INTRODUCTION

1 Coal
Coal is an organic rock (as opposed to most other rocks in the earth's crust, such as clays
and sandstone, which are inorganic); it contains mostly carbon (C), but it also has hydrogen
(H), oxygen (O), sulfur (S) and nitrogen (N), as well as some inorganic constituents (minerals)
and water (H2O). Solid rock having organic and inorganic compound’s modified into coal
after high elevated temperature pressure and metamorphism process.

1.1 Coal Formation

Peat formation from vegetal matter is the first step during coal formation by bacterial action
peat like material, physical and chemical changes, compaction heat and time, resulted in
coal action which is known as calcification. The accumulation of plant debris in water logged
environment result in peat formation. In these types of swampy environments the bacterial
decay is increased by accumulation of plants debris but after the complete use of available
oxygen by decaying process n organic rich water, the bacterial action is reduced.

During initial stages of coal formation water from peat is squeezed out due to the burial
compaction. With passage of time, the rate of heat and pressure also increased in addition
to burial compaction whish results in breakdown of complex hydrocarbon in number of
ways. Methane is one of the expelled products which resulted in more carbon deposits as
the other is also dispersed. The plant debris in the process of calcification passed through
different stages like peat, lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, anthracite coal to
graphite over a period of several million years.

1.2 Classification of Coal

Coal can be classified in to the following main types which are lignite, sub-bituminous,
bituminous and anthracite.

1.2.1 Lignite
Lignite lies between peat and sub-bituminous coal. It is found near surface deposit. Lignite is
the coal which is formed by the least calorific value and also considered as low rank coal.
Lignite has elevated moisture content, high ash content and lower heating value. It has
various applications in gasification, liquefaction and power generation (Sawada et al.,
2013).

1.2.2 Sub-Bituminous
Sub-bituminous coal has high moisture content and volatile matter content. It is black in
color. This coal is lies between lignite and bituminous. Its hardness varies in strength which
depends upon its metamorphic conditions. Its gross value is nearly 15300-23400 Kcal/Kg.
1.2.3 Bituminous
Bituminous varies coal is usually gray to black in color. It has high heating value than lignite
and sub-bituminous coals. Bituminous is most common and useful type of coal. It contains
traces of stratification, bright or dull which depend upon its plant matter. It is sub classified
into high, medium and low volatile bituminous coal. This coal is mostly used in gasification,
power generation and for coke production. It is best coking coal.

1.2.4 Anthracite
Anthracite is the highest rank of coal. It is black in color. It is also known as hard coal. It has
high heating value as compare to the low rank coal. Its calorific value is 8000-8500 Kcal/Kg
which is slightly lower than bituminous coal due to power hydrogen content. It is mostly
used for heating purpose.

1.3 Composition of Coal.

Composition of coal is expressed term of proximate and ultimate analysis.
 Proximate analysis
 Ultimate analysis
1.4 Proximate Analysis
The proximate analysis of coal includes determination of moisture content, volatile matter
content, fixed carbon content and ash content.

1.4.1 Moisture
There are some sources of water present in the coal was formed by the vegetable matter
which had high proportion of water that was bound both chemically and physically. At
various stages of coalification process, changeable amount of water were also present but
during overall coalifiction process much of water was eliminated. In last stages of this
process from lignite to anthracite, water was present in coal mine and also circulated
through most of coal seams. Standard method used for the determination of moisture in
coal includes a variety of test methods, designed to differentiate between the various type
of moisture in coal.

 ASTM D-14129(ISO 1018) to determine the equilibrium moisture content of coal at

30 C and 96-97% relative humidity.
 ASTM D-2961 to determine the total moisture content of coal reduced to mesh
number 8 (2.38mm) top sieve size.
 ASTM D-3173 to determine the inherent moisture in coal and coke.
1.5.2 Volatile Matter
During the heating of coal to the specified conditions, certain gases such as H2, N2, CO, CO2,
CH4 and hydrocarbons are evolved. These are known as volatile matter of coal. Volatile
matters are the percentage of volatile products which come out during the heating of coke
or coal under stander conditions. Volatile matters include the water which is formed by the
hydrogen and oxygen contents of the coal while it does not include the moisture of the coal.
When volatile matters reported on the dry ash free basis or air dry basis, it also includes the
water of some constituent’s mineral matter.

1.5.3 Ash Content

The residue remained after the combustion of coal under specified conditions (ASTM D-
3171; ISO 1171) is said to be ash. The ash is formed as an outcome of chemical changes that
take place in mineral matter throughout the ash process. The quality of ash is about 10%
less than the mineral matter present in the coal.

1.5.4 Fixed Carbon

After the calculating of moisture, and ash the remaining material is known as fixed carbon.
Actually fixed carbon is the determination of solid combustible materials of coal after the
burning of the volatile matter (ASTM International 2008).

1.5 Coal Reserve in Pakistan

Pakistan is a coal rich country. Deposits of coal that are present in Pakistan were recognized
before independence (1947) but its economic value was highlighted in 1980 when large coal
reserves were discovered in the Lakhra and Sonda area of Sindh province.

1.5.1 Sindh
Total coal resources of Sindh Province have 184 billion tones. The class of coal is lignite to
sub-bituminous. Description of two main deposits is given as under. The coal resource’s in
Sindh is estimated about 184,623 million tones. These are given below in a table.

Coal Fields Coal Resources (million tone) Heating value (Btu/lb)

Thar 175,506 6,244 – 11,045
Lakhra 1,328 5503 – 9,158
Sonda-Jherruck 5,523 5,219 – 13,555
Meting- Jhimpir 473 5,219 – 8,612
Indus East 1,777 7,782 – 8,660
Badin 16 11,415 – 11,521

Sub-Total:- 184,623 million tones

Thar:
A huge coal-field has resources of 175,506 million tones, in eastern part of the province,
about 4000km South East of Karachi. The coal field extends over 9,000sq km area that has
been studied in the detail by Geological Survey of Pakistan proving nine billion tons coal in
four blocks. The main coal bed width ranges from 12 to 21 meters at an average depth of
170 meters, above 50 meter being loose sand. The rank of coal is lignite to sub-bituminous.

Lakhra
Lakhra coal field is situated in Dadu District. It covers an area of about 200sq km. Mining in
this area is done underground. The thickness of coal bed seam is about 0.75 meter to2.5
meters. Average thickness is about 1.5 meter. Average annual production of coal from
Lakhra is over one million tones.

Coal of Lakhra has a visible rank of lignite A to sub-bituminous C. The coal is dull black in
color. Its moisture content is about 8% when brought to surface. Most of its production is
used in WAPDA power plant at Khanate, Sindh and in brick kiln industry (Ghazi et al., 2015).

1.5.2 Baluchistan
The seams to be in Baluchistan are found in Eocene age. The feature of coal is sub-
bituminous A to high volatile B bituminous. The coal-field mostly lies down around Quetta in
Baluchistan following are significant fields.

