PHD Thesis MIG/MAG Welding

CRANFIELD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF IND~STRIAL SCIENCE
Ph.D. Thesis
W.J. FOOTE
WELDING C-Mn STEELS USING THE PULSED CURRENT
MIG WELDING PROCESS
Supervisor R.L. Apps
March, 1986
ABSTRACT
The welding of C-Mn steels using the pulsed current MIG welding
process was investigated. Following initial work on the basic fusion
characteristics, the process was applied to the production of closed
butt joint linepipe welding and narrow gap welding (in the flat and
H-V positions).
The initial stage of the work covered the determination of pulse

parameters for controlled metal transfer with a variety of wires and
shielding gases. Basic bead-on-plate fusion characteristics were
investigated 1n all welding positions and quantified in terms of the
major welding variables of current and travel speed. Welding position
was shown to have no effect on fusion behaviour.
Successful full penetration closed butt root welds were produced in

all welding positions. Heat input was shown to be the factor
controlling bead dimensions. Close control over welding parameters
are needed to maintain consistent bead sizes. Complete joint
simulations were also made. The vertical-up technique was shown to
give superior fusion characteristics with the process producing
excellent quality results in all positions.
Narrow gap MIG welding was shown to be feasible without wire manipul-
ation at gap widths below 12 mm in the flat position. A wire mani-
pulation technique gave excellent fusion characteristics with gap
widths greater than 12 mm. A computer program was devised as a guide
to the selection of process parameters and possible fusion behaviour.
Modelling considerations showed that H-V position narrow gap welding

would be feasible only with gap widths less than 10 ... A short
experimental programme validated the predictions of fusion behaviour
by the aodel and indicated the direction for future developaent work.
CONTENTS
(vi)
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES (xii)
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS (xiii)
NOMENCLATURE (xiv)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (xvi)
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 4
2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF MIG WELDING 4
2.1.1 Pulsed Current and Synergic MIG Welding 5

6
2.1. 2 Synergic Control Methods
2.1.3 Arc Voltage Control With Synergic MIG Welding 9
2.2 POWER SUPPLIES FOR PULSED MIG WELDING 10
2.2.1 Computer Controlled Power Supplies 12
2.3 SHIELDING GASES 12
2.4 METAL TRANSFER IN MIG WELDING 14
2.4.1 Metal Transfer in Pulse Current MIG Welding 16
2.5 FUSION BEHAVIOUR 17
2.5.1 Gas Shielded Welding 18

2.5.2 Pulsed Current MIG Welding 19
2.5.2.1 General fusion characteristics 19
2.5.2.2 Modulated wire feed and arc
oscillation techniques 21
2.6 TRANSMISSION PIPELINE WELDING 22
2.6.1 Semi-Automatic Arc Welding 23

2.6.2 Mechanised Arc Welding 23
2.6.2.1 Mechanised orbital MIG welding systems 25
2.6.2.2 Mechanised orbital MIG welding
techniques 25
2.6.2.3 Metallurgical effects 26
2.6.2.4 Weld productivity 27
2.6.3 Summary 28
2.7 NARROW GAP MIG WELDING 29
2.7.1 Narrow Gap Welding Processes 30
2.7.2 Narrow Gap MIG Welding Techniques 3D
2.7.2.1 Single wire narrow gap welding systems 31
2.7.2.2 Multiple wire systems 31
2.7.3 Assessment of Narrow Gap Welding Techniques 32
2.7.4 Torch Design 33
2.7.5 Weld Bead Characteristics 34
2.7.5.1 Arc voltage 35
2.7.5.2 Welding current and travel speed 35
2.7.5.3 Electrode polarity 36
2.7.5.4 Wire diameter 37
2.7.5.5 Joint gap width 37
2.7.6 Metal Transfer Mode 38
2.7.7 Shielding Gases 39
2.7.7.1 Shielding gas compositions 39
2.7.7.2 Shielding gas flow rate 39
2.7.8 Joint Geometry 40
2.7.9 Metallurgical Considerations 40
2.7.9.1 Application of preheat 41
2.7.9.2 Mechanical properties 41
2.7.10 Positional Narrow Gap Welding 42
2.7.11 Summary 43
3. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 70
3.1 EQUIPMENT 70
3.1.1 Power Supplies 70

3.1.2 Welding Torches 71
3.1.2.1 Bead-on-plate and root welding 71
3.1.2.2 Narrow gap welding 72
3.1.3 Wirefeed Units 72
3.1.3.1 Bead-on-plate and root welding 72
3.1.3.2 Narrow gap welding 72
3.1.4 Welding Table 73
3.1.5 Torch Oscillation System 73
3.1.6 Arc Length Control 73
3.1.7 Instrumentation 73
3.1.8 . Metallographic Equipment 74
3.1.9 Weld Bead Measurement 74
3.2 MATERIALS 74
3.2.1 Wire 74
3.2.2 Plate 75
3.2.3 Shielding Gases 75
4. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES 88
4.1 METAL TRANSFER AND ARC STABILITY 88
4.1.1 Variables 89
4.1.2 Experimental Procedure 89
4.2 COMPARISON OF WIRE TYPE/DIAMETER/SHIELDING GAS 90
4.3 BEAD-ON-PLATE FUSION CHARACTERISTICS 90
4.4 ALL POSITIONAL ROOT WELDING 91
4.5 COMPLETE PIPE JOINT WELDING 92
4.6 NARROW GAP WELDING 92
4.6.1 Shielding Gas 93

