TURBOMACHINES 4

Chapter 3:
Axial Flow Turbines:
2D Theory
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
INTRODUCTION
• Development of the axial-flow turbine is tied to history of
aircraft gas turbine but clearly depended upon the design
advances made previously in the field of steam turbines
• Simplest approach to their analysis is to assume that flow
conditions at a mean radius represent the flow at all radii
• This two-dimensional (2D) analysis can provide a
reasonable approximation to the actual flow, provided that
the ratio of blade height to mean radius is small
• When this ratio is large more elaborate three-dimensional
(3D) analysis is necessary
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
VELOCITY DIAGRAMS
• Axial turbine stage - row of
fixed guide vanes or nozzles
(stator row) and row of
moving blades or buckets
(rotor row)
• Fluid enters stator with
absolute velocity c1 at angle α1
and accelerates to an absolute
velocity c2 at angle α2
• All angles are measured from
the axial (x) direction
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
VELOCITY DIAGRAMS
• Rotor inlet relative velocity w2, at an angle β2, found by
subtracting (vectorially) the blade speed U from the
absolute velocity c2
• Relative flow within the rotor accelerates to velocity w3 at
an angle β3 at rotor outlet
• Absolute flow (c3, α3) is obtained by adding (vectorially)
blade speed U to relative velocity w3
• Within an axial turbine, levels of turning are very high and
flow is turned through the axial direction in both rotors
and nozzles
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
TURBINE STAGE DESIGN PARAMETERS
Three key non-dimensional parameters are related to the
shape of the turbine velocity triangles and are used in fixing
the preliminary design of a turbine stage

Stage loading coefficient

• Ratio of stagnation enthalpy change through a stage to the
square of the blade speed
Δℎ0 Δ𝑐𝜃
𝜓= 2 =
𝑈 𝑈
where Δcθ represents change in tangential component of
absolute velocity through the rotor
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
TURBINE STAGE DESIGN PARAMETERS
• High stage loading implies large flow turning and leads to
highly “skewed” velocity triangles
• High stage loading is desirable because it means fewer
stages are needed to produce a required work output –
limitations by effects on efficiency

Stage reaction
• Ratio of static enthalpy drop in the rotor to static enthalpy
drop across the stage
ℎ2 − ℎ3 𝑝2 − 𝑝3 𝑇2 − 𝑇3
𝑅= ≈ ≈
ℎ1 − ℎ3 𝑝1 − 𝑝3 𝑇1 − 𝑇3
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
TURBINE STAGE DESIGN PARAMETERS
Design flow coefficient
• Ratio of meridional flow velocity to blade speed, φ = cm/U,
but in purely axial-flow machine:
𝑐𝑥
𝜙=
𝑈
• Low value of φ implies highly staggered blades and relative
flow angles close to tangential
• High values imply low stagger and flow angles closer to axial
• From continuity equation for steady flow:
𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝐴𝑥1 𝑐𝑥1 = 𝜌2 𝐴𝑥2 𝑐𝑥2 = 𝜌3 𝐴𝑥3 𝑐𝑥3 = 𝜌𝐴𝑥 𝜙𝑈
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
THERMODYNAMICS OF TURBINE STAGE
• Work done on the rotor by unit mass of fluid (assuming
adiabatic flow):
Δ𝑊 = 𝑊 𝑚 = ℎ01 − ℎ03 = 𝑈 𝑐𝜃2 + 𝑐𝜃3
• No work is done in the nozzle row, and the stagnation
enthalpy across it remains constant:
ℎ01 = ℎ02
• Relative stagnation enthalpy remains unchanged through the
rotor of a purely axial turbomachine:
ℎ02,𝑟𝑒𝑙 = ℎ03,𝑟𝑒𝑙
1 2 1 2
ℎ2 + 𝑤2 = ℎ3 + 𝑤3
2 2
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
THERMODYNAMICS OF TURBINE STAGE
Mollier diagram for turbine stage

Nozzle row (1 to 2):

• Static pressure: p1  p2
• Stagnation enthalpy: h01 = h02
• Stagnation pressure: p01 > p02
(isentropic: p01 = p02)

Subscript s denotes isentropic

change and ss denotes both rows
isentropic
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
THERMODYNAMICS OF TURBINE STAGE
Mollier diagram for turbine stage