Sor-Range-Degari
Sor-Range-Degari coal field lies 13 to 25 km south east of Quetta covering an area of about
50sq km. The northern half of the field is known as Sore Range, while Degari is located at
the ending of the field. The coal seam thickness varies from 1.0 meter to 2.0 meters but in
Sore-Range seam layer up to 50 meters has been encountered. The quality of coal is best
with low ash and sulfur contents. The class of coal is high sub-bituminous A to high volatile B
bituminous.

Chamlong:
The quality of coal is better as compared to the other reserves Baluchistan. The rank of the
coal is high volatile C bituminous to high volatile A-bituminous. The total deposit is about
million tones. Its heating value is 27912 KJ/Kg.

1.5.3 Punjab
The Punjab’s coal fields consist of the eastern, central and western Salt Range among
Khushab and Khewra where Makerwal coal field is located in Trans-Indus Range (Sanghar
Range). The class of is sub-bituminous to high volatile bituminous.
Salt Range:
The Salt Range coal field covers up an area of about 260sq km among Khushab, Dandot and
Khewra. The entire coal producing area is well connected with roads and railways. The
upper coal seam thickness varies in range of 0.22 meter to 0.30 meter where as the center
seam is up to 0.60 meter thick. The lower seam is up to one meter thick and is
comparatively of superior quality. It is being mined in Dan dot, Chao Saiden Shah and
adjacent areas. The Punjab Mineral Development corporations and a number of private
companies are operating the mines in the area. Quantity of deposits is about 235 million
tones.

Makerwal/Gullakhel
Makerwal /Gullakhel coal field is located in Sanghar Range (Trans-Indus Ranges). The coal
field expands from about 3.2 km west of Makerwal to about 13 km West of Kalabagh
covering an area of about 75sq km, in Mianwali district. The quantity of coal is superior to
that of Salt Range coal and is favored by the consumers. Overall deposits of this reserve are
million tones. It has lowest carbon content of about 25-35 percent and lowest heat value
too about 13956-23260 KJ/Kg.

1.5.4 NWFP Coal Resources

Coal field of NWFP are not completely explored. Its coal deposits are situated in Hangu and
Cherat. Total deposits of these reserves are 91 million tones. Coal found is of sub-
bituminous

Rank and it has low amount of sulphur and how ash content. In Hangu area the coal bed is
3.5 meter in thickness and in Cherat the coal beds are normally less than one meter in
thickness. Its heating value ranges from 21831-33068 KJ/Kg.
The coal reserves and analysis of coal samples is at Table given below.

Moisture (%) 00.10 – 07.10

Ash (%) 05.30 – 43.30
Volatile Matter (%) 14.00 – 33.40
Fixed Carbon (%) 21.80 – 76.90
Sulfur (%) 01.10 – 09.50
Calorific Value (Btu/lb) 9,386 – 14,217
Table: NWFP COAL QUALITY & RESERVES Coal Quality
The quality of the coal is Sub-bituminous

1.5.5 Azad Jammu Kashmir

The AJK coal field is situated close to Kotli about 80 km south east of Islamabad. The coal
beds have an average thickness of 0.6 meter. The total coal deposits of AJK are probable
about 0.06 million tones. The rank of coal is sub-bituminous and the heating value ranges
from 17063-28698 KJ/Kg.

Use of Coal in Pakistan

7.1 Power Generation

While considering the development of power stations based on lignite coal, it is important
to take into consideration the following factors:

a) The power station must be located at the mine site, because the low energy and high
moisture content of lignite coal do not justify the transportation cost.
b) Transmission and power line losses require the load centre to be in reasonable proximity
to the power station (200 km) and, consequently, relatively close to the mine.
c) Lignite coal has certain characteristics which require special consideration when selecting
the type of equipment for mining and power generation, e.g. high moisture content will
reduce the efficiency of power generation and add to the cost of capital for the equipment
required to burn the coal. On the other hand, boiler efficiency and the coal feed rate
increases as the moisture content of the coal increases. Similarly, the ash content of lignite
may contain mineral matter bound with the organic material, and these elements, especially
sodium, can cause severe slugging and fouling problems in conventional boiler. Despite
these problems, lignite coal is used extensively for power generation throughout the world.
In many areas, there is abundance of lignite reserves, as in Pakistan. Pakistan’s enormous
deposits of lignite need to be developed, because it is relatively cheap to mine and suitable
for power generation. Open-cut mines using Bucket Wheel Excavators are able to recover
lignite from the thick coal beds located in the Thar coalfield. This type of mining is very
common in Germany, Greece, Spain, Australia and India.

The Thar lignite of Sindh has 50% moisture. SFBD technology, now commercially developed,
however, removes moisture from coal by direct evaporation in a steam heated exchanger,
produces dry coal with very little moisture. Another technology for power generation from
lignite coal is Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) which is also very effective. In CFB technology,
coal mixed with limestone is burned in a fluidized bed. The sulfur in the coal is absorbed by
the calcium carbonate, and the emission is free from sulfur dioxide. Pakistan has large very
deposits of limestone in all its provinces. The Integrated Gasification and Combined Cycle
(IGCC), which increases the efficiency and reduces the emission level of the power
generation plant, is a recent advanced technology applicable to high moisture lignite coal
for power generation.

7.2 Use of Coal as an Industrial Fuel

The importance of coal as an industrial fuel and its role in a wide range of industrial
applications are well known in the industry. It is a cheaper fuel than others. In some
industrial applications, such as brick kilns and glass tanks, the high emission of the coal
flame is a distinct advantage. In brick kilns, for example, it has been found that one tone of
coal will do the same work as one tone of oil. Coal is used as boiler fuel for the supply of
steam to process plant in the paper, chemical, and food processing industries. It is used for
direct firing in the manufacture of cement, bricks, pipes, glass tanks, and metal smelting.

7.3 Brick Kilns

Presently, coal is commonly used for making bricks and roofing tiles, as it is an ideal fuel for
kilns, especially for heavy clay products. In Pakistan, about 50% of coal production is used in
the brick kiln industry. Therefore, a large market for indigenous coal is available in Pakistan
for interested private investors.

7.4 Cement
In many countries, coal is used as fuel in the cement industry. Previously, coal was not used
as fuel in cement plants in Pakistan, but now the cement industry has started using
indigenous coal. The GOP is now conducting a feasibility study to convert gas-based and oil-
based cement plants to run on indigenous coal. It is expected that, in future more and more
cement plants will use indigenous coal as fuel. This constitutes another market for
indigenous coal for private investors.

7.5 Coal Briquettes

Yet another industrial use of coal is in the form of smokeless coal briquettes which can be
used as domestic fuel, and would have special applicability in reducing deforestation in the
Northern Areas of Pakistan. Pakistan’s Fuel Research Center has developed smokeless coal
briquette of good quality in its pilot plant at Karachi.

7.6 Coal Gasification

Electricity generation is severely affected by rapidly escalating gas and oil prices in Pakistan.
IGCC power plants have the potential of being economically competitive by using gas
produced from indigenous coal. Furthermore, catalytic coal gasification is developed as a
more efficient and less costly process to produce gas from coal. Methanol or synthetic gas
can be produced from Thar coal at the coalfield and can easily be transported by pipeline
throughout the demand centers.

