OTC 7642

Hann J: Exploration and Mining Development for Hard Minerals in the Australian
Coastal Zone

Copyright 1995, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was presented at the 27th Annual aTC In Houston, TexaS, U.S.A., 1-4 May 1995.

This paper was selected for presentation by the OTC Program Committee following review of Information contained In an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper,
as presented, have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Offshore Technology Conference or Its officers. Permission to copy Is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words. illustrations may not be copied. The abstract
should contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper Is presented.

ABSTRACT for diamond exploration in North Western Australia,

heavy mineral exploration off South Eastern Australia,
This paper reviews recent exploration and mining shellsai:J.d mining and environmental research in South
developments for hard minerals in the Australian Coastal West, Western Australia and environmental research into
Zone. The review provides details of recent exploration proposed mining of construction sand off South Eastern
and mining developments for shellsand off South West Australia. The location of these sites is shown in Figure
Western Australia, diamond exploration in Northern I.
Western Australia, heavy mineral exploration offshore off
South Eastern Australia and research into proposed WESTERN AUSTRALIA
construction sand mining offshore off Sydney.
1. SheUsand Mining, Fremantle
These projects have led to improvements in resource Cockburn Cement Limited has dredged shellsands from
assessment, mining techniques and environmental calcareous sand banks offshore off Fremantle since 1972,
management, with broad application for mining (Figure 1).
developments in the coastal zone worldwide.
The shellsands comprise deposits of surficial
INTRODUCTION unconsolidated sands with a calcium carbonate content of
92 %. The shellsands provide feedstock for the largest
There has been considerable interest in the development of lime manufacturing works in Australia and one of the
hard minerals in the Australian Coastal Zone in recent largest in the world, being a major supplier to the region's
years. mineral processing industry. The shellsands are also used
in the manufacture of cement.
These minerals include diamonds, rutile, zircon, ilmenite,
lime sands, coral and construction sand. The Western Australian Legislation provides for exclusive
extraction rights to 2011. Under the legislation since
At the same time, reduced availability of onshore sources, 1986, Cockburn Cement is required to submit a Dredging
changes in regulatory requirements and environmental and Management Programme every two years (I),
expectations has demanded establishment of better ways to outlining the planned dredging and management activities
define resources, predict environmental impacts, mine, for the operation covering the ensuing 10 year period.
monitor and manage offshore developments.
The shellsand deposits contain resources to support
As a result, some significant progress has been made, production requirements of 1-2 million tonnes per year.
particularly in understanding mineral occurrences and The resource is located in submarine sand shoals lying in
managing environmental impacts. water depths of 2-15m.

Specific cases are presented, detailing developments in a The shellsand deposits lie 8km off the coast, which
range of mineral commodities and coastal environments typically comprises sandy beaches, limestone rocky shores