Rotor row (2 to 3):

• Static pressure: p2  p3
• Stagnation enthalpy: h02 > h03
• Stagnation pressure: p02 > p03
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
REPEATING STAGE TURBINES
• High-power output and high efficiency - axial turbine with
multiple stages
• Design is often chosen to have identical, or at least very
similar, mean velocity triangles for all stages
• Requirements for a repeating stage:
cx = constant; r = constant; α1 = α3
• Stages satisfying these requirements are referred to as
normal stages – includes single-stage turbine
• Some useful relationships:
ℎ01 − ℎ03 = ℎ1 − ℎ3
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
REPEATING STAGE TURBINES
1 2 2
1 2
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = ℎ01 − ℎ02 + 𝑐2 − 𝑐1 = 𝑐𝑥 tan2 𝛼2 − tan2 𝛼1
2 2
𝜙2
𝑅 =1− tan2 𝛼2 − tan2 𝛼1
2𝜓
𝜙
𝑅 =1− tan 𝛼2 − tan 𝛼1
2
𝜙
𝑅= tan 𝛽3 − tan 𝛽2
2
Δ𝑐𝜃 𝑐𝑥 tan 𝛼2 + tan 𝛼3
𝜓= = = 𝜙 tan 𝛼2 + tan 𝛼1
𝑈 𝑈
𝜓 = 2 1 − 𝑅 + 𝜙 tan 𝛼1
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STAGE LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
• For a turbine stage, the total-to-total efficiency is:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡𝑡 =
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
ℎ01 − ℎ03
=
ℎ01 − ℎ03𝑠𝑠
• For a normal stage, no changes in are made in velocities from inlet to
outlet:
c1 = c2 and α1 = α2
• Assuming c3ss = c3:
ℎ01 − ℎ03 ℎ1 − ℎ3
𝜂𝑡𝑡 = =
ℎ01 − ℎ03𝑠𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ3𝑠𝑠
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STAGE LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
• Non-dimensional enthalpy “loss” coefficients can be defined in terms
of the exit kinetic energy from each blade row
• For the nozzle row:
ℎ2 − ℎ2𝑠
𝜁𝑁 =
𝑐22 2
• For the rotor row:
ℎ3 − ℎ3𝑠
𝜁𝑅 =
𝑤32 2
• Total-to-total efficiency:
−1
𝜁𝑅 𝑤32 + 𝜁𝑁 𝑐22 𝑇3 𝑇2
𝜂𝑡𝑡 ≅ 1 +
2 ℎ1 − ℎ3
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STAGE LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
• Total-to-static efficiency:
−1
𝜁𝑅 𝑤32 + 𝜁𝑁 𝑐22 𝑇3 𝑇2 + 𝑐12
𝜂𝑡𝑠 ≅ 1+
2 ℎ1 − ℎ3
• When the exit velocity is not recovered the total-to-static efficiency
for the stage is used
• For incompressible flow turbines T3/T2 can be set equal to unity:
−1
𝜁𝑅 𝑤32 + 𝜁𝑁 𝑐22
𝜂𝑡𝑡 ≅ 1 +
2 ℎ1 − ℎ3
2 −1
𝜁𝑅 𝑤32+ 𝜁𝑁 𝑐22 + 𝑐1
𝜂𝑡𝑠 ≅ 1 +
2 ℎ1 − ℎ3
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STAGE LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
Turbine loss sources
• Losses in a turbine can be categorized as 2D or 3D
• 2D loss sources are those that would be present in a cascade test of
a turbine blade row with infinite span
• 3D losses are the additional losses that arise when the turbine stage
is operating in a realistic rotating arrangement
• 2D loss sources: (a) flow separation, (b) blade boundary layers,
(c) shock waves, and (d) trailing edge mixing
• Flow separation:
 When boundary layer detaches from blade surface
 Difficult to quantify, but in a well-designed turbine it can generally
be neglected
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STAGE LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
• Blade boundary layers:
 Lost work expended against viscous shear within the boundary
layers
 For incompressible flow, total loss in a boundary layer is:
𝑠 2 2
𝛿𝑒 𝑐 𝑐
𝜁𝑡𝑒 = , 𝛿𝑒 = 1− 𝑑𝑦
𝑠 cos 𝛼2 −𝑠 2 𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥

where δe is the boundary layer energy thickness at the trailing

edge, and cmax is the local velocity at the edge of the boundary
layer
• Shock waves:
 Occurs when turbine blade passage is choked and exit Mach
number is above about 0.9
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STAGE LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
• Trailing edge mixing:
 Loss that arises from mixing of the suction surface and pressure
surface boundary layers with the region of flow just behind the
trailing edge
 Loss is significant, about 35% of total 2D loss in subsonic turbines,
and around 50% in supersonic cases
 For incompressible cases, the combined boundary layer loss and
trailing edge loss can be accounted for by the wake momentum
thickness, θ2:
2𝜃2
𝜁=
𝑠 cos 𝛼2
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STAGE LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
• 3D loss sources can be separated into (a) tip leakage flows, (b)
endwall (or secondary) flows, and (c) coolant flows
• Tip leakage:
 In all turbomachines, a clearance gap exists between the rotating
blades and the stationary casing
 Tip leakage is the passage of flow from pressure surface to suction
surface of the blade through this clearance gap
 Leakage flow leads to reduction in work done and loss in efficiency
• Endwall flows:
 Large, complex subject – encompasses all of the loss arising on the
hub and casing surfaces, both inside and outside of the blade rows
 Difficult to isolate and predict, but accounts for about 30% of the
total loss in a turbine stage
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STAGE LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY
• Coolant flows:
 Only applicable to high-temperature cooled gas turbine stages
 The coolant flow is injected into the blade passages at an angle
through holes or slots and has quite different stagnation
temperature and pressure compared to the mainstream flow
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.1
A low-pressure steam turbine within a power station has an entry
temperature of 450°C and an entry pressure of 30 bar. At exit from the
turbine, the condenser pressure is 0.06 bar and due to the effects of
moisture, the turbine isentropic efficiency is given by ηt = 0.9 - y, where
y is the wetness fraction of the steam at turbine exit (and y = 1 - x,
where x is the dryness fraction).
1. Find the net work output from the turbine per kg of steam and
determine the turbine polytropic efficiency assuming a reheat
factor of 1.02.
2. The turbine consists of repeating stages designed with zero
reaction, a flow coefficient of 0.8 and axial flow at inlet to each
stage. If it rotates at 3000 rpm and has a mean radius of 0.9 m,
determine the number of stages, the absolute flow angle at nozzle
exit, and the relative angle at rotor inlet.
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.1
Use the following table f properties for water and steam:
Specific Enthalpy Specific Entropy (kJ/kg Temperature
(kJ/kg) K) (°C)
Saturated liquid at
151.5 0.521 36.16 (state f)
0.06 bar
Saturated vapor at
2566.6 8.329 36.16 (state g)
0.06 bar
30 bar, 450_C 3344.8 7.086 (state 1)

1. For the turbine with wetness fraction y2:

ℎ1 − ℎ2 ℎ1 − 𝑦2 ℎ𝑓 + 1 − 𝑦2 ℎ𝑔
𝜂𝐿𝑃𝑇 = = = 0.9 − 𝑦2
ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.1
We need value of h2s. We know that s2s 5s1 and therefore can find y2s:
𝑆𝑔 − 𝑆2𝑠 𝑆𝑔 − 𝑆1 8.329 − 7.086
𝑦2𝑠 = = = = 0.1592
𝑆𝑔 − 𝑆𝑓 𝑆𝑔 − 𝑆𝑓 8.329 − 0.521
ℎ2𝑠 = 𝑦2𝑠 ℎ𝑓 + 1 − 𝑦2𝑠 ℎ𝑔
= 0.1592 × 151.5 + 1 − 0.1592 × 2566.6 = 2182.1 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Rearranging the above equation for ηLPT gives the exit wetness fraction:
0.9 ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1 − ℎ𝑔
𝑦2 =
ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 + ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓
0.9 3344.8 − 2182.1 − 3344.8 − 2566.6
= = 0.07497
3344.8 − 2182.1 + 2566.6 − 151.5
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.1
Hence we can find the actual enthalpy at exit:
ℎ2 = 𝑦2 ℎ𝑓 + 1 − 𝑦2 ℎ𝑔
= 0.07497 × 151.5 + 1 − 0.07497 × 2566.6 = 2385.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