7.7 Underground Coal Gasification

A technology is also available for insitu conversion of coal into gas, which can be used for
power generation or for conversion into higher value products such as diesel fuel, methanol,
and ammonia. Underground coal gasification can be applied to both horizontal and inclined
coal beds. Coal not recoverable by conventional mining methods, can be accessed for insitu
coal gasification. Private investors can use this new technology where coal beds are thin and
steeply dipping, and not economical for mining by conventional mining methods.
Definition of Fly Ash

Fly ash is the finely divided residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal and
is transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases. Over 61 million metric tons
(68 million tons) of fly ash were produced in 2001.

Fly Ash
Fly ash, also known as flue-ash, is one of the residues generated in combustion, and
comprises the fine particles that rise with the flue gases. Ash which does not rise is termed
bottom ash. In an industrial context, fly ash usually refers to ash produced during
combustion of coal. Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other
particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired power
plants, and together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the furnace is in this
case jointly known as coal ash. Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal being
burned, the components of fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial
amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline) and calcium oxide (CaO),
both being endemic ingredients in many coal-bearing rock strata.
Toxic constituents depend upon the specific coal bed makeup, but may include one or more
of the following elements or substances found in trace quantities (up to hundreds ppm):
arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, hexavalent chromium, cobalt, lead,
manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along
with dioxins and PAH compounds.
In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but pollution control
equipment mandated in recent decades now require that it be captured prior to release. In
the US, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is
recycled, often used as a pozzolan to produce hydraulic cement or hydraulic plaster or a
partial replacement for Portland cement in concrete production.
Pozzolans ensure the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more
protection from wet conditions and chemical attack.
Some have expressed health concerns about this.
In some cases, such as the burning of solid waste to create electricity ("resource recovery"
facilities a.k.a. waste-to-energy facilities), the fly ash may contain higher levels of
contaminants than the bottom ash and mixing the fly and bottom ash together brings the
proportional levels of contaminants within the range to qualify as nonhazardous waste in a
given state, whereas, unmixed, the fly ash would be within the range to qualify as hazardous
waste.

Sources of Fly Ash

Fly ash is produced by coal-fired electric and steam generating plants. Typically, coal is
pulverized and blown with air into the boiler's combustion chamber where it immediately
ignites, generating heat and producing a molten mineral residue. Boiler tubes extract heat
from the boiler, cooling the flue gas and causing the molten mineral residue to harden and
form ash. Coarse ash particles, referred to as bottom ash or slag, fall to the bottom of the
combustion chamber, while the lighter fine ash particles, termed fly ash, remain suspended
in the flue gas. Prior to exhausting the flue gas, fly ash is removed by particulate emission
control devices, such as electrostatic precipitators or filter fabric bughouses.

Types of Fly Ash

There are two main type of fly ash a) Class F fly ash b) Class C fly ash

a) Class F fly ash

The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly
ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 20% lime (CaO). Possessing
pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing
agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the presence of water in
order to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, the addition of a
chemical activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can lead to the
formation of a geopolymer.

b) Class C fly ash

Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal, in addition to
having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence of
water, Class C fly ash will harden and gain strength over time. Class C fly ash generally
contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not
require an activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO4) contents are generally higher in Class C fly
ashes.
At least one US manufacturer has announced a fly ash brick containing up to 50% Class C fly
ash. Testing shows the bricks meet or exceed the performance standards listed in ASTM C
216 for conventional clay brick; it is also within the allowable shrinkage limits for concrete
brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specification for Concrete Building Brick. It is estimated that
the production method used in fly ash bricks will reduce the embodied energy of masonry
construction by up to 90%. Bricks and pavers were expected to be available in commercial
quantities before the end of 2009.

Characteristics
Size and Shape
Fly ash is typically finer than portland cement and lime. Fly ash consists of silt-sized particles
which are generally spherical, typically ranging in size between 10 and 100 micron (Fig 1).
These small glass spheres improve the fluidity and workability of fresh concrete. Fineness is
one of the important properties contributing to the pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash.
 Figure: Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification.
Chemistry

Fly ash consists primarily of oxides of silicon, aluminum iron and calcium. Magnesium,
potassium, sodium, titanium, and sulfur are also present to a lesser degree. When used as a
mineral admixture in concrete, fly ash is classified as either Class C or Class F ash based on
its chemical composition. American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) M 295 [American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Specification C 618]
defines the chemical composition of Class C and Class F fly ash. Class C ashes are generally
derived from sub-bituminous coals and consist primarily of calcium alumino-sulfate glass, as
well as quartz, tricalcium aluminate, and free lime (CaO). Class C ash is also referred to as
high calcium fly ash because it typically contains more than 20 percent CaO. Class F ashes
are typically derived from bituminous and anthracite coals and consist primarily of an
alumino-silicate glass, with quartz, mullite, and magnetite also present. Class F, or low
calcium fly ash has less than 10 percent CaO.

Compounds Fly Ash Class F Fly Ash Class C Portland Cement

SiO2 55 40 23

Al203 26 17 4

Fe2O3 7 6 2

CaO (Lime) 9 24 64

MgO 2 5 2

SO3 1 3 2
Fig: Sample oxide analysis of ash and Portland cement
Color

Fly ash can be tan to dark gray, depending on its chemical and mineral constituents. Tan
and light colors are typically associated with high lime content. A brownish color is typically
associated with the iron content. A dark gray to black color is typically attributed to an
elevated unburned carbon content. Fly ash color is usually very consistent for each power
plant and coal source.

Fig: Typical ash colors

Quality of Fly Ash

Quality requirements for fly ash vary depending on the intended use. Fly ash quality is
affected by fuel characteristics (coal), co-firing of fuels (bituminous and sub-bituminous
coals), and various aspects of the combustion and flue gas cleaning/collection processes.
The four most relevant characteristics of fly ash for use in concrete are loss on ignition (LOI),
fineness, chemical composition and uniformity.

LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon (coal) remaining in the ash and is a critical
characteristic of fly ash, especially for concrete applications. High carbon levels, the type of
carbon (i.e., activated), the interaction of soluble ions in fly ash, and the variability of carbon
content can result in significant air-entrainment problems in fresh concrete and can
adversely affect the durability of concrete. AASHTO and ASTM specify limits for LOI.
However, some state transportation departments will specify a lower level for LOI. Carbon
can also be removed from fly ash. Some fly ash uses are not affected by the LOI. Filler in
asphalt, flowable fill, and structural fills can accept fly ash with elevated carbon contents.

Fineness

Fly ash is most closely related to the operating condition of the coal crushers and the
grindability of the coal itself. For fly ash use in concrete applications, fineness is defined as
the percent by weight of the material retained on the 0.044 mm (No. 325) sieve. A coarser
gradation can result in a less reactive ash and could contain higher carbon contents. Limits
on fineness are addressed by ASTM and state transportation department specifications. Fly
ash can be processed by screening or air classification to improve its fineness and reactivity.
Some non-concrete applications, such as structural fills are not affected by fly ash fineness.
However, other applications such as asphalt filler, are greatly dependent on the fly ash
fineness and its particle size distribution.

