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Article history: A new refill friction spot welding process called Threaded Hole Friction Spot Welding (THFSW) was intro-
Received 16 February 2017 duced to join AA5052 aluminum to short-carbon-fiber-reinforced polypropylene (PP-SCF) composite
Revised 28 March 2017 sheets. The process was based on filling of the pre-threaded hole by melted and re-solidified polymer.
Accepted 20 April 2017
The results showed that THFSW was successful to join aluminum to polymer sheets and the hole was
Available online 22 April 2017
completely filled with melted polymer. Formation of a reaction layer composed mostly of Al, C and O
as well as interlocking between the threaded hole and the re-solidified polymer were recognized as main
Keywords:
bonding mechanisms. Maximum shear-tensile strength of the joints reached to 80 percent of the com-
Friction spot welding
posite base strength. Moreover, Mechanical strength and fracture energy of the joints increased with
Refill Polymer
Aluminum enhancement of tool rotational speed. Variation of the joint strength was explored in light of the fracture
Joint strength surface features as well as crystallinity percent of the re-solidified polymer inside the hole.
Fracture energy 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction process with high potential for these types of joints. However,
because of leaving an exit-hole at the center of the nugget, the Fric-
Successful joint between polymers and metallic alloys is a tion Spot Joining (FSpJ) process was developed by GKSS of Ger-
necessity for the production of light weight polymer/metal hybrid many in order to refill the formed exit-hole [9]. FSpJ has been
structures in various industries such as automotive, aeronautics used successfully for joining of metals to glass and carbon-fiber-
and shipbuilding industries [1–3]. Together with traditional meth- reinforced composites [3,10–13]. Goushegir et al. [3] utilized FSpJ
ods such as adhesive bonding [4,5] and mechanical fastening [6], process for joining AA2024 aluminum and reinforced poly (pheny-
new joining techniques have been patented and developed in lene sulfide) with 50 vol% carbon fibers (CF-PPS). They concluded
recent years for ‘‘spot” joining of polymers to metallic alloys. Ultra- that by enhancement of the tool plunge depth, the shear fracture
sonic staking [7] and Injection Clinching Joining (ICJ) [1,8] are two load of the joint as well as the extension to fracture improved
methods with relatively the same principles used for spot joining due to increase in the joint area at the sheets interface. Esteves
of polymers and metals. Abibe et al. [1] compared ultrasonic stak- et al. [11] employed FSpJ process for joining AA6181-T4 aluminum
ing and ICJ methods for joining polyetherimide and AA6082 alu- and carbon-fiber-reinforced poly (phenylene sulfide) composite.
minum alloy. Their results indicated that both processes show Their results showed that tool rotational speed was the most effec-
similar mechanical properties. However, ICJ had a higher tive parameter on the joint strength. In addition, they reported that
strength-to-weight ratio due to the presence of hole formed in at high tool rotational speed (1600 rpm), reduction of the metal
the stake. Moreover, ICJ showed longer joining time in comparison viscosity led to decrease in the heat generated during the process.
to ultrasonic staking. Abibe et al. [8] also employed ICJ process to Therefore, joint area between the aluminum and polymer sheets at
join short-glass-fiber-reinforced polyamide and AA2024 aluminum the interface was reduced.
alloy. They reported that volume of the rivet head in contact with In the present work, a new friction spot welding process called
the tool system and efficiency of cavity filling are key factors con- ‘‘Threaded Hole Friction Spot Welding (THFSW)” was used to join
trolling the strength of the joints. AA5052 aluminum alloy and short-carbon-fiber-reinforced
Welding processes have also been used for spot joining of poly- polypropylene composite sheets. In this joining process, a pre-
mers to metals. Friction Stir Spot Welding (FSSW) is a solid state threaded hole in the aluminum sheet is filled by the melted and
re-solidified polymer during the process. Thus, no hole remains
⇑ Corresponding author. at the joint area after completing the process. In comparison to
E-mail address: m_movahedi@sharif.edu (M. Movahedi). ultrasonic staking and ICJ, THFSW does not require an initial
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2017.04.053
0263-8223/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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polymeric stud on the polymer sheet; however, the stud is formed Table 2
in the hole by molten polymer during the process. On the other Chemical composition and mechanical properties of PP-SCF used in this
research.