4.6.2 Choice of Pulse Parameters 93
4.6.3 Flat Position Welding With No Torch Oscillation 93
4.6.4 Flat Position Welding With Torch Oscillation 94
4.6.5 Initial Horizontal-Vertical Welding 94
4.6.6 Final Horizontal-Vertical Welding 94
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 100
5.1 METAL TRANSFER AND WIRE DEPOSITION 100

5.1.1 Metal Transfer 100
5.1.2 Wire Deposition Characteristics 101
5.1.3 Discussion 101
(iv)
5.2 9EAD-ON-PLATE FUSION BEHAVIOUR 104
5.2.1 ~o~parison of Wire Type/Diameter/Shielding Gas 104

5.2.2 Fusion Characteristics 106
5.2.2.1 Influence of pulse structure 107
5.2.2.2 The effect of the structure of heat
input 107
5.3 APPLICATION OF PULSE CURRENT MIG WELDING TO LINEPIPE
WELDS USING A CLOSED BUTT JOINT 110
5.3.1 Flat Position Root Welding 116

5.3.2 Positional Root Welding 117
5.3.3 Production of a Complete Pipe Weld - All
Posi tions 118
5.3.3.1 Root weld 119
5.3.3.2 Filling and capping welds 119
120
5.3.4 Discussion
5.4 NARROW GAP WELDING 127
5.4.1 Torch Designs 128

5.4.1.1 Design A 128
5.4.1.2 Design B 128
5.4.1.3 Design C 129
5.4.1.4 Design D 129
5.4.1.5 Design E 129
5.4.2 Choice of Shielding Gas 130
5.4.3 Choice of Pulse Parameters 130
5.4.4 Flat Position Welding with no Torch Oscillation 130
5.4.5 Flat Position Welding with Torch Oscillation 131
5.4.6 Initial Welding in the H-V Position 131
5.4.7 Modelling of an Unbounded Weld Bead in the H-V
Position 132
5.4.8 Further H-V Welding Experiments 134
5.5 GENERAL DISCUSSION 139
6. CONCLUSIONS 214
7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK 215

(v)
REFERENCES 217
APPENDIX A: Calculation of pulse parameters for controlled

droplet transfer. 231
APPENDIX 8: Profile of a weld bead deposited in the

horizontal-vertical position on a flat plate (2D)236
APPENDIX C: Computer program for the selection of welding

parameters in flat position narrow gap welding. 241
(vi)
LIST OF FIGURES
SECTION 2
2.1 Three types of synergic control programmes. 45
2.2 Arc voltage control by wirefeed trimming. 46
2.3 The principle of the self adjusting arc using a flat

characteristic power supply. 47
2.4 Arc voltage control by current modulation. 48
2.5 A block diagram of a series regulator type transistor power

power supply. 49
2.6 A block diagram of a secondary switching type transistor

power supply. 50
2.7 A block diagram of an inverter type transistor power

supply. 51
2.S A flow chart of power supply microcomputer control. 52
2.9 Wire burnoff data for .ild steel in Ar5%CO z '

after Nunes [37]. 53
2.10 Illustration of metal transfer modes. 54
2.11 Illustration of the usable ranges of pulsed MIG welding

using mild steel wire in Ar5%CO z . 55
2.12 Generalised representation of fusion characteristics

(1.2 mm mild steel wire in Ar5%CO z )' 56
2.13 Some of the reported joint preparations for narrow gap

MIG welding. 57
2.14 A comparison of conventional and narrow gap joint volumes. 58
2.15 The two basic approaches to narrow gap welding. 59
2.16 A chart showing how the range of conditions which produce

acceptable welds .ay be increased by torch weaving.
after Futumara [SS]. 60
2.17 Some of the reported techniques for arc oscillation in

narrow gap MIG welding. 61
2.1S Multiple wire narrow gap MIG welding techniques. 62
2.19 The 'Twist Arc' narrow gap MIG welding technique. 63