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 2 Exploration and Mining Development for Hard Minerals in the Australian Coastal Zone
and headlands. The dredge site is located some 6.5km
from Fremantle.
The shellsand deposits developed over the period 1,000-
4,000 years BP, as a result of fluctuating sea level which
allowed transportation and deposition of mobile sand to
accumulate in basins. This amounted for some 42% of
the present deposits, with the remainder being generated
through biogenic production of carbonate secreting
organisms. Such material can generate at up to
2.2kg/m2/year.
Mining of the shellsand deposits is undertaken using a
water jet suction dredge, operating at 800 tonnes per hour
in water depths between 5-15m. The dredge sand is
transferred to split hopper barges for transportation to a
shore based reclaimer.
There are two key environmental issues associated with
the shellsands operation. First, the offshore region
supports widespread areas of seagrass, comprising some
eight species, and second, stability of the slopes, banks
and shoreline following dredging.
Since 1985, some 22 environmental studies have been
conducted covering ecology, oceanography,
sedimentology, geotechnical, dredging and engineering
disciplines. This research includes experimental seagrass
transplanting and monitoring.
Based on information currently available, researchers have
concluded that the next 2 year stage of dredging is most
unlikely to cause significant environmental effect.
Specifically, the dredging will remove some 67 hectares
of habitat, representing about 0.7% of the seagrass
estimated to occur in the local region. Comprehensive
research has been conducted into the potential for large-
scale rehabilitation of the dredged areas involving:
seedling generation and survival, and bulk transplantation.
Results to-date suggest there is potential for large-scale
seagrass restoration of the dredged areas.
Monitoring of previous dredged areas indicates that the
bank slopes stabilise over time and will be recolonised
with seagrass. Impacts on the adjacent shoreline are
predicted to be minimal.
2. Diamond Exploration in North Western Australia
This region has been the focus of substantial interest and
investigation since the late 1980's, with particular
attention directed to the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf Region
(see Figures 1 and 2).
The Joseph Bonaparte Gulf receives sediment from a
number of major rivers draining the Kimberley region,
specifically the Berkeley, Ord, Victoria and Daly Rivers.
The Kimberley region of North Western Australia is host
to the world's largest diamond mine (carats per year),
sourced from the AKI Argyle Lamporite pipe. Both
Lamporite and Kimberlite pipes occur in the region, with
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OTC7642
ages in the order of 1,000 million years for AKl. The
AKI pipe yields diamonds at a grade of some 700 carats
per tonne. Alluvial diamond deposits have also been
identified nearby, with grades in the order of 400-600
carats per tonne, though a higher gem content than the
primary AKI pipe.
Given the widespread occurrence of diamonds onshore in
the Kimberley region forming part of a substantial
catchment draining into Joseph Bonaparte Gulf (some
200km from AKI) and the very great period of geological
time available for erosion, transportation, deposition and
reworking, considerable speculation has been made of the
potential for economic concentrations of diamonds
offshore in the Gulf basin. Such speculation has also been
driven by the demonstrated occurrence and mining of
diamond deposits offshore off South Africa and Namibia.
Where concentrations of diamonds are considered to have
accumulated offshore after transportation some 1,000 km
downstream from Kimberlite sources via the Orange
River.
The principle geological model used for recent exploration
in the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf (2), proposes that large scale
palaeo river channels may occur in the Joseph Bonaparte
Gulf and have received diamonds from catchments
draining the Kimberley region. Subsequent marine
processes (sea level fluctuations, tides and waves) may
have concentrated these diamonds in basal gravels to form
economic deposits.
A substantial exploration programme was commenced in
1989 involving seismic profiling covering large areas in
Joseph Bonaparte Gulf adjacent to the major existing river
mouths (see Figure 2). The results of the seismic
profiling confirmed the existence of extensive palaeo
channel development and identification of basal gravels.
The palaeo channel and basal gravel sites typically occur
in water depths of 30m, with varying thickness of
overburden (3-30m). Wave conditions are relatively low
energy excepting tropical cyclones, with the dominant
marine energy process being macro tides of some 10m
range.
Following confirmation of suitable geological features with
potential to host accumulations of diamonds, a programme
of large diameter drilling was implemented. The drilling
equipment for this programme utilised a vessel involved in
the South African offshore diamond mining operation.
The equipment comprised two large air lift pipes 400-
450mm diameter, a 20m fixed rigid section attached to
flexible hosing. The vessel incorporated screens and
heavy media treatment plant for material in the size range
1.5mm - 12mm and specific gravity greater than 2.7.
Sampling depths are reported to be up to 100m, with
mineral treatment up to 50 tonnes per hour.
Reported results of the sampling exploration programme
completed by late 1994 confirmed correlation between the
seismic results and insitu materials and recovered gem
quality diamonds from the upper section of the palaeo
 3 Exploration and Mining Development for Hard Minerals in the Australian Coastal Zone
channel gravel units. Recovered diamonds include gems
of kimberlite origin. Gold and platinum was also
recovered.
In conclusion, the offshore diamond exploration effort in
the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf has reported the existence of an
extensive system of palaeo river channels containing
gravel deposits that host diamond. The grade of these
deposits, their extent and economic viability are yet to be
determined.
SOUTH EAST AUSTRALIA
1. Heavy Mineral Exploration
South Eastern Australia has long been a significant source
of high grade heavy mineral sand deposits (rutile, zircon,
etc.), contained in barrier deposits of Holocene and
Pleistocene age.
With the depletion of available reserves onshore, attention
has been directed to the potential for identifying economic
concentrations of heavy minerals offshore (see Figure 1).
The robust oceanic climate and steepness of the South
East Australian Shelf has provided added challenge to the
geological grail. Significant wave heights exceed 1.5m,
50 % of the time and water depths reach 50m within 2-
3km of the shoreline. Further, local regions support a
substantial proportion of Australia's population, a
significant fishing industry and superb beaches.
A number of geological/exploration surveys have been
conducted over the past 30 years, generating a substantial
body of data, though lacking detailed stratigraphic
information, particularly sampling.
In 1989, a comprehensive exploration/research programme
was undertaken, using a stratigraphic model based on
identification of relict shoreline barrier features, similar to
those currently mined onshore (3)(4).
The first stage of the exploration programme involved the
development of a digital high resolution seismic/
geophysical system, together with side scan sonar.
Deployment of this system proved highly successful, with
the generation of data allowing definition of complex
stratigraphic features within the unconsolidated sediments
and interpretation of discrete sediment units.
Interpretation of the high resolution seismic data
confirmed the existence of a relict barrier system offshore
in water depths typically between 20m and 40m.
The second stage of exploration demanded a subsurface
sampling technique that could achieve penetration to 15
metres below the sea bed, in sea conditions conunonly
with wave heights between I-2m and provide 200m of
drill samples per 10 hour day, whilst maintaining sample
integrity adequate to allow stratigraphic definition.
To meet these criteria, a mobile lightweight drilling
