (Para. 7).
3. Taking Direction from Women Versus Men

The stereotype that women are more talkative than men is unsupported by evidence. Women report
that they do not feel listened to, and that when they speak in meetings, their comments and suggestions
are ignored or belittled—the same comments or suggestions from men have more impact. Field studies
of small group meetings in organizations show that women leaders are targets of more displays of
negative emotion than men leaders, even when both sets of leaders are viewed as equally competent
(Para. 8).
4. Disapproval of Women Who Promote Themselves

Research demonstrates that when women promote their own accomplishments, this can cause their
audience to view them as more competent—but at the cost of being viewed as less likeable. While,
men who promote their own accomplishments do not reap the same mixed outcomes: as long as they
do not overdo it; there is no doubt that self-promotion brings them both higher evaluations of
competence and likeability (Lips, 2009, Para. 9).
5. Women in Leadership Roles Require External Endorsements

In order for women to be accepted in leadership roles, they must often have external endorsements,
particularly in competitive, highly-masculinized contexts, where simply having leadership training or
task-related expertise does not guarantee a woman’s success unless accompanied by legitimization by
another established leader. Gender stereotypes interfere with observers’ ability to see women’s
competence; it is sometimes necessary that a “high-status other” provides them with credibility (Para.
10).
6. The Potential Costs for Women’s Leadership

There is evidence that women may be more aware than men of the potential costs of leadership.
Women do worry about the contradictions between acceptable feminine behavior and the requirements
of powerful positions. Some describe themselves as potentially very unlikable in such roles, using
words such as “dominating, aggressive,” “opinionated,” “power hungry, ... mean,” “bossy, direct and
aggressive.” Clearly, they recognize the near-impossibility of “softening” one’s image while yet
maintaining the air of authority, determination and competence necessary to convince others that one
can exercise strong leadership (Para. 11).
7. A Changed Social Structure toward Women’s Leadership

Women face the most resistance to their leadership and influence in roles that are male-dominated and
characterized as masculine. As social attitudes have shifted to define fewer arenas as masculine,
acceptance of women as leaders in the other arenas has grown. For example, in Norway, with its long
and deeply-rooted history of women’s involvement in political leadership, women in such positions
feel a strong sense of legitimacy in their leadership roles. In France, where women’s leadership has
been relatively new and rare, that sense of legitimacy is absent, and women are called upon to prove
themselves repeatedly (Para. 13).
8. Commitment to Personal/Family Responsibilities

Kiamba (2008) contends that leadership positions are very stressful and require hard work, long hours
and lots of sacrifices. Furthermore, the amount of time spent at work, and the priority given to work by
employees is a big determinant of their commitment levels and promotion chances within the
organization. But for many women, the time demands of such positions conflict with the demands of
their family (bringing up their children, cleaning the house, preparing food, managing the household).
Ironically, men, the head of their household, have less parental responsibility, and thus they have more
time to devote to their work, and increased chances of becoming leaders and managers (Para. 22). “If
women don’t care enough for their children, they know their children risk neglect. If men don’t care
enough, they know their wives will" (Polly, 1988 cited in Kiamba, 2008, Para. 33); this in itself is a
barrier for women. Moreover, the assumption that a good leader is a person who should have work as a
top priority at all times is another barrier that limits upward mobility for women.
9. Family-Sensitive Employee Benefits

Jobs that lack family-sensitive employee benefits (such as, paid pregnancy leave, paid parental leave,
paid days off for caring for infants and sick children, and provision of on-site or other child care)
constitute another barrier to women’s upward mobility. Even nowadays, not all employers offer
pregnancy and maternity leaves because they believe that this might seriously damage the
organizational performance. For example, one woman was denied promotion in spite of her excellent
performance evaluations because her boss assumed that she might want to get married soon and have
children (Owen & Todor, 1993).
10. Education
Low levels of education and illiteracy restrict the opportunities for advancement for many women in
their workplace. It is at schools where all this begins. Sex stereotyping in curriculum, teachers’
attitudes, and administrative practices deny girls the early preparation that they need to enter vocational
and academic programs that lead to high-paying male jobs (Harlan &Berheide, 1994). Furthermore,
according to Jeske (2004, February), “boys are often disaffected with school, do not reach their full
potential and are more likely to be excluded even though they get more teacher attention than girls and
receive overall more Special Needs care, particularly in reading and writing. By contrast, girls achieve
better school results than boys but despite this often suffer from lack of self-confidence in relation to
their abilities. As a result, girls tend to choose jobs which are below their potential and/or which are
traditionally female” (p. 130).
Thus, women with lower education are either unemployed, or are working in lower-status
occupations, earning less money, and having a higher risk of being poor than do men with the same
level of education, or women with more education. As for those women who have attended university,
the question to ask is: are they studying the right subjects? There are very few females studying and/or
working in the Information Technology and engineering industries, and it is often from these areas that
the top earners and managers evolve (Jobsite.co.uk, n.d.).
Preventive Measures Against Discrimination