Chemical composition: of fly ash relates directly to the mineral chemistry of the parent coal
and any additional fuels or additives used in the combustion or post-combustion processes.
The pollution control technology that is used can also affect the chemical composition of the
fly ash. Electric generating stations burn large volumes of coal from multiple sources. Coals
may be blended to maximize generation efficiency or to improve the station environmental
performance. The chemistry of the fly ash is constantly tested and evaluated for specific use
applications. Some stations selectively burn specific coals or modify their additives
formulation to avoid degrading the ash quality or to impart a desired fly ash chemistry and
characteristics.

Uniformity: of fly ash characteristics from shipment to shipment is imperative in order to

supply a consistent product. Fly ash chemistry and characteristics are typically known in
advance so concrete mixes are designed and tested for performance.

ACI 229R Controlled Low Strength Material (CLSM)

ASTM C 311 Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use as a
Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
AASHTO M 295 Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a
ASTM C 618 Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete

ASTM C 593 Fly Ash and Other Pozzolans for Use With Lime
ASTM D 5239 Standard Practice for Characterizing Fly Ash for Use in Soil
Stabilization

ASTM E 1861 Guide for the Use of Coal Combustion By-Products in Structural
Fills

Quality Assurance and Quality Control: criteria vary for each use of fly ash from state to
state and source to source. Some states require certified samples from the silo on a
specified basis for testing and approval before use. Others maintain lists of approved
sources and accept project suppliers' certifications of fly ash quality. The degree of quality
control requirements depends on the intended use, the particular fly ash, and its variability.
Testing requirements are typically established by the individual specifying agencies.
 Figure: Microscopic photographs of fly ash (left) and portland cement (right).

Table. Specifications for fly ash in PCC. AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C 618) - Class F and C

Class Class
F C
Chemical Requirements SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 min% 701 50

SiO3 max% 5 5
Moisture Content max% 3 3
Loss on ignition (LOI) max% 51 51
Optional Chemical Requirements Available alkalies max% 1.5 1.5
Physical Requirements Fineness (+325 Mesh) max% 34 34

Pozzolanic activity/cement (7 min% 75 75

days)
Pozzolanic activity/cement (28 min% 75 75
days)
Water requirement max% 105 105
Autoclave expansion max% 0.8 0.8
Uniform requirements2: density max% 5 5
Uniform requirements2: max% 5 5
Fineness
Optional Physical Requirements Multiple factor (LOI x fineness) 255 --
Increase in drying shrinkage max% .03 .03
Uniformity requirements: Air max% 20 20
entraining agent
Cement/Alkali Reaction: Mortar max% 0.020 --
expansion (14 days)

Fly Ash Drawbacks

Smaller builders and housing contractors are not that familiar with fly ash products which
could have different properties depending on where and how it was obtained.
For this reason, fly ash applications are encountering resistance from traditional builders
due to its tendency to effloresce along with major concerns about freeze/thaw
performance.

Other major concerns about using fly ash concrete include:

 Slower strength gain.

 Seasonal limitation.
 Increase in air entraining admixtures.
 An increase of salt scaling produced by higher fly ash.

Fly ash is a byproduct from coal-fired power plants that is frequently used as an admixture
in concrete to replace a portion of the Portland cement. Using fly ash in concrete is
environmentally beneficial because it reduces the Portland cement (a major contributor of
CO2) required in concrete. Fly ash in concrete improves performance in some ways, but it
also has some disadvantages.

Slower Strength Gain

Concrete changes from a liquid to a solid a few hours after pouring, but the curing process
may take much longer. It continues to gain strength for weeks after its initial setting period.
The addition of fly ash can increase the length of time concrete takes to reach its full
strength. This can cause problems when slow strength gain means delays in construction.

Longer Setting Times

Fly ash admixtures can lengthen the time it takes for concrete to set. Sometimes this is
desirable, particularly in hot weather which speeds up concrete set times, but at other times
it is an inconvenience and can cause delays in construction. Other admixtures may be
necessary to adjust the set time of the concrete, depending on the percent fly ash in the
mixture and the outside temperature.

Air Content Control

Concrete is susceptible to damage from freeze/thaw cycles if it does not contain air. Tiny air
bubbles can be created in concrete by using air-entraining admixtures that cause the
concrete to foam in the mixing and pouring stage. Fly ash reduces the amount of air
entrainment, and concrete mixtures high in fly ash often require more air-entraining
admixture.

Seasonal Limitations

The winter season is problematic for concrete pouring, and mixtures high in fly ash are even
more susceptible to low temperatures. Low temperatures lengthen setting times and cause
slow strength gain even in concrete mixtures without fly ash. When fly ash is added, low
temperatures exaggerate these problems. Some regions have bans or restrictions on using
fly ash in the winter months.

Color Variability

The structural effects of fly ash may be more critical, but cosmetic concerns also affect its
use in concrete. It is more difficult to control the color of concrete containing fly ash than
mixtures with Portland cement only. Fly ash also may cause visual inconsistencies in the
finished surface, such as dark streaks from carbon particles.

Uses of Fly Ash

There is no U.S. governmental registration or labelling of fly ash utilization in the different
sectors of the economy - industry, infrastructures and agriculture. Fly ash utilization survey
data, acknowledged as incomplete, are published annually by the American Coal Ash
Association.
The ways of coal ash utilization include (approximately in order of decreasing importance):

 Concrete production, as a substitute material for Portland cement and sand

 Embankments and other structural fills (usually for road construction)
 Grout and Flowable fill production
 Waste stabilization and solidification
 Cement clinkers production - (as a substitute material for clay)
 Mine reclamation
 Stabilization of soft soils
 Road subbase construction
 As Aggregate substitute material (e.g. for brick production)
 Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete
 Agricultural uses: soil amendment, fertilizer, cattle feeders, soil stabilization in stock
feed yards, and agricultural stakes
 Loose application on rivers to melt ice
 Loose application on roads and parking lots for ice control

Other applications include cosmetics, toothpaste, kitchen counter tops, floor and ceiling
tiles, bowling balls, flotation devices, stucco, utensils, tool handles, picture frames, auto
bodies and boat hulls, cellular concrete, geopolymers, roofing tiles, roofing granules,
decking, fireplace mantles, cinder block, PVC pipe, Structural Insulated Panels, house siding
and trim, running tracks, blasting grit, recycled plastic lumber, utility poles and crossarms,
railway sleepers, highway sound barriers, marine pilings, doors, window frames, scaffolding,
sign posts, crypts, columns, railroad ties, vinyl flooring, paving stones, shower stalls, garage
doors, park benches, landscape timbers, planters, pallet blocks, molding, mail boxes,
artificial reef, binding agent, paints and undercoatings, metal castings, and filler in wood and
plastic products.

1. Use of fly ash, bottom ash or pond ash in the manufacture of bricks and other
construction Activities.

 No person shall within a radius of fifty kilometers from coal or lignite based thermal
power plants, manufacture clay bricks or tiles or blocks for use in construction
activities without mixing at least 25 per cent of ash (fly ash, bottom ash or pond ash)
with soil on weight-to-weight basis.