technique was developed, using a modified system of
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reverse circulation.
The drill system proved capable of meeting these
requirements, contributing reliable, subsurface sample data
to compliment the geophysical data.
2. Construction Sand
A five year research programme was completed in 1993
involving comprehensive multi-disciplinary research into
all aspects of construction sand extraction offshore off
Sydney, in South Eastern Australia. (See Figure 1) (5).
The sand resources are contained in massive shelf sand
bodies containing over lkm3 of sand. These sand bodies
are up to 45km long, 5km wide and up to 40m thick,
located in water depths of 20-65m (See Figure 3). The
evolution of these sand bodies are a nett result of long
term (geologic) patterns of sediment availability, dispersal
and deposition, spanning the Pleistocene and Holocene. A
model of evolution involving initial deposition, during a
postglacial marine transgression (13,OOOYrBP
1O,OOOYrBP) followed by reworking of the upper sections
during the early Holocene Stillstand (6,500YrBP -
4,OOOYrBP). This model was tested using shallow
seismic, sidescan sonar, vibrocore and carbon dating
techniques.
Environmental research covered all aspects of the mining
proposal including; maritime archaeology, coastal
processes, marine ecology, mining methods, geology,
sediment and sea water chemistry, conunercial and
recreational use.
The quality of research undertaken for these studies has
become recognised as setting a new standard for
environmental impact study in Australia. In a number of
disciplines, significant improvements were made in the
understanding of key processes, specifically,
recolonisation rates of benthic fauna following dredge
disturbance and rapid dispersal of dredge plumes. As
each represents a key environmental issue facing the
development of most offshore mineral deposits they are
outlined in detail below.
(i) Benthic Fauna
Where unconsolidated sediments are the target of mineral
mining, benthic fauna (organisms living within the upper
O.5m of sediments) will be impacted. Some benthic fauna
can form a rich, biodiverse and important component of a
marine ecosystem, any impacts associated with mining
need to be adequately understood.
To ensure the macrobenthic characteristics of the existing
environment were understood, research aimed at
comparing spatial and temporal variations of macrobenthic
fauna at proposed mining sites and control sites was
undertaken. The study design was developed following an
initial pilot programme to determine sieve sizes, depths
and levels of taxonomic resolution. The study involved
two proposed mining locations, two control locations,
three sampling sites at each location and four depths (25-
30m, 35-40m, 45-50rn, 65-70m) and where p055iIJle four
4 Exploration and Mining Development for Hard Minerals in the Australian Coastal Zone
replicates from each site and depth were obtained during
each survey. The locations, sites and depths were
sampled where possible on four omgsions over one year.
The results displayed significant spatial and temporal
variation and interactions, with depth being the major
influence.
Using this data as a basis, an experiment was designed
and undertaken aimed at understanding the rate of
recolonisation of macro benthic fauna following dredge
disturbance. The rate of recolonisation of defaunated
areas in the open ocean is largely unknown, yet is critical
to mine phxmhg, taking account of sustainable
development concepts.
The recolonisation experiment involved forty lm x 2m
plots, including control plots, spaced about 5m apart.
Dredging was simulated by divers utilising air lift
equipment with sampling at four intervals with four
replicates.
The results confiied that recolonisation can occur in 1-2
months, caused mainly by immigration of adult fauna. As
a consequence, any mine plan needs to incorporate
adequate dredge path sepaation and restrict dredge return
intervals to greater than 2 months.
(ii) Plume
Mining or dredging of unconsolidated sediments in marine
environments can generate a plume of suspended particles
in the water column, caused by the entrainment of fine
particles contained in excess water produced during slurry
pumping.
The generation of a plume during mining is often a key
environmental issue for marine mining operations,
particularly where environmental regulations are becoming
more stringent. Plumes can adversely affect water clarity,
primary productivity and siltation. Of particular concern
is impacts on biological processes. A key to reducing
impacts is the reduction in solids concentrations that make
up a plume and a reduction in the duration of unacceptable
concentrateions. The latter is particularly important in
mitigating impacts (stress) on biota.
A diffuser system (patent pending) has been developed (6)
aimed at reducing both the solids concentrations and
duration of the plume at higher concentrations. The
diffuser effectively causes rapidly increasing near field
dispersion of suspended fine materials, significantly and
quickly reducing concentrations in the water column.
Modelling involved a range of near field and far field
studies covering current speeds, characteristics of fine
sediments released, dispersive characteristics of the
receiving waters, plume size, plume trajectory, plume
history ~d dilution characteristics based on jet
momentum, density differences and plume rise.
Most dredging operations utilise either single port
discharge or hopper spillway discharge for excess water.
The diffuser system, by comparison, is designed to
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OTC7642
discharge excess water at around rniddepth in the water
column via a series of ports providing for high velocity,
dispersed discharge, as shown in Figure 4.
A comparison of plume dispersal results for the diffuser
and single port discharge is shown in Figure 4. For these
conditions (modelled on South Eastern Australia oceanic
climate) the diffuser provides for 30 times greater dilution
than the single port. In this case study, the diffuser
allowed dilution to reach back ground levels within 24
hours, whereas the single port took 50% longer.
Based on these results, the diffuser system offers a
significant improvement in the management of dredge
plumes for mtine mining operations, especially around
sensitive habitats, such as coral reefs. This is well
demonstrated by the application of the stress index (S1)
technique (7):
S1 = Log (C.D.),
where C = concentrations of suspended solids (mg/L)
and, D = duration of exposure (hours).
Comparing predicted impacts on aquatic biota for the
diffuser and single port discharge, shows a significantly
reduced stress index demonstrated for the diffuser for
conditions off South Eastern Australia.
CONCLUSIONS
Recent mining developments in the Australian coastal zone
emphasise the increasing importance of this mineral
province. Four projects have been reviewed:
1. Shellsand mining off South West Western Australia;
Comprehensive environmental research into sea grass
conservation and restoration forms part of the management
program supporting future mining plans for 1-2 million
tonnes of shellsand per year. The shellsands, containing
92% calcium carbonate, represent feedstock for one of the
worlds largest lime manufacturing works, serving the
mineral processing and construction indust~.
2. Diamond Exploration in North Western Australia;
Extensive paleochannels located offshore of large river
mouths draining The Klmberley region have been
identified. This region is host to the worlds largest
diamond mine. Gem quality diamonds have been
recovered from these paleochaxmels, confirming these
deposits as exploration targets. Exploration methods
include seismic profiling and large diameter airlift drilling.
3. Heavy Mineral Exploration off South East Australia; A
comprehensive program of digital seismic profiling,
sidescan sonar and reverse circulation drilling has been
used to identify relict shoreline barrier features, similar to
features known to host rich concentrations of heavy
minerals onshore off this coast. These features occur in
water depths of 20m - 40m. A lightweight, mobile,
reverse circulation drilling system was designed and
deployed specifically for the trek, providing reliable,
 5 Exploration and Mining Development for Hard Minerals in the Australian Coastal Zone 0TC7642