In order to eliminate discrimination, there are certain steps that could be taken by the various
concerned parties, some of which are elaborated herein.
Legal and Organizational Actions to Improve Work Environments

After demonstrating the different experiences of men and women at the workplace, many
organizations, nowadays, are attending to the needs of their employees by providing them with
motivating, rewarding and discrimination-free work environments. And in the process of providing
healthy and balanced environments to employees, firms should be adopting both legal actions, as well
as other organizational practices.
Legal Actions
Without laws and legal actions that punish firms and individuals for discriminatory practices, very few
organizations will be willing to engage in actions to promote gender equity in the workplace. Mondy
and Mondy (2012, pp. 77-81) discuss several American Legislations that were stipulated to keep
unethical practices under control, and to add clear policies to both public and private organizations so
as to tap on the abilities of their workforces. For example, Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) laws
forbid discrimination when it comes to any aspect of employment such as: hiring, firing, promotions,
layoffs, pay, job assignments, harassment, training, wages, and benefits (EEOC, n.d.).
Organizational Practices
Mondy and Mondy (2012) contend that the “challenge for managers in the future will be to recognize
that people with characteristics that are common but are different from those in the mainstream, often
think, act, learn, and communicate differently” (p. 73). Therefore, reducing gender discrimination
requires several simultaneous efforts to be taken. As discrimination against women is often deeply
entrenched in tradition and societal values, legal actions alone may not be enough. It is therefore
essential that companies, on their parts, adopt some organizational practices to help promote equality in
their workplace. Some of these practices are expounded upon in the following paragraphs.
1. Changing the Mindset of Women

"Only 15% of highly qualified women aspire to positions of power, against an average of 27% for
men" (Mckinsey, 2007). The first and most important step to be taken in this process is to change the
women’s mindset themselves. This should begin with a cultural shift of gender role perceptions.
Women need to empower themselves, so as to have the capabilities and confidence to attain leadership
positions without waiting for those positions to be given to them. Furthermore, for women to develop
the confidence to take up leadership, they are to be supported by other women (Kiamba, 2008).
2. Educating / Training Employees

Employees must be educated about discrimination: what it is, how it happens, and how they can
prevent their own stereotypes from biasing their actions. This can be done by periodical lectures in
which keynote speakers talk about the negative short term and long term effects of discrimination in
the workplace (Answers.com, n.d.; Labbate, n.d.).
3. Conducting Investigations
Another step that employers can follow is to conduct a thorough investigation every time a claim of
discrimination or harassment is filed. An investigation is likely to benefit both parties: the employer
and the employees (Answers.com, n.d.).
4. Adopting a Zero Tolerance Policy

To prevent gender discrimination or sexual harassment from occurring in the workplace, more and
more employers are adopting a zero tolerance policy towards all acts of discrimination. Such policy
should be written, and should be circulated to all organizational constituencies, indicating that not only
discrimination is wrong, but also that it is not to be tolerated (Answers.com, n.d.; Labbate, n.d.).
5. Joining Action Groups

Organizations should fight discrimination by joining and collaborating with other organizations that
support the same cause. For example, if gender discrimination is something the organization is dealing
with, then it must create some sort of group or website to help spread knowledge about the problem,
and find a solution (Labbate, n.d.).
6. Taking Personnel Decisions Based on Accurate Knowledge of the Job

Organizations must better understand the nature of jobs and the skills required for success.
The job analysis for male gender-typed jobs will help identify the characteristics, behaviors,
skills, and past experiences presumed to be necessary for success in a particular job, rather than
depending on vague personality characteristics that can be distorted to fit gender stereotypes (Welle &
Heilman, 2005).
7. Acknowledging Feminine Traits as Strengths

Women in leadership positions should not be shy to project feminine traits such as being caring,
empathetic, trusting, sharing, empowering… Women should be comfortable in leadership and
acknowledge these traits as strengths and not weaknesses. And they should persistently display such
values, hoping that they will be embraced in future organizations as normal culture (Kiamba, 2008).
8. Using Structured Evaluation Techniques