 The authority for ensuring the use of specified quantity of ash as per para (1) above
shall be the concerned Regional Officer of the State Pollution Control Board or the
Pollution Control Committee as the case may be. In case of non-compliance, the said
authority, in addition to cancellation of consent order issued to establish the brick
kiln, shall move the district administration for cancellation of mining lease. The
cancellation of mining lease shall be decided after due hearing. To enable the said
authority to verify the actual use of ash, the thermal power plant shall maintain
month-wise records of ash made available to each brick kiln.

 In case of non-availability of ash from thermal power plant in sufficient quantities as

certified by the said power plant, the stipulation under para (1) shall be suitably
modified (waived/relaxed) by the concerned State/Union Territory Government.

 Each coal or lignite based thermal power plant shall constitute a dispute settlement
committee which shall include the General Manager of the thermal power plant and
a representative of All India Brick and Tile Manufacture’s Federation (AIBTMF). Such
a committee shall ensure unhindered loading and transport of ash without any
undue loss of time. Any unresolved dispute shall be dealt with by a State/Union
Territory level committee to be set up by State/Union Territory level committee to
be set up by State/Union Territory Government comprising Member Secretary of the
State Pollution Control Board/Pollution Control Committee, representatives of
Ministry of Power in the State/Union Territory Government and a representative of
AIBTMF.

2. Utilization of ash by Thermal Power Plant. –

All coal or lignite based thermal power plants shall utilize the ash generated in the power
plants as follows:-

 Every coal or lignite based thermal power plant shall make available ash, for at least
ten years from the date of publication of this notification, without any payment or
 any other consideration, for the purpose of manufacturing ash-based products such
as cement, concrete blocks, bricks, panels or any other material or for construction
of roads, embankments, dams, dykes or for any other construction activity.

 Every coal or lignite based thermal power plant commissioned subject to

environmental clearance conditions stipulating the submission of an action a period
of nine years from the publication of this notification, phase out the dumping and
disposal of fly ash on land in accordance with the plan. Such an action plan shall
provide for thirty per cent of the fly ash utilization, within three years from the
publication of this notification with further increase in utilization by at least ten per
cent points every year progressively for the next six years to enable utilization of the
entire fly ash generated in the power plant at least by the end of ninth year. Progress
in this regard shall be reviewed after five years.

 Every coal or lignite based thermal power plant not covered by para (2) above shall,
within a period of fifteen years from the date of publication of this notification,
phase out the utilization of fly ash in accordance with an action plan to be drawn up
by the power plants. Such action plan shall provide for twenty per cent of fly ash
utilization within three years from the date of publication of this notification, with
further increase in utilization every year progressively for the next twelve years to
enable utilization of the entire fly ash generated in the power plant.

 All action plans prepared by coal or lignite based thermal power plants in accordance
with sub-para (2) and (3) of para 2 of this notification, shall be submitted to the
Central Pollution, shall be submitted to the Central Pollution Control Board,
concerned State Pollution Control Board/Committee and concerned regional office
of the Ministry of Environment and Forests within a period of six months from the
date of publication of this notification.

 The Central and State Government Agencies, the State Electricity Boards, the
National Thermal Power Corporation and the management of the thermal power
plants shall facilitate in making available land available land, electricity and water for
manufacturing activities and provide access to the ash lifting area for promoting and
setting up of ash-based production units in the proximity of the area where ash is
generated by the power plant.

 Annual implementation report providing information about the compliance of

provisions in this notification shall be submitted by the 30 th day of April every year to
the Central Pollution Control Board, concerned State Pollution Control
Board/Committee and the concerned Regional Office of the Ministry of Environment
and Forests by the coal or lignite based thermal power plants.
3. Specification for use of ash-based products. -

 Manufacture of ash-based products such as cement, concrete blocks. Bricks, panels

or any other material or the use of ash in construction activity such as in road laying,
embankments or use as landfill to reclaim low lying areas including back filling in
abandoned mines or pitheads or for any other use shall be carried out in accordance
with specifications and guidelines laid down by the Bureau of Indian Standards,
Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Central Road Research Institute,
Roorkee, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, Building Materials and
Technology Promotion Council, New Delhi, Central Public Works Department, State
Public Works Departments and other Central and State Government agencies.

 The Central Public Works Department, Public Works Departments in the State/Union
Territory Governments, Development Authorities, Housing Boards, National Highway
Authority of India and other construction agencies including those in the private
sector shall also prescribe the use of ash and ash-based products in their respective
schedules of specifications and construction applications, including appropriate
standards and codes of practice, within a period of four months from the publication
of this notification.

 All local authorities shall specify in their respective building by-laws and regulations
the use of ash and ash-based products and construction techniques in building
materials, roads, embankments or for any other use within a period of four months
from the date of publication of this notification.

Environmental benefits

Fly ash utilization, especially in concrete, has significant environmental benefits including:

(1) increasing the life of concrete roads and structures by improving concrete durability.

(2) net reduction in energy use and greenhouse gas and other adverse air emissions when
fly ash is used to replace or displace manufactured cement.

(3) reduction in amount of coal combustion products that must be disposed in landfills.

(4) conservation of other natural resources and materials.

Figure 1-1: Method of fly ash transfer can be dry, wet, or both.

Embankment
Fly ash properties are unusual among engineering materials. Unlike soils typically used for
embankment construction, fly ash has a large uniformity coefficient and it consists of clay-
sized particles. Engineering properties that affect the use of fly ash in embankments include
grain size distribution, compaction characteristics, shear strength, compressibility,
permeability, and frost susceptibility. Nearly all the types of fly ash used in embankments
are Class F.

Soil stabilization
Soil stabilization is the permanent physical and chemical alteration of soils to enhance their
physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and/or control the
shrink-swell properties of a soil, thus improving the load-bearing capacity of a sub-grade to
support pavements and foundations. Stabilization can be used to treat a wide range of sub-
grade materials from expansive clays to granular materials. Stabilization can be achieved
with a variety of chemical additives including lime, fly ash, and Portland cement. Proper
design and testing is an important component of any stabilization project. This allows for
the establishment of design criteria as well as the determination of the proper chemical
additive and admixture rate to be used to achieve the desired engineering properties.
Benefits of the stabilization process can include: Higher resistance (R) values, Reduction in
plasticity, Lower permeability, Reduction of pavement thickness, Elimination of excavation -
material hauling/handling - and base importation, Aids compaction, Provides “all-weather”
access onto and within projects sites.
Another form of soil treatment closely related to soil stabilization is soil modification,
sometimes referred to as “mud drying” or soil conditioning. Although some stabilization
inherently occurs in soil modification, the distinction is that soil modification is merely a
means to reduce the moisture content of a soil to expedite construction, whereas
stabilization can substantially increase the shear strength of a material such that it can be
incorporated into the project’s structural design. The determining factors associated with
soil modification vs soil stabilization may be the existing moisture content, the end use of
the soil structure and ultimately the cost benefit provided. Equipment for the stabilization
and modification processes include: chemical additive spreaders, soil mixers (reclaimers),
portable pneumatic storage containers, water trucks, deep lift compactors, motor graders.