(vii )
2.20 A typical narrow gap welding torch design. 64
2.21 The principle of fluidic control for weld bead shape. 65
2.22 The minimum gas flow rate in relation to plate thickness

for the production of sound narrow gap welds.
after Kurokawa [80]. 66
2.23 The 'VERTNAP' narrow gap MIG welding technique. 67
SECTIO~ 3
3.1 M500 power supply. 76
3.2 M450 PS power supply. 77
3.3 ~sing the ST12 torch for H-V narrow gap welding. 78
3.4 Narrow gap welding torch - Design A. 79
3.5 Narrow gap welding torch - Design B. 80
3.6 Narrow gap welding torch - Design C. 81
3.7 Narrow gap welding torch - Design D. 82
3.8 Narrow gap welding torch - Design E. 83
3.9 View of welding manipulator. 84
3.10 View of instrumentation. 85
SECTION 4
4.1 Schematic diagram of experimental programme. 96
4.2 Joint geometry - root welding trials. 97
4.3 Joint geometry - complete pipe weld. 97
4.4 Joint geometry - narrow gap welding. 98
4.5 Joint £eometry - H-V narrow gap welding. 99

(viii)
SECTION 5
5.1 Ip v. Tp for one drop per pulse - 1.2 mm wires Ar5%CO z ' 143
5.3 Ip v. Tp for one drop per pulse - 1.2 mm wires Ar1%Oz' 14,
5.6 Ip v. Tp for one drop per pulse - 0.9 mm wires Ar1%Oz. 148
5.7 Wirefeed speed v. mean current - Murex LW1 1.2 mm wire

Ar5%CO z . 149
5.8 Wirefeed speed v. mean current - Linde Hi84 1.2 mm wire
Ar5%CO z · 1,0

Argoshield 5. 151

Ar20%CO z ' 152
5.11 Wirefeed speed v. mean current - Linde H184 1.2 mm wire
Ar1%Oz· 153
5.12 Wirefeed speed v. mean current - Thyssen K5 Ni 1.2 mm wire

Ar5%CO z ' 154

Argoshield 5. 15,

Ar20%cO z ' 156

Ar1%Oz' 157

Ar5%CO z · 158

Argoshield 5. 159

Ar20%CO z ' 160

Arl%Oz' 161
Ox)

Ar5%CO z ' 162

Argoshield 5. 163

Ar20%CO z ' 164

Ar1%Oz' 165
5.24 Typical bead-on-plate weld bead profiles. 166
5.25 The major geometric characteristics of a MIG weld bead. 167
5.26 Total weld area v. heat input - flat position. 168
5.27 Total weld area v. heat input - overhead position. 169
5.28 Depth of penetration variations with heat input - flat

position. 170
5.29 Depth of penetration variations with heat input -

overhead position. 171
5.30 Dilution (6) v. I.v - flat position. 172
5.31 Dilution (0) v. I.v - overhead position. 173
5.32 Dilution (0) v. I.v - vertical-up position. 174
5.33 1/6 v. III .v - flat position. 175
5.34 1/0 v. l/y .v _ overhead position. 176
5.35 1/6 v. III .v - vertical-up position. 177
5.36 6 v. I.v curve fit from 1/6 v. 1;-Lv plot - flat position. 178
5.37 0 v. I.v curve fit from 1/0 v. 1;-I.v plot - overhead 179
posi tion. 179
5.38 6 v. I.v curve fit from 1/0 v. l/Y.v plot - vertical-

up position. 180
5.39 Plate and deposit bead areas as a function of mean

welding current and travel speed (1.2 Mm wire in Ar5%CO z )' 181
5.40 Predicted plate fusion areas compared with .easured plate

fusion areas as a function of mean welding current and
travel speed (1.2 mm wire in Ar5%CO z )' 182
5.41 Relationship between travel speed and mean welding current

for full penetration root welds - flat position. 183
(x)
5.42(a) Typical full penetration weld macrosections - flat

position. 184
(b) Appearance of weld underbeads - flat position. 185
5.43 Relationship between total fusion area, plate fusion area.

underbead area, and heat input. Full penetration root
welds (,flat position). 186
5.44 Relationship between dilution and I.v for full penetration

root welds (flat position). 187
5.45 Typical root weld macrosections. 188

(a) vertical-down welding
(b) vertical-up welding
(c) overhead welding.
5.46 Complete pipe weld macrosections 190

(a) flat position
(b) vertical-up position
(c) overhead position.
5.47(a) 'Cascade' pipe weld, surface and underbead appearance - 191

flat position. 191
(b) 'Cascade' pipe weld, surface and underbead appearance -
vertical-up position. 192
(c) 'Cascade' pipe weld. surface and under bead appearance -
overhead position. 193
5.48(a) Comparison of shielding gases (200 A. 3 mm/sf 12 mm gap) -

Ar5%CO z · 194
(b) Comparison of shielding gases (200 A. 3 mm/so 12 mm gap) -
Helishield l. 194
5.49 Relationship between mean welding current. travel speed and

weld bead width. 195
5.50 Experimental observations of flat position narrow gap MIG

welding 12 mm groove width. 196
5.51 Sidewall fusion defects caused by weld pool flooding

175 A. 1 mm! s . 197
5.52 Sidewall fusion defects. without wire weaving. 198
5.53 100 mm thick. flat position. narrow gap weld using weave
technique (220 A. 1.5 mm/s. * 1.5 mm. 1 Hz). 199
5.54 Co-ordinate system for modelling of a H-V bead-on-plate

weld. Characterisation of bead shape defects. 200
5.55 Weld bead characteristics as identified by modelling 201