subsurface sample data in demandmg sea condkions.

4. Construction Sand extraction research, offshore South

Ekrt Australia; A multidisciplinary research program
into all aspects of offshore construction sand extraction
has led to significant improvements in environmental
impact predictions and the management of plumes created
from the disposal of excess water during tig.
Specifically, experimentation shows benthic recolonisation
rates of 1-2 months following mining and the deployment
of a subsea sdlment diffuser eadd increase dilution of
plumes by up to 30 times compared to single port
discharge.

REFERENCES

1. Le Provost, Dames & Moore: Consultative

Environmental Review, Proposal to Continue dredging
of shellsand on Success Bank (1994 to 1996)
Unpublished Report (1994).

2. Cambridge Gulf Exploration NL: Prospectus and

Quarterly Reports, Australian Stock Exchange (1993,
1994).

3. Browne, I J: Reverse Circulation Drilling for Placm

Mineral Deposits on the Inner Continental Shelf,
Abstract, 6th Pacific Congress on Marine Science and
Technology (1994).

4. Mining Tenement Management Pty Lhnited: Second

Annual Report for Exploration Licencz No. 3220
Catherine Hill Bay; Unpublished report (1990).

5. R W Corkery & Co Pty Limited: Sydney Marine

Aggregate Proposal Environmental Impact Statement
(1993).

6. Treloar, P D and Harm, J M: Subsea Diffuser System

for Rapid Dilution of Dredge Plumes, Abstract, 6th
Pacific Congress on Marine Science & Technology
(1994).

7. Newcombe, C P and MacDonald, D O: Effects of

suspended sediments on aquatic ecosystems. North
American Journal of Fisheries Management 11 pp 72-
82 (1991).

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SCALE Iosmania
OFFSHORE MINERAL
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Hobart DEVELOPMENTS
- AUSTRALIA

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SCALE 1:10000000 OFFSHORE DIAMOND
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EXPLORATION
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- Bathymetry updated near
proposed extraction areas
— Coastline

Source : MTM (19931

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‘; below Mean Sea Level *4

CONTINENTAL SHELF
FlmRE3
SEDIMENTS

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