Bricks
There are several techniques for manufacturing construction bricks from fly ash, producing a
wide variety of products. One type of fly ash brick is manufactured by mixing fly ash with an
equal amount of clay, then firing in a kiln at about 1000 °C. This approach has the principal
benefit of reducing the amount of clay required. Another type of fly ash brick is made by
mixing soil, plaster of paris, fly ash and water, and allowing the mixture to dry. Because no
heat is required, this technique reduces air pollution. More modern manufacturing
processes use a greater proportion of fly ash, and a high pressure manufacturing technique,
which produces high strength bricks with environmental benefits.
In the United Kingdom, fly ash has been used for over fifty years to make concrete building
blocks. They are widely used for the inner skin of cavity walls. They are naturally more
thermally insulating than blocks made with other aggregates.
Ash bricks have been used in house construction in Windhoek, Namibia since the 1970s.
There is, however, a problem with the bricks in that they tend to fail or produce unsightly
pop-outs. This happens when the bricks come into contact with moisture and a chemical
reaction occurs causing the bricks to expand.
In India, fly ash bricks are used for construction. Leading manufacturers use an industrial
standard known as "Pulverized fuel ash for lime-Pozzolana mixture" using over 75% post-
industrial recycled waste, and a compression process. This produces a strong product with
good insulation properties and environmental benefits.
American civil engineer Henry Liu announced the invention of a new type of fly ash brick in
2007. Liu's brick is compressed at 27.58 MPa (272 atm) and cured for 24 hours in a 66 °C
steam bath, then toughened with an air entrainment agent, so that it lasts for more than
100 freeze-thaw cycles. Owing to the high concentration of calcium oxide in class C fly ash,
the brick can be described as self-cementing. Since this method contains no clay and uses
pressure instead of heat, it saves energy, reduces mercury pollution, and costs 20% less
than traditional manufacturing techniques. This type of brick is now manufactured under
license in the USA.
Some varieties of fly ash brick gain strength as they age.

Metal matrix composites

Hollow fly ash can be infiltrated by molten metal to form solid, alumina encased spheres. Fly
ash can also be mixed with molten metal and cast to reduce overall weight and density, due
to the low density of fly ash. Research is underway to incorporate fly ash into lead acid
batteries in a lead calcium tin fly ash composite in an effort to reduce weight of the battery.

Waste treatment and stabilization

Fly ash, in view of its alkalinity and water absorption capacity, may be used in combination
with others alkaline materials to transform sewage sludge into organic fertilizer or biofuel.

As a catalyst
Fly ash, when treated with sodium hydroxide, appears to function well as a catalyst for
converting polyethylene into substance similar to crude oil in a high-temperature process
called pyrolysis.
In addition, fly ash, mainly class C, may be used in the stabilization/solidification process of
hazardous wastes and contaminated soils. For example, the Rhenipal process uses fly ash as
an admixture to stabilize sewage sludge and other toxic sludges. This process has been used
since 1996 to stabilize large amounts of chromium (VI) contaminated leather sludges in
Alcanena, Portugal.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
 Experimental Work
Experimental methodology executed for accomplishment of a project is one of the most
important parts of study, deciding the ultimate outcomes of the study. The present
investigation was therefore designed to avoid discrepancies as much as possible, and to
maximize the outcomes.

Chemical used

All the chemicals used were of analytical grade with certified purity of 99%. All the reagents
used for quantification had complete control over their purity and quality.

 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

 Nitric acid (HNO3)
 Stannous chloride (SnCl2)
 Hypo chloric acid (H3PO4)
 Potassium chloride (K2Cr2O7)
 Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
 Ammonium Hydroxide (NH4OH)
 Ammonium Oxalate (C2H8N2O4)
 Ammonium hydrogen phosphate (NH4)HPO4

Equipment/ instrument used

The following equipments were used for the successful of the present study.

 Desiccators
 Fuming cupboard
 Platinum crucible
 Tong
 Graduated beaker
 Graduated funnel
 Flask
 Filter paper
 Burner
 pH meter
 Furnace
Analytical methodology for Coal

Sample collection

5 sample of coal was collect from the Punjab mines (khushab), Pakistan for proximately
analysis and grindibility test.

Sample Preparation

I took sample no.1 and sample no.6 for crushing in a jaw crusher one by one. Coal sample
was thoroughly mixed and reduced in weight by employing conning and quartering
technique. 1 kg of sample then obtained was gradually reduced in size to -15+30 mesh by
using pebble mill, each time thoroughly mixing the coal sample after each size reduction and
reducing the weight of sample to 1/2 kg by conning and quartering technique. After that the
sample is pack in packing plastic bag.

Proximate Analysis

Proximate analysis of coal includes following.

1. Moisture
2. Volatile matter
3. Ash
4. Fixed carbon
Determination of total Moisture

Moisture was determined according to ASTM standard 3302 as follow:

1. In pre weighed and pre tarred crucible 1 gram of coal sample was taken having size
of -60+70 mesh.
2. Sample was placed for 1 hour in free space oven at 110o C.
3. After 1 hour crucible was removed from oven and placed in desiccators about 20 to
25 minutes for cooling.
4. The sample was weighed again along crucible.
5. The above experiment was repeated till the constant weight of crucible sample was
achieved.
6. Loss of sample weight was calculated by using the following relationship
(INTERNATIONAL ASTM 2005, 2005b).
% Total Moisture = w2-w3/w2-w1×100

Where as

w1= weight of empty crucible

w2= weight of crucible and sample before heating

w3= weight of sample and crucible after heating

Determination of Volatile Matter ASTM-D-3175

Volatile matter of coal was determined by using ASTM standard D 3175 as follow:

1. In pre weighed and ignited crucible 1 gram of coal sample was taken in crucible
having size of -60+70 mesh the crucible was covered with lid.
2. The covered crucible along with coal sample was placed Muffle furnace at 825 o C for
1 hour.
3. After that the crucible was removed from furnace and then cooled in desiccators for
20 minutes.

After heating and cooling the crucible was weighed along with the sample and the weight
difference was calculated by subtracting the weight of empty crucible and lid
(INTERNATIONAL ASTM, 2005).Formula

% V.M=w2-w3/w2-w1×100-Moisture

Where as

W1=weight of empty crucible plus lid

W2=weight of covered crucible + sample

W3=weight of crucible + sample after heating and cooling

Determination of Ash ASTM-D-3174

Ash content was determined according to the ASTM standard 3174 as follow:

1. In pre ignited and pre weighed crucible, 1 gram of coal was taken having size of -
60+70 mesh.
2. Uncovered crucible along with coal sample was placed in ASTM standard ashing
furnace at 950±5o C for 3 hours.
3. Crucible was removed from furnace and then cooled in desiccators for 10 to 15
minutes. The crucible containing sample was again weighed and also checked
whether any black particles were present in ash or not.
4. If any black particles were present, the crucible along with sample was again placed
in furnace for another 1 hour till all the black particles disappeared and constant
weight of crucible and sample was obtained.
5. Crucible was weighed along with left over sample after heating and cools
(INTERNATIONAL ASTM 2005, 2005a).
Formula

%Ash=w2-w3/w2-w1×100
Where as

w1=weight of empty crucible

w2=weight of crucible + sample

w3=weight of crucible + sample after heating

Determination Fixed Carbon

After calculation of moisture, volatile matter and ash contents of coal sample, the % fixed
carbon of that coal sample was determined by using the following formula