(a) no top face undercut
(b) no overhang
(c) total bead area which may be supported.
( xi)
5.56 Generalised characteristics of H-V weld bead shapes. 202

5.57 Allowable process parameters for acceptable H-V weld bead
shapes. 203
5.58 Comparison of experimental results (12 mm gap) with those
predicted by modelling for acceptable bead shapes. 204
5.59(a) Narrow gap weld bead profiles in the H-V position, 205
25 mm thick plate - 10 mm gap. 205
(b) Narrow gap weld bead profiles in the H-V position,
(c) Narrow gap weld bead profiles in the H-V position,
5.60 Typical narrow gap weld macrosections in the H-V position.

25 mm thick plate. 20B
5.61 Two possible approaches for the reduction in width of a
narrow gap welding torch. 209
5.62 Relationship between gap size, welding parameters and
possible fusion characteristics, flat position. 210
5.63 Relationship between maximum filling rate per pass and gap
size, flat position. 211
(xii )
LIST OF TABLES
SECTION 2
2.1 Dominant forces in metal transfer. 68
2.2 Comparison of the characteristics of some arc welding

systems, after Salter et al [57]. 69
SECTIOX 3
3.1 Murex LW1 wire specification. 86
3.2 Union Carbide Linde Hi84 specification. 86
3.3 Thyssen K5 Ni (MOD) wire analysis. 87
SECTIO!\ 5
5.1 Burnoff factor, «, for the wires used. 212
5.2 A comparison of bead dimensions for changes in pulse

structure, at a fixed mean current and travel speed. 212
5.3 Observations of narrow gap welds in the H-V position,

12 mm gap. 213
(xiii)
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AVC Arc Voltage Control
GMA Gas Metal Arc
GTA Gas Tungsten Arc
HAZ Heat Affected Zone
H-V Horizontal-Vertical
IIW International Institute of Welding
MAG Metal Active Gas
MIG Metal Inert Gas
NOT Non-Destructive Testing
NGW Narrow Gap Welding
OCV Open Circuit Voltage
PTFE Polytetrafluorethylene
ROM Read Only Memory
TIG Tungsten Inert Gas

(xiv)
NOMENCLATURE
a Wire cross-sectional area (mm 2 )
Ad Weld deposit cross-sectional area (mm 2 )
Ap Fused plate cross-sectional area (mmZ)
At Total weld cross-sectional area (mmZ)
Aa Dimensionless analogue of total weld cross-sectional area
C Constant representing slope of 1/6 v. I/T.v graph (A.mm/s)
d Effective bead diameter owing to bead truncation effects

(mm)
D Droplet detachment parameter (= IplTp) (Al.s)
F Pulse frequency (Hz)
Fd Droplet detachment frequency (Hz)
F(arc) Arc force on weld pool (N)
F(drop) Droplet force on weld pool (~)
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
G Joint gap width in narrow gap welding (mm)
h Bead width (H-V bead-on-plate) (mm)
ho Dimensionless analogue of bead width (H-V bead-an-plate)
H Weld pool depth in narrow gap welding (mm)
I Instantaneous welding current (A)
I Mean welding current (A)
Ib Background welding current (pulsed arc) (A)
lp Peak welding current (pulsed arc) (A)
le Excess welding current (=lp-lb) (A)
Ic Critical welding current to cause any plate fusion (A)
1 Plate thickness (mm)
• Droplet mass (kg)
Pr Narrow gap weld profile ratio (=G/ H)

(xv)
q' Line heat source strength (J/mm)
R Curvature ofa two-dimensional surface
Tb Background duration (pulsed arc) (ms)
Tp Peak duration (pulsed arc) (ms)
Tm Melting temperature (·C)
v Welding speed (mm/s)
Vc Critical welding speed below which arc force is incapable

of displacing deposited metal to expose base material (mm/s
V Arc voltage
Vd Droplet velocity at weld pool surface (m/s)
VE Equivalent arc voltage responsible for plate heating and

melting (V)
w Weld bead width, bead-on-plate (mm)
W Wirefeed speed (m/minute)
« Thermal diffusivity (mm 2/s)
« Wire burnoff factor (m/minute/lOO A)
6m Maximum dilution
y Surface tension (N/m)
K Plate thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
~o Absolute permeability of free space (N/A2)
p Density (kg/m 3 )
o Droplet volume (mm')
x Coefficient of arc force
Little used symbols or symbols which are simply constants

representing simplified mathematical expressions are
defined in the text.
(xvi)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express .y gratitude to Professor R. L. Apps for his