The net work output per kg of steam is then simply:

Δ𝑊𝐿𝑃𝑇 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 3344.8 − 2385.5 = 959.3 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

The polytropic efficiency:

𝜂𝑡 ℎ1 − ℎ2 1 959.3 1
𝜂𝑝 = = = × = 0.809
𝑅𝐻 ℎ1 − ℎ2𝑠 𝑅𝐻 3344.8 − 2182.1 1.02
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.1
2. Using the fact that R = 0 and α1 = 0:
𝜓 = 2 1 − 𝑅 + 𝜙 tan 𝛼1 = 2

Number of stages required:

Δ𝑊𝐿𝑃𝑇 959.3 × 103
𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ≥ 2
= 2
= 5.999 ⇒ 6
𝜓𝑈 2 × 0.9 × 100𝜋

Flow angles:
𝜓 2
𝜓 = 𝜙 tan 𝛼2 + tan 𝛼1 ⇒ tan 𝛼2 = = = 2.5 ⇒ 𝛼2 = 68.2°
𝜙 0.8
1 1
tan 𝛽2 = tan 𝛼2 − = 2.5 − = 1.25 ⇒ 𝛽2 = 51.3°
𝜙 0.8
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
PRELIMINARY AXIAL TURBINE DESIGN
• Process of choosing the best turbine design involves juggling several
parameters of equal importance – rotor stress, weight, outside
diameter, efficiency, noise, durability, and cost – final design lies
within acceptable limits for each parameter
• Main goal in the preliminary stage design is to fix the shapes of the
velocity triangles by setting the flow angles or by choosing values for
the three dimensionless design parameters, φ, ψ, and R
• General layout of the turbomachine can be determined by matching
the overall (dimensioned) requirements of the turbine to the velocity
triangle parameters
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
PRELIMINARY AXIAL TURBINE DESIGN
Number of stages
• Specific work per stage can be determined from the stage loading
and the blade speed:
𝑊
𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ≥
𝑚𝜓𝑈 2
• Inequality is used because number of stages must be an integer
value
• Large stage loading can reduce the number of stages required
• High blade speed, U, is desirable
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
PRELIMINARY AXIAL TURBINE DESIGN
Blade height and mean radius
• Axial velocity remains constant throughout each stage
• From continuity:
𝜌1 𝐴𝑥1 = 𝜌2 𝐴𝑥2 = 𝜌3 𝐴𝑥3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
𝑟ℎ
𝐴𝑥 = 𝜋𝑟𝑡2 1− ≈ 2𝜋𝑟𝑚 𝐻
𝑟𝑡

𝑟𝑡 + 𝑟ℎ
𝑟𝑚 =
2
where Ax is the annulus area, rh is the hub radius, and rt is the tip
radius
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
PRELIMINARY AXIAL TURBINE DESIGN
• In compressible gas turbines:
𝑚 𝐶𝑝 𝑇01
= 𝑄(𝑀1 )
𝐴𝑥 cos 𝛼1 𝑝01
• Stagnation temperature and pressure of a downstream stage can be
found by:
𝜂𝑝 𝛾 𝛾−1
𝑇03 𝜓𝑈 2 𝑝03 𝑇03
=1− , =
𝑇01 𝐶𝑝 𝑇01 𝑝01 𝑇01
where ηp is the polytropic efficiency
• Mach number at inlet to the downstream stage is found by:
−1 2
𝑐3 𝛾−1 2
= 𝑀3 𝛾−1 1+ 𝑀3
𝐶𝑝 𝑇03 2
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
PRELIMINARY AXIAL TURBINE DESIGN
Number of aerofoils and axial chord
• Number of aerofoils in each turbine row and the chord lengths of the
vanes and blades can also be estimated during the preliminary
design
• Aspect ratio of a blade row is the height, or blade span, divided by
the axial chord, H/b
• Ratio of blade pitch to axial chord, s/b, can be found using the
Zweifel criterion for blade loading
• For a known axial chord, knowing s/b fixes the number of aerofoils
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STYLES OF TURBINE
• Classification of different styles of turbine design is most
conveniently described by the reaction
• Two extremes: zero reaction (rotor and stator shapes are very
different) and 50% reaction (rotor and stator shapes are symmetric)