hand, the same as the ultrasonic staking and ICJ, a hole must be Composition of PP-SCF Mechanical properties of PP-SCF
created in the aluminum sheet before joining process. Further- (wt%)
more, in FSSW a keyhole remains at the joint center due to pin pen- PP-Z30S 92 Hardness, Shore D 72
etration, while the suggested joining process is able to refill the PP-g-MA 5 UTS, MPa 35
threaded hole SCF 3
mechanical andduring the system
electronic process.
is In FSpJ, aforrelatively
required complex
joining. Although,
in THFSW, the joint is produced using a simple cylindrical tool
without pin. After joining process, mechanisms of bonding, as well Table 3
Physical propert ies of polypropylene Z30S [15]
as the effects of the tool rotational speed on the mechanical behav-
ior of the joints, were studied. Properties Unit Amount
effect of temperature changes during the joining process on the formed at the periphery of the hole [11]. Referring to Fig. 5-d, as
hardness and joint strength. a result of high frictional heat at a rotational speed of 2000 rpm,
the excess melted polymer re-solidified as a convex surface on
3. Results and discussion the threaded hole. This convexity was formed in effect of the pres-
sure of holding clamps after retracting of the welding tool.
3.1. Macro-profile of joints
3.2. Reaction layer formation and joining mechanisms
The surface appearance of the joints for different rotational
speeds is presented in Fig. 4. The re-solidified polymer in the hole Fig. 7-a shows SEM image from a typical cross-section of the
and the surface of aluminum affected by the rotating tool are joint. Magnified SEM image of the interface between aluminum
shown in the figure. As can be seen, surface appearance of the and re-solidified polymer inside the hole (area ‘‘A” in Fig. 7-a) is
joints is smooth especially at higher rotational speeds due to more given in Fig. 7-b. It is obvious that a reaction layer was formed with
heat generation and improved flow of the aluminum under the tool a thickness of approximately 15 lm at the interface. The term of
shoulder. Fig. 5 shows the cross-section of the joints and various ‘‘reaction layer” refers to a layer formed between the aluminum
macro-structural zones including base materials, threaded hole and the molten polymer and atoms of both materials exist in this
and re-solidified polymer inside the threaded hole. It can be seen layer. It seems that this layer has been formed by erosion mecha-
that the rotational speed of the tool affected filling behavior of nism (a well-known phenomenon in the brazing and soldering)
the threaded hole by the molten polymer. The higher was the rota- [16] in which due to the collision between molten polymer and
tional speed, the more was the frictional heat generated during the hole wall at high temperatures, aluminum atoms were sepa-
welding. The maximum temperature experienced at different dis- rated from the aluminum surface and entered into the molten
tances from the joint center (R) are shown in Fig. 6. It was observed polymer and formed the reaction layer.
that by enhancement of the tool rotational speed, the maximum Comparison between Fig. 7-b and c indicate that the thickness
temperature produced during the process increased. Moreover, of the reaction layer did not change significantly by variation of
the area experiencing temperatures higher than the melting point the tool rotational speed. However, the chemical composition of
of the polymer was broader. Therefore, the temperature and vol- the layer was affected by the tool rotation speed. Table 4 shows
ume of the molten polymer at the interface of the base sheets EDS analysis of the reaction layer for samples welded at the tool
increased. rotational speed of 500 rpm (minimum heat input) and 2000 rpm
At the rotational speed of 500 rpm, the volume of the molten (maximum heat input). Enhancement of the tool rotational speed
polymer is not enough to fill completely the hole. Fig. 5-a shows led to increase in weight percent of Al and slightly decrease in
porosity and unfilled zone at the joint center and separation weight percent of C. In the explanation of this phenomenon, it
occurred at the interface of sheets due to lack of adhesion force can be mentioned that the higher was the temperature of the mol-
in this area. By enhancement of the tool rotational speed, more ten polymer entered into the hole, the more was the aluminum
heat was generated and as a result, more polymers melted and surface erosion inside the hole and consequently the presence of
entered into the hole. In the cross-section of the joints produced aluminum atoms in the reaction layer. Moreover, the presence of
at 1000, 1500 and 2000 rpm, all areas of the hole were filled com- oxygen in the reaction layer was probably attributed to degrada-
pletely with molten polymer and mechanical interlocks were tion of the molten polymer in effect of reaction with oxygen [2].