guidance during the preparation of this thesis. Many valuable
discussions with Or C.J. Allum are also gratefully acknowledged.
I would also like to thank the members of the Underwater Welding Group
for their assistance with the practical work, in particular Hr S. D.
Moynihan, Mr J.C. Savill and Mr D.A. Robinson.
Finally, I must thank my wife, Jonna, who has given so much support
and invaluable advice.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
In the metal inert gas (MIG) welding process an electric arc is struck
between a continuously fed consumable wire electrode and the work-
piece. This provides both the heat necessary to produce fusion as
well as the filler metal. Protection from atmospheric contamination
is provided by an externally supplied co-axial flow of inert gas.
Reactive gases may be included in the gas mixture for arc-conditioning
functions.
The process was initially heralded as an almost universal welding

process, replacing manual arc welding in all but a few applications.
This, however, did not take place mainly due to the limited control
over the process that was available at the time. Operation was only
practical in two basic modes: (a) spray transfer, which uses the
electromagnetic forces generated by high welding currents to transfer
metal droplets across the arc, and (b) short-circuit or 'dip'
transfer. where the wire repeatedly touches the weld pool using
surface tension to transfer metal from the electrode. Positional
welding (on ferrous materials) could only be carried out by the
short-circuit transfer method. However, the low arc energies involved
made the process prone to fusion defects. MIG welding gained a
reputation as only being suitable for low quality applications.
With the recent application of power electronics to MIG welding power

supplies, an almost infinite selection of pulse current levels and
frequencies is now available, giving controlled pulsed current metal
transfer. Previously, high power solid state devices were not avail-
able and so any current pulses were derived from the mains frequency.
This gave sinusoidal pulses of 50 Hz, 100 Hz, etc. The process, while
showing much promise, failed to be widely accepted, .ainly attribut-
able to diff ieul ties in setting up the correct welding parameters.
Modern electronics has now changed welding power supplies significant-
ly. These new machines are highly stable, reproducible and almost
infinitely variable in their characteristics, for instance, true
constant current or constant voltage operation is possible (or any
2
combination in between). Welding current and voltage can be very

accurately specified (* 1 A, * 0.1 V) and there is no need for crude
swi tched values of open circuit voltage, inductance or alope. Using
pulsed current gives the opportuni ty to operate a stable 'open' arc
over a range of ·mean current levels, giving a posi tional welding
capability without the need for short-circui ting, the process
operating with low fume levels and the virtual absence of spatter.
The somewhat misleading term 'synergic' MIG welding has now come to be
applied to most transistorised MIG welding power supplies that offer a
form of current pulsing. Hence, it is appropriate to clarHy its
meaning at this point. The term 'synergic' simply describes a feed-
back control system whereby the output of the power supply automatjc-
ally adjusts to an external input. This may take the form of wirefeed
speed selection or arc voltage. The welder then has to operate the
minimum number of controls to select the desired mean current.
Indeed, the term 'one-knob' control has often been used. This is
clearly necessary for shopfloor usage due to the difficulty involved
in setting the several interacting variables which need to be
correctly selected for any given mean current. (These variables are
peak current, peak duration, background current, background duration
and wirefeed speed.)
Despite the introduction of these solid-state power supplies with the

precise control over fusion and arc characteristics that they offer,
practical applications are small in number. Although pulse current
MIG welding is not a new process, until recently pulse current power
supplies have not been readily available and, as a result of this,
the practical understanding of the process by welders and welding
engineers is quite poor. The process is completely different from
conventional MIG welding in terms of arc characteristics and operat-
ion, and so attempts to apply experience and techniques associated
wi th conventional MIG welding usually result in failure. Welding
engineers need to be made aware of the benefits that pulse current MIG
welding can offer them (and more importantly, the problems which may
arise), while welders need to be trained 1n the correct operating
techniques. An important point to bear in mind is that the process is
3
not universal and a high degree of operator skill is still required

for manual use. It should not be applied before careful consideration
of the alternatives. However. when correctly used great cost savings
are to be gained.
The object of this work was to assess the application of pulse current
MIG welding to two industrially relevant problems. The first was the
use of the process for orbital linepipe welding with special emphasis
being placed on the critical root weld. the second was the production
of narrow gap welds (in the flat and horizontal-vertical positions).
The investigation covered the selection of suitable consumables,
determination of the correct pul se parameters and fusi on behavj our.
General operation and the problems assoc iated wi th the process are-
also covered.
4
2. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF MIG WELDING
The first inert gas-shielded arc welding process to be developed