Zero reaction stage

• Advantages of low reaction: enabling a high stage loading with low
interstage swirl, low thrust on the rotor, robust rotor blades, and
lower tip leakage flows (due to a low-pressure drop across the rotor)
• Disadvantage of low reaction: can lead to boundary layer separation,
and increased stage loading almost invariably leads to lower
efficiency
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STYLES OF TURBINE
• Applied in steam turbine and not currently in gas turbines
• When R = 0 then h2 = h3 and all the enthalpy drop occurs across the
stator  β2 = β3
• Axial velocity is constant  relative speed of the flow across rotor
does not change

Mollier diagram
and velocity
triangles
corresponding to
these conditions
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STYLES OF TURBINE
50% Reaction stage
• Advantages of 50% reaction designs: symmetrical velocity triangles
leading to similar blade shapes and reduced cost, low turning and
highly accelerating passages leading to lower losses, an expansion split
into two steps leading to subsonic Mach numbers, and improved
performance over a range of operating conditions
• Disadvantages of 50% reaction: lead to increased turbine part count
(roughly twice as many stages are needed for low interstage swirl
compared to low reaction designs), greater expansion through the
rotors increases the thrust on the rotor bearings and increases leakage
losses
• Commonly used in gas turbines for maximum efficiency
• With R = 0.5  β2 = α1 = α3, and β3 = α2
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
STYLES OF TURBINE

Mollier diagram
and velocity
triangles
corresponding to
these conditions
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.2
A low-pressure turbine within a turbofan jet engine consists of five
repeating stages. The turbine inlet stagnation temperature is 1200 K
and the inlet stagnation pressure is 213 kPa. It operates with a mass
flow of 15 kg/s and generates 6.64 MW of mechanical power. The
stator in each turbine stage turns the flow from 15° at stator inlet to
70° at stator outlet. The turbine mean radius is 0.46 m and the
rotational shaft speed is 5600 rpm.
1. Calculate the turbine stage loading coefficient and flow coefficient.
Hence, show that the reaction is 0.5 and sketch the velocity
triangles for one complete stage.
2. Calculate the annulus area at inlet to the turbine. Use this to
estimate the blade height and the hub-to-tip radius ratio for the
stator in the first turbine stage.
Take γ = 1.333, R = 287.2 J/kg K, and Cp = 1150 J/kg K.
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.2
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.2
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.2
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
EFFECT OF REACTION ON EFFICIENCY
• For different values of R the velocity triangles can be constructed,
the loss coefficients determined, and ηtt, ηts calculated

Influence of reaction on total-to-static efficiency with fixed values of stage loading

factor (flow coefficient of 0.4, blade aspect ratio of 3, and Reynolds number of 105)
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.3
Verify that the peak value of the total-to-static efficiency ηts shown in
the previous figure occurs at a reaction of 50% for the curve marked
ΔW/U2 = 1 and estimate its value using Soderberg’s correlation.
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.3
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
DIFFUSION WITHIN BLADE ROWS
• Any diffusion of the flow through turbine blade rows is particularly
undesirable and must, at the design stage, be avoided at all costs