Organization should design a structured program that guides all formal personnel decisions, and
ensures that men and women are being evaluated on the same criteria. The structured program should
involve accurate assessment of employees’ contributions, using test performance, number of projects
completed, amount of revenue generated, and other quantifiable indicators which are relatively easy to
collect and judge, and more difficult to distort in gender-consistent ways (Welle & Heilman, 2005).
9. Holding Managers Accountable for Decisions

Welle & Heilman (2005) reported that stereotyping research shows that while gender stereotyping may
be an easy way to categorize men and women in the work environment, not all managers rely on it.
Surprisingly, many managers are motivated to form accurate impressions about employees based on
objective criteria. Therefore, managers who are required to justify the decisions they make and
describe the criteria they use to hire, evaluate, and distribute job opportunities among individuals are
less likely to discriminate against women.
10. Creating Formal Processes to Build Relationships

Social networks and relationships usually develop among people who feel comfortable with each other
and who share common experiences. This requires the intervention of the organization, which should
institute formal networking, to help foster relationships in venues to which men and women have equal
access. One of the most important workplace relationships that should be fostered by the organization
is mentorship. Formally assigning a male mentor to a female employee will help in developing formal
and informal networks between the two genders, which in turn would decrease discriminatory practices
(Welle & Heilman, 2005).
11. Developing Flexible Work Arrangements

Employers should realize that people are whole human beings with family lives as well as work lives.
This view might help them create more flexible arrangements for work and leadership development
activities. So in order to help women, firms should offer flexible work arrangements such as
introducing change in the hours of work (either reduction in hours worked, or changes to start/finish
times known as flextime, or compressed work week), changes in patterns of work (job sharing
arrangements), changes in location of work (telecommuting), leaves/sabbaticals or a child care center
run by the firm (Shirlaws.com, 2011).
12. Encouraging Higher Education

The organization should increase poor women’s access to higher education, by making substantial
investments in the four-year degree programs in colleges and universities. Although basic education,
literacy programs, and skills training programs enable women to enter the labor force, these are not
enough to provide women with the education needed for upward mobility. In today’s labor market,
only women in managerial, professional, and technical occupations have average earnings that provide
a living wage (Harlan &Berheide, 1994).
13. Providing Top Management Support

Unless top management is convinced that diversity brings about a competitive advantage, all of the
aforementioned steps can do nothing to increase women’s representation in the workforce (Mckinsey, 2007).
3. Research Methodology
Attitudes about the role of women in society may have changed dramatically, but women are still
perceived as being less suited than men for managerial positions. And unless the root cause of this
problem is addressed, the notorious glass ceiling will remain firmly in place, and women’s
participation in leadership over the next 30 years will remain low. Prohibiting women from advancing
to top managerial positions in organizations can lead to losing a great leadership potential and millions
of dollars in profit.
This research is exploratory in nature and uses a questionnaire as a tool to collect primary data
from a conveniently selected sample of Lebanese employees and managers. The questionnaire aims to
assess the attitude and preconceptions about female managers. The researchers will use the results of
this research to enhance Lebanese managers’ knowledge on discrimination and assist them to
overcome preconceptions about female managers, and benefit from the latter true capabilities.
The Survey Design

The survey tool used in the current research project is a systematic and structured questionnaire that is
divided into three sections.
1. Section one is designed to assess respondents’ awareness about women in managerial positions.
In this research survey, questions one to eleven are awareness dimension oriented.
2. Section two is designed to assess the respondents’ attitudes and opinions, covering parameters
like female managers’ characteristics, expectations, acceptance…etc. In this survey, questions
twelve to twenty two are attitude and behavior questions.
3. Section three is designed to assess respondents’ demographics. In this survey, questions twenty
three to twenty eight have demographic dimensions.
The Objective of the Questionnaire

The main objective of this research is to
1. Identify the percentage of women occupying top managerial positions in the firms of the
respondents.
2. Identify how the respondents view women in managerial positions (in terms of productivity as
compared to their male counterparts).
3. Identify the preference of respondents to male or female leaders in their workplace.
4. Identify any stereotypical ideas that respondents may have about women in the workplace.
5. Identify any discriminatory behaviors against women in the workplace.
6. Draw conclusions about what women should do to overcome the barriers that keep them from
reaching managerial positions within their organization.
Sample Selection
A convenient sample of employees in various Lebanese industries were selected, namely, the
educational sector, banking sector, and governmental sector, in order to cover different areas rather
than stressing on a specific industry. 250 questionnaires were distributed in total. However, 200
questionnaires were valid for the research, after removing incomplete, half-empty, and wrongly filled
questionnaires. The resultant response rate is 80%. Collected data was analyzed using SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Sciences).
4. Results and Findings