utilised a non-consumable tungsten electrode with a helium shielding
gas, it became known as the 'Heliarc' process. Argon replaced helium
as the general shielding gas used giving rise, in Britain at least. to
the 'Argonarc' process. This has become more widely termed TIG
(Tungsten Inert Gas) welding or GTA (Gas Tungsten Arc) welding [1).
The TIG welding process while giving excellent quality results suffers
from a low deposi tion ~te. In an effort to overcome this drawback.
the tungsten electrode was replaced by a consumable wire electrode.
The process was announced in the mid-1940's, being termed MIG (Metal
Inert Gas) welding or GMA (Gas Metal Arc) welding. Its main
application at that time was the joining of aluminium, with an argon
gas shield, although other consumables were used later.
Wi th the relatively high cost of totally inert gas shields and the
poor performance of pure argon, the 1950's saw the introduction of an
active gas shield in the form of carbon dioxide for welding ferrous
materials. This is sometimes termed MAG (Metal Active Gas) welding.
Short-circuit transfer is the usual mode of operation, with the
process being mainly used in low quality, thin material and positional
applications, e.g. car body assembly and repairs.
Use of the MIG welding process has graduall y increased since the
1950's, especially with ferrous alloys (80% of all welding is
undertaken on C-Mn steels [2]). However, the often forecast boom in
MIG welding has not yet taken place. Until recently, with the
introduction of transistorised solid-state power supplies and the
better control and understanding they have given. power supply
technology has imposed limitations on the process. These have given
operational problems and a reputation among welding engineers that MIG
welding is a low quality process.
5
Using a conventional flat characteristic power supply, two basic modes

of operation are practical: short-circuit transfer and spray transfer
(modes of metal transfer are described later). Short-circuit (or
'dip') transfer, while giving a positlonal welding capability, suffers
from a low mean heat input since the arc is being repeatedly
extinguished. This can give rise to fusion defects, limiting its use
to low integrity applications. Spray transfer wi th its continuous
open arc does not generally suffer from lack of fusion. However, the
high currents needed to generate the spray transfer mode (> 250 A with
a 1.2 mm mi Id steel wire in argon) give a large mol ten weld pool,
limiting its use to the flat position. This is not quite true in the
case of aluminium, where its thermal properties allow positional
welding in the spray transfer mode.
2.1.1 Pulsed Current and Synergic MIG Welding
The operation of the MIG welding process with pulsed current emerged
in the 1960 ' s, enabling operation of an open arc over a range of
welding currents below the spray transfer transition current [3-13].
Sinusoidal pulses of current (typically of 10 ms duration) were used

to detach small droplets from the electrode tip in a stable,
spray-type mode. Thi s technique offered the advantages of reduced
spatter, and a reduction in the occurrence of the fusion defects
aSSOCiated with the dip transfer mode.
However. the process did not become widely accepted. Pulses could
only be derived from the basic main supply frequency of 50 Hz (giving
pulses at 50 Hz or submultiples of this frequency. e.g. 25 Hz, 33 1 / "
66 ' h Hz or 100 Hz). imposing a limitation which could make the
process difficult to set up correctly. Wl th the pulse duration and
frequency f hed to a large extent by the power supply. it becomes a
matter of setting peak and background current levels to give stable
metal transfer, and then matching the wirefeed speed to these
settings. Given this limited choice of parameters. it becomes a
6
compromise between settings which give a stable arc and the desired
mean current.
Recent advances in the application of power electronics to weldine

power supplies ha~ removed virtually all of the deficiencies outlined
above. It is now possible to have high current (up to 500 A) square
wave pulses of any desired frequency, Such a power supply was
originally developed at the Welding Institute [14]. This machine was
a transistor series regulator type (described later) capable of giving
accurate square wave pulses of 0 - 500 A with durations down to 1 ms
or less.
From this type of transistor power supply, the Welding Institute

developed the so-called 'synergic' MIG welding process. The wirefeed
unit is linked to the power supply, with a stable arc being achieved
by a simple pulse frequency to wirefeed speed relationship [15,16].
This system requires an electronics package to automatically select
the correct pulse parameters (peak current, peak duration, background
current and background duration) in response to a setting of the
wirefeed speed setting by the operator. This package is often termed
the control 'logic I , it may al so respond to other input parameters,
e.g. arc voltage. depending on the system and manufacturer. Control
of a transistor welding power supply in this way has led to the term
'one-knob' power supply being applied.
2.1. 2 Synergic Control Methods
When using synergic control. the wirefeed unit and power supply are
usually linked together, the output of one being determined by the
other. The control unit is pre-programmed with a set of pulse
parameters which correspond to the desired arcing conditions of a
given combination of wire and shielding gas. It is usual that the
wirefeed unit controls the power supply. a tachogenerator feeding a
signal to the control unit. which then produces the required pulse
structure to match the selected wirefeed rate. The method by which
the control system changes the pulse structure (to increase or
7
decrease the mean current), the 'logic', may be required to fulfil the
following conditions [17]:
(i) wirefeed rate exactly matches burn-off rate,
(ii) one drop detached per pulse (of a given size),
(iii) arc length and electrical stickout remain unaffected by

wirefeed rate.
The commercially available and reported control programmes are

described below. It may be possible that other synergic welding sets
have been produced using variations of these programmes at and after
the time of writing. All welding power supplies covered here operate
in the constant current mode. Hence the voltage floats. so that i f
the torch to work distance is changed, arc length wi 11 increase or
decrease much as in manual metal arc or TIG welding. Automatic
control of arc length then requires additional circuitry, which will
be covered later.
Three basic types of synergic welding are currently availabl e. and

have been examined at Cranfield. These are of the form used on the
GEe M450PS and M500 (designated here type I), type II, as fitted to
the GEe M450S and type I II. as used in the Japanese Clean MAG and
Trans i starc sets (manufactured by Mi tsubi shi and OTC respect i ve 1y) .
The method by which these systems change the pulse waveform in
response to changes in wirefeed rate is shown in Figure 2.1.
TYPE I programming is the synergic system originally developed at the