formed between the threads of the hole and re-solidified polymer. Formation of a reaction layer with 8 wt% of Al was also mentioned
Furthermore, due to the melting of polymer at the interface of the by Shahmiri et al. [16] in FSW of Polypropylene C30S to AA5052
aluminum and composite sheets, an adhesion force was also aluminum alloy.
In addition to the reaction layer, there was also a gap between
the reaction layer and re-solidified polymer some regions inside
the hole (Fig. 7-b and c). It seems that this gap was formed during
the cooling process of the joint due to the large difference between
the coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) of the base materials
[1]. The CTE of aluminum and polypropylene are 23.8 10 6 K 1
and 100-150 10 6 K 1, respectively [1,15]. Compared to alu-
minum, higher CTE of polypropylene resulted in more shrinkage
of the molten polymer during the cooling cycle of the weld and
thus, a gap was formed between the polymer and the reaction
layer. On the other hand, shrinkage of the molten polymer during
solidification depended on the melt temperature. The higher was
the temperature of the molten polymer, the more was its shrinkage
during cooling. Since the temperature of the molten polymer at the
rotational speed of 2000 rpm was higher (Fig. 6), a wider gap was
expected in this tool rotational speed. As can be seen in Fig. 7-c, the
wide gap was filled with epoxy resin (cold mounting material) in
the preparation stage of the sample for microstructural studies.
From what mentioned above, the obtained joint between alu-
minum and composite sheets using THFSW process is the result
of two phenomena:
Fig. 5. Stereograph images from cross-section of the joints at the rotational speed of: a) 500 rpm, b) 1000 rpm, c) 1500 rpm and d) 2000 rpm.
Fig. 6. The effect of tool rotational speed on the maximum temperature obtained at Fig. 9 shows the fracture surfaces of the samples after cross-
different distances from the joint center. tension and shear-tensile tests. In the samples welded at the tool
rotational speeds of 500, 1000 and 1500 rpm, fracture occurred
at the interface of the composite sheet and re-solidified polymer
It is crucial of importance that the results of a research carried inside the hole. Indeed, fracture surface of the joint on the compos-
out by Khodabakhshi et al. [17] on FSW of aluminum to polymer ite sheet was a circle in which unmelted polymer surface at the
sheets proved the formation of Van der Waal’s bonds between center of this circle was surrounded by the melted polymer sur-
the atoms of aluminum oxide layer on the surface and polymer. face. The melted surface was formed due to entry of the melted
However, formation of a gap between the reaction layer and the polymer from the sheets interface toward inside the hole resulting
re-solidified polymer inside the hole reduces the effectiveness of in surface melting of the primary polymer at the periphery of the
Van der Waal’s bonds and reaction layer for the joint strength. This hole and combination of the two mentioned melts with each other.
mechanism can be helpful for joint strength at the interface of the In other words, the surface of the composite sheet that is at the
base sheets and periphery of the hole (a region with adhesion force base of the hole had no direct contact with the aluminum sheet.
in Fig. 5). Therefore, an increase in the temperature of the aluminum sheet
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Fig. 7. a) SEM image from a typical cross-section of the joint, b) Reaction layer and the gap formed between aluminum and re-solidified composite in the threaded hole at the
tool rotational speed of 500 rpm (magnified of area ‘‘A”) and c) Reaction layer and the gap refilled by epoxy resin at the tool rotational speed of 2000 rpm.