Women in Managerial Positions
Table 2: Distribution of Female Executives
Number of Female Total Number of Number of Total Number of Members

Executives Executives Females on BOD on BOD
Valid 197 197 184 184
Missing 3 3 16 16
Mean 3.0000 7.2437 1.3152 6.1033
Median 3.0000 6.0000 1.0000 4.0000
Mode 4.00 11.00 1.00 3.00
Std. Deviation 2.70864 5.10217 2.69153 6.52487
Minimum .00 1.00 .00 1.00
Maximum 25.00 25.00 30.00 40.00
According to Table 2, respondents contend that an average of three females occupy managerial
positions in their corresponding companies, knowing that the mean of the total number of executives in the
same companies is approximately 7. Moreover, only one female is present on the Board of Directors (BOD)
of the related companies, knowing that the mean of the total number of persons on the BOD is 6. These
results show that female leaders in Lebanese companies are as few as the literature has reported.
When respondents were asked about their expectations for the coming five years, 79% agreed
that women will be occupying senior positions in their companies, while 21% were pessimists about
the issue in question. Moreover, 83% of the respondents agreed that women have enough
encouragement and support for advancement in their corresponding organizations. However, when
respondents were asked about what prevents women from advancing to managerial positions, 52%
assumed that the job’s multiple roles is the main barrier, followed by 34% who blamed discrimination
in organizational practices, and 28% believed that women's capabilities and leadership skills form the
barrier.
Impact of Internal Organizational Factors on Females’ Leadership Opportunities

As for the effect of internal organizational factors on females’ leadership opportunities, Table 3 shows
that only 31% of the respondents were aware of any internal organizational laws issued to ensure equal
chances to hire or promote women, while 69% negated the fact. Also, 73% of the respondents stated
that their organizations use the same selection and hiring criteria for both male and female managers,
while 27% stated the opposite. Furthermore, 53.3% of the respondents believe that promotions are
influenced by managers' preferences rather than the employees’ efforts.
Table 3: Impact of Internal Organizational Factors on Females’ Leadership Opportunities\
Statement Frequency Percent, %

Awareness of any internal organizational laws issued to ensure equal chances to hire or
promote women
Yes 62 31
No 138 69
Organizations use the same selection and hiring criteria for both male and female
managers
Yes 146 73
No 54 27
Promotions are influenced by managers' preferences rather than the employees’ efforts
Yes 107 53.5
No 93 46.5
Equal pay for the same position
Yes 146 73
No 54 27
Higher women turnover versus men
Yes 42 21
No 58 29
Equal 100 50
Results in Table 3 also show that 73% of the respondents believe that managers of both genders
are equally paid for the same managerial position. When respondents were asked to classify the job
turnover, 21% believe female managers’ turnover is higher, 29% negated the fact, and 50% believe that
the turnover is equally likely for male as well as for female managers.
Necessary Measures for Women to Reach Higher Managerial Positions

Respondents were asked about their opinion about the organizational steps necessary for women to
reach higher managerial positions. Table 4 shows that 35% of the respondents believe that the
organization should adopt laws and regulations for equal gender representation within their managerial
ranks; 21.5% believe that the organization should develop flexible work arrangements for working
mothers;19% believe that the organization should change its culture to deal with females
managers;13.5% believe that the organization should educate and train their female employees; and,
11% believe that the organization should adopt transparent promotion procedures.
Table 4: Necessary steps for women to reach higher managerial positions
Frequency Percent, %
Change the culture of the firm 38 19.0
Adopt laws and regulations for equal gender representation 70 35.0
Educate and train female employees 27 13.5
Use transparent promotion procedures 22 11.0
Develop flexible work arrangements for working mothers 43 21.5
Total 200 100.0
Respondents’ Attitude and Opinion about Females versus Male Managers

32.5% of the respondents prefer a specific gender to be a manager, while 67.5% have no gender
preference. More specifically, 40% declared that they are more motivated or influenced by having a
male leader rather than a female leader.
Table 5: Respondents’ Attitude and Opinion about Females versus male Managers
Statement Agree Uncertain Disagree