Formula

% fixed carbon = 100-(% of total moisture + % of volatile matter + % of ash contents)

Analytical methodology for Fly Ash

Estimation of sulphur

Procedure

0.5600 g of fly ash was weighed and it was added into crucible. Then weighed 7 gram of
Eschka mixture, 3 gram mixed with fly ash and make a layer of Eschka mixture over the
sample mixture. It was placed in muffle furnace and ignited at 750o C for 3 hours. After 3
hours crucible was removed from muffle furnace and placed in desiccators for cooling. Then
the sample was placed in beaker and conc. HCl added in beaker and heat the beaker for
some time on burner. The sample was filter off in 250 mL volumetric flask by WHATTMAN
filter paper NO. 42. The flask was filled upto the mark 250 mL. Took 2 beakers of 100 mL.
100 mL of sample was taken in each beaker. 20% BaCl2 was added in both beakers and
placed on table for precipitation. After precipitation the solution was filter off in conical
flask. The residue was weighed and placed in ignited crucible. Then the crucible was placed
in muffle furnace at 810o C for 1 hour. The sample was removed and placed in desiccators
for cooling after 1 hour. The sample was weighed by weighing balance. Weight of empty
crucible was subtract from sample crucible weight and then total sulphur was calculated by
using the following formula,

Total Sulphur = 0.137× difference × volume of solution (250 mL) × 100

Volume used ×weight of sample

Estimation of silica

Procedure

1 gram of fly ash was weighed and it was added into pre weighed platinum crucible. It was
ignited at 825o C for 3 hours to get constant weight and percentage of sulphur was
determined. In the residue of sulphur, aqua regia was added and placed in a fuming
cupboard until dry. Then HCl and distilled water was added and solution was boiled until it
precipitated and then it was cooled and filtered by filter paper WHATTMAN NO 41. Then
precipitates were ignited.

For ignition platinum crucible was taken. Crucible was placed in the muffle furnace for
heating for 1 hour then removed from the muffle furnace and placed in desiccators for
cooling. Crucible and residue was weighed. Silica is calculated by the following formula

SiO2 = Weight before ignition-weight after ignition ×100

Total sample weight

Estimation of R2O3

Procedure

50 mL of stock solution was taken in beaker then added about half spatula of ammonium
chloride.20 mL of ammonia was added in beaker by measuring cylinder and warm slowly,
brown precipitate was obtained. Then it was filtered by filter paper WHATTMAN NO 41. The
residue was filled in pre weighed crucible and placed in muffle furnace. The filtrate was
taken off from conical flask into the beaker and ammonium oxalate was added in it. White
precipitate was obtained which indicated the conversion of ammonium oxalate into calcium
oxalate and then put it was placed in muffle furnace for half hour. R 2O3 was calculated by
using following formula,

R2O3 = 0.0317 × volume of stock solution × 100

Weight of sample × volume used

Estimation of Fe2O3
Procedure

From stocks solution (250 mL) 20 mL solution was taken. Solution was heated till its boiling
and few drops of 5% stannous chloride were added to get clear color. Solution was cooled
abruptly and mercury chloride was added. Few drops of sulphuric acid were added and then
phenolphthalein indicator was added. Titrated the solution against N/10 K2Cr2O7 until violet
color is obtained.

Estimation of Al2O3

Procedure

From 250 mL solution 20 mL solution was taken in a beaker. NH4Cl and NH4OH were added
in this solution. Solution was boiled until it precipitated and then cooled and filter by filter
paper WHATTMAN NO 41. After that precipitates were ignited.

For ignition precipitate were placed in a pre weighed crucible and crucible were placed in
muffle furnace. After ignition crucible were placed in desiccators for cooling and then
crucible was weighed. The value of Al2O3 was calculated by subtracting the value of Fe2O3
from R2O3.

Estimation for Calcium Oxide

Procedure

The filtrate obtained from removal of Al2O3 was boiled and then ammonium oxalate was
added and boiled the solution until it precipitated. Solution was cooled and filtered by filter
paper WHATTMAN NO 41. The precipitates were dried and then ignited.

For ignition pre weighed crucible was taken. The precipitates were added in crucible and
ignited to determined the percentage of calcium oxide.

Estimation of Magnesium Oxide

Procedure

The filtrate obtained from removal of calcium oxide was boiled and ammonium hydrogen
phosphate was added in it to adjust the pH at 8-10. Solution was boiled until its
precipitation. Then precipitates were ignited.

For ignition took a crucible. Crucible was heated, cooled and weighed. The precipitates
added in crucible and crucible was placed in muffle furnace for ignition. After ignition
crucible were removed from furnace and placed in desiccators for cooling. Then weighed
the crucible by weighing balance and calculate the percentage of magnesium oxide in given
sample of fly ash.
 RESULTS

Results

Coal
The results for proximate analysis of coal were given following calculations.

Estimation of moisture

Calculations
Weight of empty crucible = 19.8009g

Weight of crucible + sample = 21.1187g

weight of coal = ( wt. of crucible + coal) - wt. of crucible

= 21.1187 - 19.8009

= 1.3178g

After ignition
Weight of residue + crucible = 21.0230g

Loss on ignition = 21.1187-21.0230

= 0.0597g

%age of moisture = (0.0597×100)/1.3178

= 7.26

Estimation of volatile matter

Calculations
Weight of crucible + sample = 21.0230g

Weight after ignition = 20.5741g

Weight of sample = 21.0230-20.5741

= 0.4489g

% of volatile matter (v.m) = (0.4489×100)/1.3178

= 34.06%

Estimation of ash

Calculations
Weight before ignition = 20.5741g

Weight after ignition = 19.9827g

Weight of sample = 0.1818g

%age of ash = (0.1818×100)/1.3178

= 13.79%

Estimation of fixed carbon

Calculations
Fixed carbon= 100-(moisture + volatile matter +ash)%

= 100-(7.26+34.06+13.6) %

= 100-54.92

= 45.08%

Fly Ash
The results of estimation of different compound’s in fly ash given by following calculations.