Table 4 tool pin. Therefore, the molten polymer formed at the interface
Effect of tool rotational speed on the composition of the reaction layer. of the base sheets flows upward with back extrusion into the
Elements Tool rotational speed (rpm) threaded hole just in the effect of the downward pressure of the
tool. It should be mentioned that the molten polymer has high flu-
500 2000
idity and can easily flow and fill the threads of the hole with the
Al 21 38
pressure applied by the welding tool. High fluidity of the molten
C 37 35
O 33 22 polymer is caused by the elevated temperature experienced by it
during the welding process. Fig. 6 confirms that the temperature
of the molten polymer at the distance of 10 mm from the joint cen-
as a result of the frictional heat did not directly melt the polymer ter is significantly higher than the melting point of polypropylene
surface at this region. The existence of the unmelted surface in (from 30 C above the melting point at 500 rpm to 175 C above
the center of the circular base of the threaded hole at the interface the melting point at 2000 rpm). Fig. 10 shows the flow model of the
of the sheets means that re-solidified polymer in the hole was not molten polymer inside the threaded hole. The molten polymer
joined to the primary polymer at this region. Therefore, if the re- moves upward after entering into the threaded hole from the
solidified polymer inside the hole is considered as a small cylinder periphery of the hole. However, upward movement of the molten
with a diameter of 4 mm and a height equal to the thickness of alu- polymer is restricted by the shoulder surface. As a result, the mol-
minum sheet (2 mm), there was a crack in the base of this cylinder ten polymer moves horizontally and then continues its path down-
(interface of the composite sheet and re-solidified polymer) due to ward. Therefore, a vortex structure is formed in the re-solidified
lack of melting of the composite sheet. Huang et al. [20] utilized polymer inside the hole center.
self-riveting friction stir lap welding for joining of AA6082 to steel By comparing Fig. 9-a to c, it is evident that enhancement of the
with filing the prefabricated holes in the bottom steel sheet by tool rotational speed reduced the area of the unmelted surface of
plasticized aluminum. They reported that downward flow of the the polymer. The higher was the temperature of the molten poly-
plasticized aluminum occurred because of two origins: i) with pro- mer, the more was the melting of the polymer surface. Fig. 9-d
gress of the welding tool, aluminum alloy ahead of the pin is plas- and e show the fracture surfaces of the samples welded at
ticized and then, threads of the rotating pin pushes the plasticized 2000 rpm after cross-tension and shear-tensile tests, respectively.
metal downwards; ii) imposed pressure by the pin bottom It is observed in fracture surface of the shear-tensile sample
extrudes the plasticized aluminum alloy into the prefabricated (Fig. 9-e) that there is no unmelted surface at the rotational speed
hole. Since the tool used for welding in the present work is pin- of 2000 rpm. Therefore, the obtained joint failed in cross-tension
less, there is no flow of the molten polymer by the threads of the test with the exit of the re-solidified polymer from the threaded
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Fig. 8. Carbon fibers distribution in the re-solidified polymer matrix at different rotational speed of: a) 500 rpm, b) 1000 rpm, c) 1500 rpm and d) 2000 rpm.
hole rather than fracture from the interface of the composite sheet in Section 3.3), the hardness of the re-solidified polymer may play
and re-solidified polymer inside the hole (Fig. 9-d). an important role in the mechanical strength of the joints. Fig. 12-a
SEM images of the fracture surface of the joint processed at gives the hardness variation of the re-solidified polymer inside the
500 rpm rotational speed clearly indicate the difference between hole versus tool rotational speed. The results showed that the
the internal and marginal regions of the fracture surface at the hole hardness of re-solidified polymer inside the hole decreased slightly
base (Fig. 11). The internal region of the joint surface (area ‘‘A” in (about 4–6 in Shore D scale) compared to primary composite sheet.
Fig. 11-a) showed a rough structure, while the structure of the In order to investigate the reasons for this phenomenon, DSC anal-
marginal region was relatively smooth (area ‘‘B” in Fig. 11-a). The ysis was carried out on the primary composite and re-solidified
rough structure formed in area ‘‘A” may be the result of partial polymer inside the hole. Fig. 12-b presents DSC curve of the pri-
plastic deformation during tensile test [21]. In other words, the mary composite sheet and the effect of the tool rotational speed
region in which the re-solidified polymer and the initial polymer on the crystallinity percent of the re-solidified polymer. Given
were combined and joined to each other during welding undergoes Fig. 12, by enhancement of the tool rotational speed, the hardness
plastic deformation before fracture. However, there was no evi- and crystallinity percent of the re-solidified polymer decreased.