48 39 113
Women lack managerial skills compared to men (leadership qualities)
24% 19.5% 56.5%
52 54 94
Women are dependent and show less initiative than men in management
26% 27% 47%
43 68 89
Career women are often selfish and unfeminine
21.5% 34% 44.5%
Women managers have a longer concentration span than their male 71 74 55
counterparts 35.5% 37% 27.5%
Male managers are more intelligent, competent and hardworking than 37 52 111
women managers 18.5% 26% 55.5%
Female managers are less efficient and less effective than male 40 43 117
counterparts 20% 21.5% 58.5%
53 55 92
Women are unable to balance between their home life and their work
26.5% 27.5% 46%
In many ways, men still expect women to bring them their coffee and 90 35 75
schedule their meetings 45% 17.5% 37.5%
Table 5 shows that 56.5% of the respondents do not agree that women lack managerial skills as
compared to men (leadership qualities), but 24% do agree on such a statement. 47% of the respondents
disagree that women are dependent and show less initiative than men, while the other 53% of the
respondents apparently either agree or are neutral. 44.5% of the respondents disagree that career
women are often selfish and unfeminine, while 55.5% either agree or are neutral. 35.5% of the
respondents agree that female managers have a longer concentration span than their male counterparts;
however, 37% are uncertain and 27.5% disagree. 55.5% of the respondents disagree with the statement
that male managers are more intelligent, competent and hardworking than women managers, while
44.5% either agree or are uncertain. 46% of the respondents disagree that women are unable to balance
between their home life and their work, but 54% either agree or are uncertain. Finally, 45% of the
respondents agree that men expect women to bring coffee and schedule meetings, while 37.5%
disagree and 17.5% are uncertain.
Demographics
Results show that 56% of the respondents are females and 44% are males. 86.6% of the respondents
are on the average 25 years old, 10% are 50 years old on the average, and 3.5% of the respondents are
under 20 years old. Also, 61% of the respondents hold a bachelor degree, 26% hold a master degree,
1% have a doctorate degree and 12 % hold a secondary school certificate. Respondents are therefore,
old enough, mature and educated enough to express their opinion about their top managers.
52.5% of the respondents are salaried fulltime employees, 15% are part-time employees, and
32.5% of the respondents are middle to top managers in their companies. 14% of the respondents have
been working for less than one year in their companies, 40.5% of the respondents have been working
from 1 to 2 years, 27.5% have been working for 3 to 5 years, 8% have been working for 6 to 9 years,
10% have been working for more than ten years.
Moreover, 29.6% of the respondents work in sales, 21.6% work in the public sector, 15% in
finance and accounting, 9.5% work in administration, 7.5% work in marketing, 6% work in human
resources, an equal number of 4% work in information technology and research and development, and
2% work in manufacturing.
Cross-Tabulations
To fulfill the objectives of the study, there was a need to correlate the gender with the respective
questions that reflect the research objectives.
Factors Preventing Women from Advancement * Gender

When the question addressing the factors that prevent women from advancement was cross-tabulated
with the gender, results as depicted in Table 6 show that 52.7% of women believe that multiple roles
are the number one factor that keeps women from advancing, 40.2% think it is discrimination in
practices, and only 7.1% think it is women’s capabilities and leadership skills. When it comes to males,
51.1% think it is due to multiple roles, 26.1% think it is due to discrimination, and 22.7% think it is
due to lack of capabilities and leadership skills.
Table 6: Factors preventing women from advancement and Gender Cross-tabulation
Number 1 factor that prevents women from advancing to managerial

Gender Females Males Total
positions * Gender Cross-tabulation
Count 59 45 104
% within Number 1 factor that prevents
women from advancing to managerial 56.7% 43.3% 100.0%
Multiple roles
positions
% within Gender 52.7% 51.1% 52.0%
% of Total 29.5% 22.5% 52.0%
Number 1 Count 45 23 68
factor that
prevents Discrimination
women from in organizational
positions
advancing to practices
% within Gender 40.2% 26.1% 34.0%
managerial
% of Total 22.5% 11.5% 34.0%
positions
Count 8 20 28
Women’s
capabilities and
positions
leadership skills
% within Gender 7.1% 22.7% 14.0%
% of Total 4.0% 10.0% 14.0%
Count 112 88 200
Total
positions
% within Gender 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
% of Total 56.0% 44.0% 100.0%
Promotions are Influenced by Managers’ Preferences* Gender

When respondents’ gender was cross-tabulated with their opinion around the question if promotions
are influenced by managers’ preferences; results showed that 54.1% of the females and 52.3% of the
males believe that promotions are influenced by the manager’s preference.
Women to Reach Higher Managerial Positions * Gender