Estimation of sulphur

Calculation

Before ignition
Weight of empty crucible = 18.2895g

weight of crucible + sample = 19.8495g

Weight of sample = (wt. of crucible + sulphur) – (wt. of crucible)

= 19.8495-18.2895

= 0.5600g
After Ignition

Weight of residue + crucible = 19.8083g

Loss on ignition =19.8495-19.8083

=0.0412g

%age of sulphur = (0.137×0.0412×250×100)/(100×0.5600)

=2.53%

Estimation of silica

Calculations

Before ignition

Weight of empty crucible = 21.0306g

Total sample weight = 1g

After ignition

weight of crucible + residue = 21.6764

After ignition weight of residue = 21.6764-21.0306

= 0.6458g

%age of silica (SiO2) = (wt. of residue/wt. of sample) ×100

= (0.6458/1)×100

=64.58%

Estimation of Fe2CO3

Table

Sr. no Initial reading Final reading Volume used

(ml) (ml) (ml)
1 10.0 15.5 5.5
2 15.5 21.1 5.6

Calculations

Average = (5.5+5.6)/2

= 5.55

%age of Fe2O3 = (0.00056×5.55×100×250)/1×20

= 3.9%

Estimation of R2O3
Calculations

Before ignition

Weight of empty crucible = 19.8101g

After ignition

Weight of crucible + precipitate = 19.8418g

Weight of precipitate = 19.8418- 19.8101

= 0.0317g

%age of R2O3 = (wt. of ppt × 250ml × 100) / (50ml × 1.0g)

= (0.0317×100×250) × (50×1)

= 15.18%

Estimation for Al2O3

Calculations

%age of Al2O3 =R2O3 - Fe2O3

=15.18-3.9

= 11.28%

Estimation of calcium oxide

Before ignition

Weight of empty crucible = 21.0301g

After ignition

Weight of crucible + precipitate = 21.0393g

Weight of precipitates = (wt. of crucible + ppt) –(wt. of crucible)

= 21.0393 – 21.0301

= 0.0092g
%age of CaO = (wt. of ppt × 250ml × 100) / (50ml × 1g)

= (0.0092×250×100)/ (50×1)

= 4.6%

Estimation of Magnesium oxide

Before ignition

Weight of crucible = 21.3388g

After ignition

Weight of crucible + precipitate = 21.3397g

Weight of precipitate = (wt. of crucible + ppt) –(wt. of crucible)

= 21.3397- 21.3388

= 0.0009g

%age of MgO = (0.0009×250×100)/(50×1)

= 0.45%
Following results showed that in coal, moisture 2.26%, volatile matter 34.06%, ash13.79%,
fixed carbon% and in fly ash sulphur 2.53%, silica 64.58%, iron oxide 3.9%, aluminum oxide
11.28%, calcium oxide 4.6% and magnesium oxide 0.45% was found. Iron oxide was
estimated by gravimetric titration while sulphur, silica, aluminum oxide, calcium oxide,
magnesium oxide estimated by ignition test.

References
1. Managing Coal Combustion Residues in Mines, Committee on Mine Placement of
Coal Combustion Wastes, National Research Council of the National Academies,
2006
2. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment of Coal Combustion Wastes, RTI,Research
Triangle Park, August 6, 2007, prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
3. American Coal Ash Association http://www.acaa-usa.org
4. EPA 2014, Final rule: disposal of coal combustion residuals from electric utilities,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C.
5. Snellings, R.; Mertens G.; Elsen J. (2012). "Supplementary cementitious
materials". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. 74: 211–
278.doi:10.2138/rmg.2012.74.6.
6. "Fly Ash in Concrete" (PDF). perkinswill.com. 2011-11-17. Retrieved2013-11-19. Fly
ash contains approximately one part per million of mercury.
7. EPRI (Project Manager K. Ladwig) 2010, Comparison of coal combustion products to
other common materials - Chemical Characteristics, Electric Power Research
Institute, Palo Alto, CA
8. "ASTM C618 - 08 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural
Pozzolan for Use in Concrete". ASTM International. Retrieved2008-09-18.
9. "The Building Brick of Sustainability". Chusid, Michael; Miller, Steve; & Rapoport,
Julie. The Construction Specifier May 2009.
10. "Coal by-product to be used to make bricks in Caledonia". Burke, Michael. The
Journal Times April 1, 2009.
11. American Coal Ash Association. "CCP Production and Use Survey" (PDF).
12. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Using Coal Ash in Highway Construction - A
Guide to Benefits and Impacts" (PDF).
13. Robert McCabe (March 30, 2008). "Above ground, a golf course. Just beneath it,
potential health risks". The Virginian-Pilot.
14. American Coal Ash Association. "Coal Combustion Products Production & Use
Statistics".
15. Gaarder,Nancy. "Coal ash will fight flooding", Omaha World-Herald, February 17,
2010.
16. Josephson, Joan. "Coal ash under fire from Portland resident", "ObserverToday",
February 13, 2010.
17. Lessard, Paul. "Mine Tailings and Fly Ash Beneficial Use Photo Showcase".Tons Per
Hour, Inc. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
18. U.S. Federal Highway Administration. "Fly Ash".
19. Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility. "Coal Combustion Wastes in Our
Lives".
20. Scott, Allan N .; Thomas, Michael D. A. (January–February 2007). "Evaluation of Fly
Ash From Co-Combustion of Coal and Petroleum Coke for Use in Concrete".ACI
Materials Journal. American Concrete Institute. 104 (1): 62–70.doi:10.14359/18496.
21. Halstead, W. (October 1986). "Use of Fly Ash in Concrete". National Cooperative
Highway Research Project. 127.
22. Moore, David. The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete.
23. U.S. Federal Highway Administration. "Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers" (PDF)
24. Zimmer, F. V. (1970). "Proceedings of the Second Ash Utilization
Symposium".|contribution= ignored (help)
25. Duxson, P.; Provis, J.L.; Lukey, G.C.; van Deventer, J.S.J. (2007). "The role of inorganic
polymer technology in the development of 'Green concrete'". Cement and Concrete
Research. 37 (12): 1590–1597. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.08.018.
26. "Taum Sauk Reconstruction". Portland Cement Association. Retrieved2012-11-15.
27. "FAQs - Fly Ash Bricks - Puzzolana Green Fly-Ash bricks". Fly Ash Bricks Delhi.
28. "List of important IS Codes related to bricks". Fly Ash Bricks Info.
29. N-Viro International Archived August 23, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
30. "From ash to eco-friendly solution for hazardous metals removal".
31. http://www.environmental-expert.com/Files/0/articles/9566/Pyrolysisoflow-
densitypolyethylene.pdf
32. EPA, 2009. Technology performance review: selecting and using
solidification/stabilization treatment for site remediation. NRMRL, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
33. "Toxic Sludge stabilisation for INAG, Portugal". DIRK group. External link
in|publisher= (help)
34. DIRK group (1996). "Pulverised fuel ash products solve the sewage sludge problems
of the wastewater industry". Waste management. 16 (1-3): 51–
57.doi:10.1016/S0956-053X(96)00060-8.
35. Chemical & Engineering News, 23 February 2009, "The Foul Side of 'Clean Coal'", p.
44
36. A December 2008 Maryland court decision levied a $54 million penalty
againstConstellation Energy, which had performed a "restoration project" of filling
an abandoned gravel quarry with fly ash; the ash contaminated area waterwells
with heavy metals. C&EN/12 Feb. 2009, p. 45
37. Associated Press (2014-06-17). "Dukeville concerns over coal ash: 5 things to
know". The Denver Post. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
38. Fisher, Hugh (2014-05-06). "Riverkeeper: Coal ash from Buck steam plant poses
toxic threat". Salisbury Post. Retrieved 2014-06-17.
39. Environmental Protection Agency (August 29, 2007). "Notice of Data Availability on
the Disposal of Coal Combustion Wastes in Landfills and Surface
Impoundments" (PDF). 72 Federal Register 49714.
40. House Committee on Natural Resources, Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral
Resources (June 10, 2008). "Oversight Hearing: How Should the Federal Government
Address the Health and Environmental Risks of Coal Combustion Wastes?".