Writing Research Reports in Psychology

Overview of Research Reports.

APA Format.
Major Sections of the Report.

Submitted vs. Published Articles.

Aspects of Good Writing.
The Hourglass & Blackboard Methods.

Anatomy of Wegner et al. (2004).

Lab Activity: Writing Workshop.

Assignments 3 & 4: Both Due Next Tuesday

 Assignment 3: Using your best topic from Assignment
2, (a) find 3 journal articles about your topic, & (b)
read and summarize 1 of these articles using the form
provided on the course webpage.

 Assignment 4: Write an Introduction & Methods

section based on your topic from Assignment 3.
Make sure to (a) follow APA format (including the use
of double-spacing), (b) use the funnel analogy, (c) cite
at least 2 articles in the text, & (d) reference your cited
articles in an APA-formatted reference section.

 For both assignments, download the appropriate form

from the course web page, follow the instructions,
send your completed files to MethodsTA@yahoo.com
& turn in a hard copy to me on the due date.

On the importance of writing

Words are the most powerful drug used by mankind.

~ Rudyard Kipling

Simply by making squiggles on a page, we can reliably cause

precise new combinations of ideas to arise the mind of another.
~ Steven Pinker

The real technology behind all our other technologies is

language. It actually creates the world our consciousness lives in.
~ Andrei Codrescu

Good writing is not an obscure talent used only by the most

erudite and privileged of our society. Good writing separates
you from the pack because all careers require communication.
~ Lt. Sean Newman

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 On how writing reflects on the writer

Every author in some way portrays himself in his works,

even if it is against his will.
~Goethe

Every time you write, the composition of yourself is at stake.

~E.L. Doctorow

Many books require no thought from those who read them,

and for a very simple reason. They made no such demand
upon those who wrote them.
~Charles Caleb Colton

Easy reading is damn hard writing.

~Nathaniel Hawthorne

Overview of Research Reports

Report-writing, like driving and love-making, is one of those things that
almost everyone thinks they can do well without instruction. The results, of
course, are usually disappointing. ~ Tom Margerson.

Research reports in psychology employ a technical

writing style designed to be as objective as possible.
Characteristics include:
• being succinct & clear (parsimonious).
• documenting facts & claims by citing published sources.
• avoiding personal feelings, opinions, or agendas.
• avoiding slang.
• avoiding biased language (sexist, racist, or insulting to
specific groups such as older adults, those with physical
disabilities, or those diagnosed with mental illness).

APA Format
In psychology, research reports follow the technical
writing style set by the American Psychological
Association (called APA format or APA style).
This format is described in detail in the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association.

Key aspects of formatting include:

• One-inch margins, 12 pt. font (Ariel or Times New Roman).
• Double-spacing throughout.
• All paragraphs except Abstract indented .5 inches.
• Specific system of Section headings, subsections, etc.
• Header used to put page number & paper identification
information in upper right-hand corner or every page.

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 Major Sections of the Research Report
In this Order: Title Page > Abstract > Introduction >
Method > Results > Discussion > References > Author
Notes > Footnotes > Tables > Figures > Appendices.

Title Page.
• Title, Authors' Names & Affiliations, Running Head, [Contact Inf o].
• Title should be ~12 words or less, as descriptive as possible.

Abstract.
• A brief (<120 word) self-contained summary of the report.
• Should contain: 1) The problem investigated, 2) The methods
used, 3) The major results, & 4) The major conclusions.
• Should be interesting! Good Abstracts attract readers,
bad Abstracts repel readers.

Major Sections of the Research Report

Introduction.
• Starts with the title of the report, centered at the top of page.
• The Introduction tells the reader what you are doing and why.
• Should include:
(a) the issue, problem, or question you are investigating.
(b) prior research done on the issue (along with references).
(c) your theoretical orientation, including hypothetical constructs
& operational definitions.
(d) your hypotheses and predictions.
(e) a general statement of your design & methods.

 The funnel analogy for writing an intro (cf. hourglass method).

• start wide (general topic) and end narrow (specific issues).

Major Sections of the Research Report

Method .
• Uses multiple subsections to tell the reader exactly how you did
the experiment, such that they could closely reproduce it.

Participants.
• who, how many, how they were obtained, and any relevant
demographic or clinical information.
Materials.
• details about equipment (type used, model #, etc.), materials &
stimuli (how many, what kind, how they were obtained, etc.).
Procedure.
• describes how the research was carried out; how participants
were assigned to conditions; what they did & in what order.

Optional: Design & Analyses sections.

• e.g., Participants & Design.

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 Major Sections of the Research Report
Results.
• Tells the reader how the data were analyzed and what was found.
• Often begins with a general summary of the main results,
followed by a more detailed account that includes specific
statistics and reference to relevant data tables and figures.

• Reporting of statistics minimally includes the name & value of the

statistic along with the associated significance level ("p value").
• r = .35, p < .05.

• If part of the statistic, degrees-of- freedom are also reported.

• t (23) = 1.67, p > .10.
• More complex stats include a measure of the error variance
associated with the stat along with an estimate of the effect si ze.
• F (1, 23) = 8.31, MSe = .00559, p < .001, 2 = .33
(optional)

Major Sections of the Research Report

Results (cont.)
• The Results section often includes Tables or Figures that
summarize key aspects of the data.
• Tables & Figures should only be included if they simplify the
presentation of your data or clarify their meaning.

• Regardless of whether the data is presented in the text or in a

Table, means should always be accompanied by a measure of
variability (e.g., Standard Deviation [SD]).
• "...more names were recalled by the young adults (M = 16.2,
SD = 3.7) than the older adults (M = 9.4, SD = 4.1), a difference
that was significant by t-test [t (23) = 6.63, p < .01]."

