Objectives a and b

= ℎ ℎ ℎ
 Before the discovery of electron, flow of current was supposed due to the flow × ℎ
of positive charge from positive to negative terminal of a battery which is called =
Conventional current.  To measure resistance of a metallic conductor, it is connected in series with an
 Afterwards, it was discovered that current flows due to the flow of electrons ammeter, rheostat, switch and a battery. A voltmeter is also connected in
from negative to positive terminal of the battery which is called Electric parallel with the conductor. As the switch is closed, values of current and
current. voltage are read and noted down. The resistance of rheostat is then changed
 Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. Its SI unit is Ampere (A). to obtain few more sets of values of current and voltage.
Mathematically, Resistance of the conductor is calculated by using each set of values in the
ℎ equation R = V / I. If an I-V graph is drawn for a fixed resistor, it will be a straight
=
line passing through origin.
Objectives d, e, f
(o) use quantitatively the proportionality between resistance and the length and
The work done by the source to drive a unit coulomb of charge around a complete the cross-sectional area of a wire.
circuit is called the electromotive force (e.m.f). Its SI unit is J/C or Volt.
The resistance of a given piece of wire is,
(g) calculate the total e.m.f. where several sources are arranged in series and
 directly proportional to its length.
discuss how this is used in the design of batteries.
 inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
 If two components have only one common terminal, they are said to be
(p) calculate the net effect of a number of resistors in series and in parallel.
connected in series.
 The e.m.f simply adds up if multiple cells are connected in series with opposite  When connected in series, the combined resistance of multiple resistors is
terminals of two cells connected to each other to form a battery. This increases equal to the sum of their individual resistances. Mathematically,
the flow of current but if one cell doesn’t work, the circuit becomes open. = + +⋯
 When connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the combined resistance of
Objectives i and j
multiple resistors is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of their individual
 The potential difference across a component is the work done to carry one resistances. Mathematically,
coulomb charge through the component. It is also measured in J/C or volts. 1 1 1 1
= + +⋯
Objectives l, m and n For two resistors in parallel, the above relation can be simplified to
 Ohm’s law states that the current through a resistor is directly proportional to product/sum. Mathematically,
the voltage across its ends under similar physical conditions. =
+
 This is not valid at high values of current if the increase in temperature
increases the resistance of the component as happens in filament lamp.
 Mathematically,
(q) describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a resistor and
a filament lamp and draw the respective sketch graphs of current/voltage.

At high currents, the resistance of a filament lamp increases due to increase in

temperature. This makes lesser flow of current at high voltages.

(r) describe the operation of a light-dependent resistor.

 The resistance of an LDR is large when it is in dark. Its resistance decreases

when light falls upon it.
 It is used in automatic lamps. If a lamp is connected in parallel with an LDR,
most of the current will pass through the lamp during night time but in day
time, the resistance of the LDR decreases and the lamp will be switched off.

D.C. Circuits:

Circuit diagrams are needed to be drawn in this section. Unknown currents,

resistances and p.ds are calculated by using ohm’s law equation. Following
principals are used while solving the unknowns in a circuit.

 In series circuit, the total e.m.f is divided into the components proportionally
as potential difference according to their resistance. More potential difference
occurs across larger resistance. Same current flows through all resistors.
 In parallel circuit, the total current is divided among the branches according to
their resistance. More current flows through smaller resistance. Same
potential difference occurs through all resistors.