Welding Institute [16, 18]. Here, the peak duration. Tp ' is fixed. as
is the excess current, le' which is simply the difference between peak
and background current levels (Ip - Ib)' Variables are peak current
Ip. background current Ib and background duration Tb' Examination of
droplet detachment and burnoff data [17, 19] reveal the limitations
associated with this method. Since the time to detach a droplet is a
function of the peak current, multiple droplet detachments will be
expected at high mean currents and background detachments at low mean
currents. The droplet size will therefore be different over the range
of mean currents employed. It is also known [17] that increaSing the
8
peak current will increase the burnoff rate, for a given wire diameter
and mean current. This is a resistive heating effect, increasing with
decreasing wire diameters. Hence, as the mean current is increased
the increasing level of peak current will result in a greater burnoff
rate, and an observable increase in arc length will occur. This could
be compensated for when welding manually by the welder changin~ his
torch position.
TYPE II programming was originally developed at Cranf ield. Fixed

parameters are peak current and peak duration, with background current
and background duration changing to alter the mean current. This
system can give a more controlled and well defined process. A fixed
peak structure for the pulse will give constant metal transfer charac-
teristics over the entire useable current range. The background
duration may then be chan~ed on a linear frequency per amp basi s to
give a constant droplet size [20]. Background current is then
implicitly defined by all the other variables. This programme should
give a single droplet of a given volume over the range of useable mean
currents.
TYPE III programming is a much simpler method with the only variable
being background duration. Peak current, peak duration and background
current are fixed, although background current may be swjtchable
between a limited range of fixed values. A large amount of current
ripple is present with these sets. This is due to the low frequency
switching used to control the current. This low frequency (2.5 - 6
kHz) is less complicated and therefore much cheaper to produce than
the higher frequencies utilised by power supplies such as the M450.
It should be noted that this frequency is well within the audio range
with the arc producing a significant amount of noise. Many operators
have found this to be very irritating. With this type of programming
the metal transfer process is less well defined due to the short peak
duration, with variable droplet volume. However, despite these
shortcomings regarding tightly controlled metal transfer, it should be
noted that this type of set (and indeed type I machines) is capable of
producing excellent, virtually spatter-free welds.
9
2.1.3 Arc Voltage Control with Synergic MIG
When using the above synergic control systems and a constant current
power supply, the arc length can change for a variety ot reasons. The
control programme itself may cause a non-linear change In burnoff rate
with mean current giving a change of arc length in mechanised welding
(In fact, the electrical stickout changes but contact tip-to-work
distance is usually fixed [17].)
Examination of the problem reveals three possible solutions (at a

given mean current level):
(i) move the torch position,
(ii) chanp,e the wirefeed rate,
(iii) change the mean current.
Method (i) is employed to a certain extent when welding manually but

its use in the mechanised mode would require a rapid, accurate
response, servo-drive for the welding torch. Such a technique has not
been reported commercially. However, it has been used for hyperbaric
MIG welding research [21].
Manual wirefeed trimming is provided on the M450 power supplies. This

takes the form of a separate hand-held control which gives * 20% over
the set wirefeed speed. This method is only really suitable for
mechanised welding where the torch-to-work distance remains sub-
stantially constant. However, constant moni toring and adjustment by
the operator is required. Manual wirefeed trimming does however, find
a use in semi-automatic welding where the operator may wish to adjust
the electrical stickout to suit the welding position! application.
Automated wirefeed trimming requires a fast, highly accurate wire-
feeder or problems such as wire 'hunting' can occur. Changes in arc
voltage produce changes in the wirefeed speed, e.g. if the arc voltage
,
increases the wirefeed speed is increased accordingly to restore the
required arc length and vice versa. This is much the same control
method as employed in many submerged arc welding systems. The
technique is not widely used in MIG welding due to the rapid response
10
requirement when using small diameter wires. Al though, it has beE'n