dence of plastic deformation in area ‘‘B”. It seems that this area This may be related to molecular weight reduction of the resolidi-
with brittle fracture characteristics was formed as a result of crack fied polymer, since the molten polymer was affected by the fric-
rapid growth before final fracture. Fig. 11-d to f show the SEM tional heat during the process [21,22]. The more was the tool
images from the fracture surface of the sample welded at rotational speed, the higher was the temperature of the molten
2000 rpm after shear-tensile test. As can be seen, the surface polymer.
included ductile (region C) and brittle (region D) fracture, relatively
similar to the fracture surface of the cross-tension sample welded 3.6. Strength and fracture energy of joints
at 500 rpm. However, locations of the brittle and ductile fracture
regions in shear-tensile test are different from those in cross- 3.6.1. Cross-tension test
tension test, maybe due to difference in loading mode between Fig. 13 shows the force-extension curves and the effect of tool
two types of the tests. rotational speed on the fracture force and fracture energy of the
joints in cross-tension tests. As can be seen, the fracture force
3.5. Hardness variation of re-solidified polymer increased by enhancement of the tool rotational speed. In this join-
ing process, two factors compete with each other in order to deter-
Since fracture in the samples welded at the tool rotational mine the fracture force by enhancement of the tool rotational
speed of 500–1500 rpm occurred from the melted and re- speed:
solidified polymer at the interface of the base sheets (as mentioned
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Fig. 9. Fracture surface of the polymeric composite sheet; variation in the area of the unmelted surface and fracture location at different rotational speed of: a) 500 rpm, b)
1000 rpm, c) 1500 rpm, d) 2000 rpm (cross-tension) and e) 2000 rpm (shear-tensile).
Results of cross-tension tests confirm that increase in the load
bearing area overcomes hardness reduction of the re-solidified
polymer and thus, fracture force improves with enhancement of
the tool rotational speed. During tensile test, the unmelted surface
of the polymer at the base of the hole (which mentioned in Sec-
tion 3.5) not only reduces the load bearing area, but also acts as
a stress concentration location and consequently decreases the
joint strength. As mentioned before, the samples joined at the tool
rotational speed of 500–1500 rpm failed from the interface of re-
solidified polymer and primary composite sheet. By increasing
the tool rotational speed, the polymer surface at the base of the
hole was melted more and the joint strength improved. At the tool
rotational speed of 2000 rpm, there was no unmelted surface or
this surface was very small. Therefore, failure occurred by the exit
of the re-solidified polymer from the threaded hole rather than
Fig. 10. Flow model of the molten polymer inside the hole. fracture from the interface of the composite sheet and re-
solidified polymer and the fracture load increased to higher values.
It is worth mentioning that distribution of carbon fibers in the
threaded hole can also be effective on the joint strength. However,
1) Increase in fracture force due to the increase in the load as discussed in Section 3.3, distribution of carbon fibers did not
bearing area caused by the reduction of the unmelted sur- change with variation of the tool rotational speed. Therefore, from
face of the polymer (as mentioned in Section 3.4). this point of view, enhancement of the tool rotational speed has no
2) Decrease in the fracture force due to the reduction of the effect on the joint strength.
hardness at the fracture location, i.e. re-solidified polymer Given the curves in Fig. 13-a, due to a decrease in the crack
(as mentioned in Section 3.5). length (i.e. unmelted surface) at the interface of the primary
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Fig. 11. SEM image from fracture surfaces: a) two different areas on the fracture surface of the sample welded at 500 rpm, b) ductile fracture surface (area A), c) brittle
fracture surface (area B), d) two different areas on the fracture surface of the sample welded at 2000 rpm, e) ductile fracture surface (area C) and f) brittle fracture surface
(area D).
Fig. 13. a) Force-extension curves of cross-tension tests related to the specimens Fig. 14. a) Effect of tool rotational speed on the average shear-tensile load and
with maximum fracture force at different tool rotational speeds and b) effect of the fracture energy of the joints and b) comparison of fracture energy of the joints in
tool rotational speed on the average cross-tension force and fracture energy of the shear-tensile and cross-tension tests.
joints.
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