When respondents’ gender is considered against their opinion about the steps that organizations need to
do in order to ensure that women reach managerial positions, females believed that adopting laws and
regulations (39.6%) and developing flexible work arrangements for working mothers (20.7%) are the
most important steps that need to be taken. Whereas men believed that adopting laws and regulations
(28.4%), educating and training female executives (22.7%) and developing flexible work arrangements
(22.7%) are all important.
Summary of Major Findings

Based on the above presented data, researchers have concluded that in the Lebanese market, companies
have an average of 7 executives, among which only 3 are women (Table 2). This in fact is a very
surprising and positive result. It means that women are finally able to reach executive positions in their
companies and participate in the decision making process.
The following data support the above result:
 83.4% of the respondents claim that women receive enough encouragement and support
to advance.
 73% of the respondents claim that selection and hiring criteria are the same for both
genders.
 73.4% of the respondents claim that women get paid as well as men for the same
position.
 50% of the respondents claim that turnover is the same for both genders.
 60% of the respondents claim that employees’ motivation has nothing to do with their
manager’s gender.
The aforementioned results support the fact that Lebanese women are treated, encouraged,
motivated and paid as their male colleagues, highlights This highlights that executive positions are
divided almost equally between the two genders (refer to Table 2). Yet, when asked about the number
of females on the BOD, the results revealed that only 1 of 6 BOD members are females; this might be
due to many factors.
The 1st reason might be the fact that women are still considered as less equal and less
competent than men, thus, they are not allowed to participate in top managerial decisions:
 24% (cumulative) of respondents believe that woman are not as competent as men and
lack certain managerial skills.
 26% (cumulative) of respondents believe that women are dependent and show less
initiative than men.
 45% (cumulative) of the respondents believe that women are still expected to bring
coffee and schedule meetings.
 When Q5 (which in your opinion is the number one factor that prevents women from
advancing to managerial positions?) was cross-tabulated with gender, 22.7% of male
respondents believed that women are unable to reach higher positions due to lack of
capabilities and leadership skills.
The above data shows that some of the respondents still believe that women are inferior to men
and that they should be performing secretarial duties only, rather than participating in the strategic
planning of the company. So, this might be one of the main reasons that keep women from advancing.
And in order to remove that barrier, the Lebanese workforce should get rid of any bias or negative
perceptions held against women.
The 2nd reason that might be keeping women from top managerial positions or the BOD is that
women themselves find it hard to balance between their home life and the big responsibility of
becoming a BOD member:
 54 % of the respondents believe that women are unable to balance between their home and
work responsibilities.
 Cross-tabulated results show that 52% of the respondents (52.7% of female respondents and
51.1% of male respondents) believe that multiple roles are the number one factor that keeps
women from advancing.
 Cross-tabulated results show that 21.6% of respondents (20.7% of female respondents
and 22.7% of male respondents) claim that developing flexible work arrangements by
firms is necessary to help females advance in their careers.
So, in order to help women, firms should offer flexible work arrangements such as changing the
hours of work (either reduction in hours worked, or change the start/finish times known as flextime, or
compress the work timing), changes in patterns of work (job sharing arrangements), changes in
location of work (telecommuting), leaves/sabbaticals or a child care center run by the firm.
The 3rd reason is the absence of laws that ensure gender equality in the workplace.
 69% of the respondents are unaware of a law that ensures gender equality.
 Cross-tabulated results show that 34.7% of respondents (39.6% of female respondents
and 28.4% of male respondents) claim that adopting laws and regulations is the number
one step that needs to be taken by organizations to ensure equal representation.
Hence, in order to create an appropriate work environment for women, law institutions in
Lebanon should pass a law that encourages firms to increase gender representation throughout its
hierarchy; otherwise, the biases and perceptions that certain people have against women will keep the
latter from advancing.
In summary, women in Lebanese institutions seem to be able to reach acceptable levels of
seniority, but they are still way behind when it comes to top managerial positions which involves
strategic planning and decision making. Many steps need to be taken by employees themselves
(eliminate biases and perceptions), by the firm itself (offer flexible work arrangements) and finally by
the government (pass laws concerning gender representation).
Conclusions
There is no doubt that women have come a long way from discrimination and struggles that they had
faced in the previous century when it came to getting an education and finding a job. Nowadays, it is
no longer surprising to see a woman as a principal of a public high school, a manager of a corporate
department or a dean of a university college. Women have surpassed most of the barriers to such
positions, and nearly reached the top of the pyramid. Yet, there is still a fair amount of inequality when
it comes to getting paid, attaining promotions, mentoring or entering certain fields. The public still
regards certain jobs (such as military command, high corporate office, the presidency, etc…), as
requiring masculine qualities, which eventually keeps women from entering those domains (Lips,
2009). And in case they succeed in doing so, these women need to perform at extraordinarily high
levels, just to appear moderately competent when compared to their male coworkers.
Success today requires organizations to best utilize the talent available to them, irrespective of
the gender. Cathy Arnst (Arnst, 2008), a Newsweek columnist, quotes in her article Anna Quindlen, as
she writes: “One of the greatest natural resources in America is going underused. And she may be
sitting right at the next desk.” To be able to use that talent, barriers to upward mobility for women need
to be removed; otherwise, firms will risk underutilizing a significant part of their work force, and thus
lose millions of dollars annually.
5. Recommendations
Women have to stop deciding that there are skills that they could never be good at. For, unless women
start believing in themselves, they will never get other people to believe in them. Consequently,