• Adverse pressure gradient coupled with large amounts of fluid

deflection makes boundary layer separation more than merely
possible – large-scale losses
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.4
A single-stage gas turbine operates at its design condition with an axial
absolute flow at entry and exit from the stage. The absolute flow angle
at nozzle exit is 70°. At stage entry, the total pressure and temperature
are 311 kPa and 850°C, respectively. The exhaust static pressure is 100
kPa, the total-to-static efficiency is 0.87, and the mean blade speed is
500 m/s.
Assuming constant axial velocity through the stage, determine
1. the specific work done;
2. the Mach number leaving the nozzle;
3. the axial velocity;
4. the total-to-total efficiency;
5. the stage reaction.
Take Cp = 1.148 kJ/(kg °C) and γ = 1.33 for the gas.
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.4
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.4
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
DESIGN POINT EFFICIENCY OF A STAGE
• Performance of a turbine stage in terms of its efficiency is calculated for
several types of design using the loss correlation method of Soderberg
Total-to-total efficiency of 50% reaction stage
• In a multistage turbine the total-to-total efficiency is the relevant
performance criterion
• For a 50% reaction, w3 = c2 and ζR = ζN = ζ:
𝑤32 = 𝑐𝑥2 sec 2 𝛽3 = 𝑐𝑥2 1 + tan2 𝛽3
• And tan β3 = (ψ + 1)/2φ and tan β2 = (ψ - 1)/2φ, therefore:
2
1 𝜁𝜙 2 𝜁𝜙 2 1+𝜓
=1+ 1 + tan2 𝛽3 =1+ 1+
𝜂𝑡𝑡 𝜓 𝜓 2𝜙
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
DESIGN POINT EFFICIENCY OF A STAGE
• These expressions
combined with
Soderberg’s correlation
give the performance
chart derived for
specified values of ψ
and φ
• It can be seen that peak
total-to-total efficiency,
ηtt, is obtained at very
low values of φ and ψ
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
DESIGN POINT EFFICIENCY OF A STAGE
Total-to-total efficiency of a zero reaction stage
• Degree of reaction will normally vary along the length of the blade
depending upon the type of design specified
• Here R = 0, therefore β2 = β3, and tan β2 = ψ/2φ
2 2
1 1 2
𝜓 𝜓
=1+ 𝜁𝑅 𝜙 + + 𝜁𝑁 𝜙2 + 1+
𝜂𝑡𝑡 2𝜓 2 2

• Performance chart was derived using these expressions

• Similar to 50% reaction chart with highest efficiencies being obtained
at lowest values of φ and ψ, except that higher efficiencies are
obtained at higher values of stage loading but at reduced values of
flow coefficient
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
DESIGN POINT EFFICIENCY OF A STAGE
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
DESIGN POINT EFFICIENCY OF A STAGE
Total-to-static efficiency of stage with axial velocity at exit
• A single-stage axial turbine will have axial flow at exit and the most
appropriate efficiency is usually total to static
• With axial flow at exit, c1 = c3 = cx
1 1
=1+ 𝜁𝑅 1 + 𝜙 2 + 𝜁𝑁 𝜓 2 + 𝜙 2 + 𝜙 2
𝜂𝑡𝑠 2𝜙
• Specifying φ and ψ, the unknown values of the loss coefficients, ζR
and ζN, can be derived using Soderberg’s correlation
𝜀𝑁 = 𝛼2 = tan−1 𝜓 𝜙

𝜀𝑅 = 𝛽2 + 𝛽3 = tan−1 1 + 𝜙 + tan−1 𝜓 − 1 𝜙
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DESIGN POINT EFFICIENCY OF A STAGE
• These expressions
were used to derive
the performance chart
• Additional limitation
imposed on chart
because of the
reaction
• For zero interstage
swirl:
𝜓 = 2(1 − 𝑅)
• At the limit, R = 0, and
ψ=2
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STRESSES IN TURBINE ROTOR BLADES
• Some consideration of stresses in rotor blades is needed as these can
place restrictions on allowable blade height and annulus flow area
• Stresses in turbine blades arise from centrifugal loads, gas bending
loads, and vibrational effects caused by non-constant gas loads
• Although centrifugal stress produces the biggest contribution to total
stress, vibrational stress is very significant
• Direct and simple approach to blade vibration is to “tune” the blades
so that resonance does not occur in operating range of the turbine –
obtain blade design in which none of its natural frequencies
coincides with any excitation frequency
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STRESSES IN TURBINE ROTOR BLADES
• Consider a blade rotating about an axis O. For
an element of the blade of length dr at radius r,
at a rotational speed Ω, the elementary
centrifugal load dFc is given by:
𝑑𝐹𝑐 = −Ω2 𝑟𝑑𝑚 , 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 𝐴𝑑𝑟
• There is zero stress at the blade tip to a
maximum at the blade root
• For blades with a constant cross-sectional area,
we get:
𝑟𝑡 2 2
𝜎𝑐 𝑈𝑡 𝑟 ℎ
= Ω2 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 1−
𝜌𝑚 𝑟ℎ 2 𝑟𝑡
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STRESSES IN TURBINE ROTOR BLADES
• A rotor blade is usually tapered both in chord and in thickness from
root to tip in order to reduce stresses. Blade stress taper factor:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒
𝐾=
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒

• For tapered blades:

2
𝜎𝑐 𝐾𝑈𝑡2 𝑟ℎ
= 1−
𝜌𝑚 2 𝑟𝑡

• Values of the taper factor K

for various taper geometries:
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STRESSES IN TURBINE ROTOR BLADES
• Typical data for the allowable stresses of commonly used alloys:
• In the temperature range
900-1100 K, nickel or
cobalt alloys are suitable
• For temperatures up to
about 1300 K molybdenum
alloys would be needed
• The average rotor blade
temperature Tb can be
approximated by using:
𝑤22
𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇2 + 0.85
2𝐶𝑝
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Example 3.5
Combustion products enter the first stage of a gas turbine at a
stagnation temperature and pressure of 1200 K and 4.0 bar. The rotor
blade tip diameter is 0.75 m, the blade height is 0.12 m, and the shaft
speed is 10 500 rev/min. At the mean radius the stage operates with a
reaction of 50%, a flow coefficient of 0.7, and a stage loading
coefficient of 2.5. Assuming the combustion products are a perfect gas
with γ = 1.33 and R = 287.8 kJ/kg K, determine:
1. the relative and absolute flow angles for the stage;
2. the velocity at nozzle exit;
3. the static temperature and pressure at nozzle exit assuming a
nozzle efficiency of 0.96 and the mass flow;
4. the rotor blade root stress assuming the blade is tapered with a
stress taper factor K of 2/3 and the blade material density is 8000
kg/m2;
 AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.5
5. the approximate mean blade temperature;
6. taking only the centrifugal stress into account suggest a suitable
alloy from the information provided that could be used to
withstand 1000 h of operation.
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Example 3.5
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.5
AXIAL FLOW TURBINES
Example 3.5
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TURBINE BLADE COOLING
• Continuing trend towards higher turbine inlet temperatures to give
increased specific thrust and to allow the specific fuel consumption
to be reduced
• Highest allowable gas temperature at entry to a turbine with
uncooled blades is 1000°C while, with a sophisticated blade cooling
system, gas temperatures up to 1800°C are possible
• HP turbine blades, nozzle guide vanes, and seal segments are cooled
internally and externally using cooling air from the final stage of the
HP compressor
• Cooling air is itself at a temperature of over 700°C and at a pressure
of 3.8 MPa.
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TURBINE BLADE COOLING
• Intricate labyrinth of passages – cooling air passes
through – part is vented to blade surface via rows of
tiny holes along and around hottest areas of the blade
• Air emerges with little velocity and forms film of cool
air around blade surface insulating it from hot gases
• Cooling system performance can be quantified using
the cooling effectiveness:
𝑇0𝑔 − 𝑇𝑏
𝜀=
𝑇0𝑔 − 𝑇0𝑐
where T0g is stagnation temperature of hot gas
stream, Tb is blade metal temperature, and T0c is
coolant stagnation temperature
• Typical value for ε is around 0.6
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TURBINE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
• Accurate knowledge of flow characteristics of a turbine is of
considerable practical importance in the matching of flows between
a compressor and turbine of a jet engine
• For multistage turbines (subscript d denotes design conditions):
2−𝜂𝑝 𝛾−1 𝛾 1 2
𝑚 1 − 𝑝 𝑝1
=
𝑚𝑑 1 − 𝑝𝑑 𝑝1 2−𝜂𝑝 𝛾−1 𝛾

• With ηp = 0.9 and γ = 1.3, the pressure ratio index is about 1.8 
ellipse law of multistage turbine:
𝑚 1 − 𝑝 𝑝1 2 1 2
= 2
𝑚𝑑 1 − 𝑝𝑑 𝑝1
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REFERENCES
• Dixon, S.L. and Hall, C.A., Fluid Mechanics and
Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery 7th Edition, Elsevier,
USA, 2014 (621.406 DIX)

• Dixon, S.L. and Hall, C.A., Fluid Mechanics and

Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery 6th Edition, Elsevier,
USA, 2010 (621.406 DIX)