• Results generally include very little interpretation of what your

results mean. This is done in the final major section....

Major Sections of the Research Report

Discussion.
• This is where you interpret your results and evaluate them in
light of your hypotheses and prior research.
• Often begins with a brief summary of your hypo & what you
found; then addresses different facets of your project such as...
(a) the specific variables manipulated.
(b) how your results impact existing theories.
(c) unexplained results.
(d) alternative interpretations of your results.
(e) limitations of your study.
(f) real- world implications.
(g) directions for future research.

• The section often ends with a very brief paragraph that sums up
the project in terms of the broad issue which with it began.

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 Major Sections of the Research Report
References.
• This is where you provide the sources of the references cited
in the report.
• Note there are very specific formatting rules for references!
• Journal articles:
Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies
visual selective attention. Nature, 423, 534 -537.

• Books:
Stuss, D. T., & Benson, D. F. (1986). The frontal lobes. New York:
Raven Press.

• Book Chapters:
Toth, J. P. (2000). Nonconscious processes in human memory.
In E. Tulving & F.I.M. Craik (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of
Memory (pp. 245-261). New York: Oxford University Press.

Major Sections of the Research Report

The following sections are only include if necessary.
 Author Notes (aka. Acknowledgements).
• Acknowledges funding (granting agency & #), help received with
the research or writing of the report, specific contact info, etc.
 Footnotes.
• Used to clarify or elaborate the text. Use sparingly!!!

 Tables & Figures.

• Tables come first, then figures, with each on a separate page.
• Titles are provided for each table, at the top of the page.
• Figures are preceded by a "Figure Captions" page that lists all
of the figures along with their captions.

 Appendices.
• List of Stimuli, Survey Questions, Details about Stats, etc.

Submitted vs. Published Articles

 The formatting of submitted articles is designed to facilitate
reviewing; thus, they look very different than published articles.
 In this course, all work will be in the form of a submitted article.

Aspects of Good Technical Writing

• Keep your sentences short & clear.
• Use words correctly (e.g., there vs. their; affect vs. effect; e tc.).
• Avoid slang, biased language, & stream- of-consciousness writing.
• Avoid personal feelings & opinions.
• Document all cited facts.
• Express numbers correctly.
• Draw conservative conclusions.
• Use the active voice.
• Re-read & revise your work before submitting it!

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On practice & revision in becoming a good writer

Practice, practice, practice writing. Writing is a craft that

requires both talent and acquired skills. You learn by doing, by
making mistakes and then seeing where you went wrong.
~ Jeffrey A. Carver

I'm not a very good writer, but I'm an excellent rewriter.

~ James Michener

The time to begin writing an article is when you have finished it

to your satisfaction. It is only then that you begin to clearly and
logically perceive what it is you really want to say.
~ Mark Twain

Write your first draft with your heart. Re-write with your head.
~ From the movie Finding Forrester

The Hourglass Method for Writing Reports

General Introduction
Overview of general issue being investigated
Background info & prior research
Your theoretical orientation
Hypos & Predictions

Methods
Specific
Results

Discussion
Summary of your findings
Relating your results to other work
Real-world implications & future directions
Final statement about overall importance of project
General

The Blackboard Method for Writing Anything!

aka. Brainstorming, Spider-Chart, & Mind Map Methods

1. Brainstorm: Write down all relevant ideas on a chalkboard of

piece of paper. Circle or square-off the different ideas.

2. Organize: Connect related ideas with lines; add letters &

numbers to denote importance (A1, A2, B, C1, C1a, C1b, etc.).

3. Order: Make an outline of your ideas, using your numbering

scheme. Move, add, or subtract things as necessary.

4. Detail: Add details to each of your numbered points (such as

quotes, figures, references, real- world connections, etc.).

5. Format: Put your organization into the required (research

report) format. Add connections & bridges between points.

6. Polish: Read & re- read your paper, making changes where
necessary to increase interestingness, readability, & flow.

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 Dt. T's Spider Chart on Video-Game Training

Dt. T's Ordered Outline on Video-Game Training

A. Age-Related Decline.
1. Subjective Complaints (Memory, esp. Proper Names; Distraction ).
2. Deficits Observed in the Lab.
a. Explicit Memory (Free Recall > Cued Recall > Recognition; SM).
b. Attention (Dividing; Dual-/Multi-Tasking; Switching).
c. Observed Deficits as Threats to Independent Living.
3. Theoretical Accounts.
a. Cognitive Slowing.
b. Working memory.
c. Attentional Capacity & Inhibition (cf. Capture).
d. Executive Functions (Context; Goal neglect; Monitoring).
B. Cognitive Training & Rehabilitation for Older Adults.
1. Relaxation Techniques.
2. Mnemonics.
3. Cognitive-Control Training.
a. Dual-Task Training [EC (Gopher) & VP (Kramer)].
b. Working -Memory Training ( Klingberg).
c. Recollection Training (Jennings & Jacoby).
C. Training with Video Games.
1. Commercial Off -the-Shelf (COTS) Games.
a. 1st Generation Games (Tetris; Pac -Man; etc.).
b. Action (FPS) Games (Green & Bavelier ; Castel ).
c. Edutainment Titles.
2. Theory-based Games. Etc….

Anatomy of Wegner et al. (2004)

 Class Discussion: How well does Wegner et al.'s Dream
Rebound paper conform to the hourglass method of writing?
 The textbook lists 5 questions that you should be able to
answer after reading the Introduction to an article.

• What is the problem being investigated?

• What does the prior literature say about the problem?

• What is the hypothesis being tested?

• What is the plan for testing that hypothesis?

• What specific predictions are being made about the

study's outcome?