women themselves have to create an alternative culture that will challenge the embedded traditions that
dictate what women should or should not do or be, especially in the Middle Eastern and African
settings. This fact is apt to make people uncomfortable, but as Hannah Rosenthal stated in her speech
at the Wisconsin Women at Higher Education Leadership Conference, in 2005, as quoted by Santovec
(2006):
We have to be a little more comfortable with making others a little more
uncomfortable, so we can look back in 30 years and say ‘We did make a difference’ (p.
2).
Paula Davis-Laack (2012), lawyer,positive psychology practitioner, and professional coach,
contends that “when challenges occur, women with fixed mindsets typically play it safe and avoid risks
too far outside of their comfort zones. As a result, talented women don't volunteer to lead committees,
step up for important projects at work, or set goals that are challenging enough. Therefore, women
aren't on the forefront of a manager's mind when it comes time for raises, promotions, and accolades”
(Para. 4). The aforementioned fact is confirmed by Sikimic(2011, February 08) who contends that
Lebanese women lack the drive: “Too many women, especially in Lebanon, still don’t have that drive”
(Para. 23). Therefore, as Dr. Grant Halvorson states, "Even if every external disadvantage to a woman's
rising to the top of an organization is removed...we would still have to deal with the fact that through
our mistaken beliefs about our abilities, we may be our own worst enemy" (Halvorson, 2011, Para. 10).
Women who are either in leadership positions or aspire to climb the ladder of promotion toward
top management jobs should not be shy to project feminine traits such as being caring, empathetic,
trusting, sharing, and empowering. Irene Moutlana (2001) encourages women to acknowledge these
traits as strengths and not weaknesses for it is possible that a persistent display of such values can make
them “core values” that will be embraced in future organizations as the normal culture. Women have to
learn to be comfortable in leadership, and “just run with it” (Para. 50).
As for top managers, irrespective of gender, it is recommended that they tap into the unused
talent. For example, an article in Business Week asserted that “After years of analyzing what makes
leaders most effective and figuring out who’s got the Right Stuff, management gurus now know how to
boost the odds of getting a great executive: Hire a female” (Sharpe, 2000). However, and as researched
by Eagly and Karau (2001), women’s advantages in leadership style may sometimes be countered by a
reluctance, especially on the part of men, to give women power over others in work settings. Such a
fact was confirmed earlier by Abdallah (1996) who found that even if Arab women are willing to
accept more responsibilities in the political, occupational, educational and social spheres, Arab men are
not willing to share these responsibilities with them.
Moreover, social and organizational changes place women, more often than men, in the
position of being newer entrants into higher-level managerial roles. For example, 28% of the Lebanese
females are in the labor force (Russeau, 2008, Para. 2). Moreover, women comprise 90% of the
workforce in Lebanese banks, but account for only 19% of bank general and assistant general
managers (World Bank, 2009; cited in Cestas.com, 2010, p.22). As for the service sector in Lebanon, it
has witnessed major changes in the participation of females in the workforce, amounting to 55%; a fact
that shall offer higher opportunities for females’ participation in leadership roles in the future. The
aforementioned transformation added to the fact that females are seeking aggressive university higher
education, will pave the grounds for well-prepared managers of the future; they are the “untapped
reservoir of human capital”. As newcomers, women may reflect contemporary trends in management,
including an emphasis on transformational leadership that may threaten older, more established
managers. A reluctance to allow women to ascend to organizational hierarchies may thus reflect
resistance to change managerial styles as well as a prejudicial tendency to evaluate women’s leadership
behavior less positively than the equivalent behavior of men. Nonetheless, on the whole, research on
leadership style has very favorable implications for women’s increasing representation in the ranks of
leaders (Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001, pp. 23-24).
Finally, as suggested by Bullough (2008, October), economic and political freedom and gender
empowerment are significant forces across the board for women’s participation in leadership, provided
a government’s rule of law is set to facilitate safe business practices (p. 251); women in Lebanon and
other Middle Eastern countries, may enjoy the aforementioned opportunities for progress toward
leadership roles if there is this government support. Furthermore, since Lebanon enjoys a strong
entrepreneurial environment and credit/budget is available, then women’s participation in leadership is
empowered. Last, and as Bullough inferred in her dissertation, “cultural norms that support a belief in
hard work, a belief in personal ability, individualism, risk taking behaviors, and participative
leadership are indicative of women’s participation in leadership” (p . 251).
6. Limitations
Several limitations in the current study were encountered and need to be acknowledged. The research
did not take the size of the firms of the respondents into consideration. That is, there was no question
related to the size of the firms in which the respondents work. Such statistics is usually needed to
identify possible differences in perceptions and ideas among small, mid and large sized firms.
Also, findings of the current research cannot be generalized because it was mainly conducted
within specific business fields. However, considering the current research as an exploratory study, one
may use the results as possible indicators that are needed to be addressed to improve the status of
females at work in general terms.
7. Future Research
Future research must be planned so as to assess the impact of having female leaders on the bottom line
of companies, and compare the results with those achieved by a male counterpart. Other research
projects could be directed to build best practices in Lebanese businesses by using case study research.
The Lebanese literature on recorded success or failure stories involving female leaders within the
economic business sectors is poor. Finally, this research should be expanded to include other economic
sectors in order to provide a realistic view of female leaders within the Lebanese organizations.
The authors would like to acknowledge the constructive criticism and editing performed by
Mrs. Henriette Skaff, senior editor at AUST’s Publications Department.
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Female Leadership: An Exploratory Research from Lebanon

Article · March 2013

Hussin Jose Hejase Bassam Charif Hamdar

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Female Leadership: An Exploratory Research from Lebanon

Keywords: Discrimination, glass ceiling, females, leadership, Lebanon.

Women’s Status in the Workplace

Table 1: Women’s share of Fortune 500 Leadership (Catalyst.org, 2011)

Executive Officer Positions Board Seats

Females and Leadership

“A good listener, enthusiasm, passion, shows appreciation, a visionary, role

Genetic and Biological Differences

Office Politics and Power

leadership: “effective communication skills, task completion, responsibility, problem solving,

Exhibit 1: Men/women leadership styles and strategies

Barriers to Women in Leadership Positions

1. Attitude toward Women and Men in Leadership Roles

2. Women Leadership Versus Compassion

3. Taking Direction from Women Versus Men

4. Disapproval of Women Who Promote Themselves

5. Women in Leadership Roles Require External Endorsements

6. The Potential Costs for Women’s Leadership

7. A Changed Social Structure toward Women’s Leadership

8. Commitment to Personal/Family Responsibilities

9. Family-Sensitive Employee Benefits

Preventive Measures Against Discrimination

Legal and Organizational Actions to Improve Work Environments

1. Changing the Mindset of Women

2. Educating / Training Employees

4. Adopting a Zero Tolerance Policy

5. Joining Action Groups

6. Taking Personnel Decisions Based on Accurate Knowledge of the Job

7. Acknowledging Feminine Traits as Strengths

8. Using Structured Evaluation Techniques

9. Holding Managers Accountable for Decisions

10. Creating Formal Processes to Build Relationships

11. Developing Flexible Work Arrangements

12. Encouraging Higher Education

13. Providing Top Management Support

The Survey Design

The Objective of the Questionnaire

4. Results and Findings

Table 2: Distribution of Female Executives

Number of Female Total Number of Number of Total Number of Members

Impact of Internal Organizational Factors on Females’ Leadership Opportunities

Table 3: Impact of Internal Organizational Factors on Females’ Leadership Opportunities\

Statement Frequency Percent, %

Necessary Measures for Women to Reach Higher Managerial Positions

Table 4: Necessary steps for women to reach higher managerial positions

Respondents’ Attitude and Opinion about Females versus Male Managers

Statement Agree Uncertain Disagree

Factors Preventing Women from Advancement * Gender

Table 6: Factors preventing women from advancement and Gender Cross-tabulation

Number 1 factor that prevents women from advancing to managerial

Promotions are Influenced by Managers’ Preferences* Gender

Women to Reach Higher Managerial Positions * Gender

Summary of Major Findings

Retrieved October 12, 2012, from

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