reported in research work on automated surfacing and hyperbaric pulse
MIG welding [22, 23]. A block diagram is shown in Fi~ure 2.2.
Changing the mean ~urrent gives a self-adjusting arc auch on the same
principles as a conventional flat characteristic MIG welding power
supply, see Figure 2.3. This is the method used by both the Japanese
power supplies mentioned. Using this system a reference voltage is
set which nominally represents the arc length. If the arc length
changes then the power supply reacts by affecting the burnoff rate to
restore the set voltage. This is done by changing the pulse frequency
(and so the mean current). For instance, if the torch to work
distance is increased there is a rise in the arc vol tage. To restore
it to the preset value pulse frequency is reduced, giving a lower
burnoff rate. If torch to work distance is reduced, arc voltage falls
causing the power supply to increase the pulse frequency to restore
the nominal arc length. Clearly, the response of the power supply can
be almost instantaneous. The same system also accommodates changes in
the wirefeed speed so overcoming any mjnor deficiencies in the wire-
feed unit. However, the major disadvantage of this method is the
changes in mean current and hence heat input, with changes in stand-
off (or wirefeed rate). This will also give variations in droplet and
fusion characteristics by changing the burnoff rate at a fixed wire-
feed [17, 24]. A block diagram of this arc voltage control (AVe)
system is given in Figure 2.3.
2.2 POWER SUPPLIES FOR PULSED MIG WELDING
The application of modern power electronics to welding power supplies

provides highly stable, controllable machines, with infinitely
variable V-I characteristics. Dynamjc response and reproducibility is
far superior to conventional power supplies.
11
Solid-state power supplies consist basically of a three phase

transformer/rectifier, a capacitor smoothing system and a feedback
controlled transistor amplifier with its associated control
electronics. The transistor power amplifier has two modes of
operation to give' current control. It can function as a variable
resistor, in which case the power supply is energy inefficient with a
large amount of power being dissipated in the transistor banks
(typically 10 kW) which requires use of an external water cooling
system. The inherent complexity of series regulator sets make them
costly and bulky. However, for smoothness of operaUon, versatility
and accuracy of output they are unsurpassed, making them ideal for
research and high integrity applications. A block diagram of a series
regulator power supply is given in Figure 2.4.
The transistor power amplifier may also control the welding current by
acting as a high speed switch. Not surprisingly they are referred to
as switch-mode power supplies. This type is much more energy
efficient, dissipating typically 1 kW across its transistors. This
reduced amount of heat generation means that air cooling by an intern-
al fan is sufficient. Fewer devices are employed, with a much simpler
design. hence they can be produced at about one third the cost of a
series regulator. However, performance is inferior wi th increased
output ripple and reduced dynamic response (for most practical welding
si tuations these factors are unimportant). The characteristics of a
particular set are associated with the switching frequency and output
filter inductance. Higher switching frequencies give better perform-
ance but the power supply then becomes more complex and expensive. A
block diagram of a switch-mode power supply is given in Figure 2.5.
A third type of power supply is now becoming available: the primary

inverter. With this type of power supply the three phase mains input
is converted to high vol tage d. c. Thi 5 15 then converted to high
frequency a.c. by the inverter stage. The a.c. Is subsequently
transformed down and rectified. Such a unit j s co.pact. cheap and
highly energy efficient. Development of such devices would obviously
have wide applications in the general welding market. A block diagram
is given in Figure 2.6 [25].
12
2.2.1 Computer Controlled Power Supplies
With the increasing use of microelectronics it now beco.es difficult

to define exactly what is and what is not computer controlled. A
power supply may be completely controlled by a microcomputer. with the
program generating any pulse waveforms. controlling wirefeed.
slope-in/out. etc. However. many power supplies now incorporate
microprocessors as an aid to simplify the settings which need to be
made by the operator. This may be achj eved by storing large numbers
of programs on permanent memory c i rcu i ts (ROM's). Input from the
operator such as wire type/diameter and shieldjn£ gas then determines
the program selected by the internal electronics.
Two reports [26. 27] detaj 1 a ZBO microprocessor controlled power

supply. These consist essentially of a microprocessor controlling a
slave power unit via a suitable interface. A flow chart indicating
the control of such a machine is given in Figure 2.B.
Such machines are clearly very flexible in their mode of operation.

and although at present few exist such units will eventually become
widespread. With such versati I ity and software control these power
supplies will find increasing usage in automatic and robotic welding
applications. Indeed. research has already investigated adaptive com-
puterised control of the MIG welding process with the computer con-
trolling process parameters to give a desired fillet weld shape [28].
2.3 SHIELDING GASES
To date. there have been no shielding gases specifically made for use
with the pulsed MIG welding process. Therefore use has had to be made
of those gases already commercially available. These gases have
usually been formulated with conventional gas shielded processes in
mind and so may not be totally ideal. Clearly there is much scope for
further research on shield gas compositions specifically for use with
pulsed MIG welding. However. pulsed current MIG welding with various
13
shielding gases has been reported and an overview of the findings is

given here.
Although the function of the shielding gas is primarily to protect the

molten weld pool and transferring droplets from contaaination by the
surrounding atmosphere, other factors need to be considered when
chosing a shielding gas:
(i) arc and metal transfer characteristics,
(ii) bead shape (penetration, width, reinforcement),
(iii) fume and silicate levels,
(iv) tendency of undercutting,
(v) speed of welding,
(vi) cost of shielding gas.
The following gases/gas mixtures have been reported with mild steel
consumables: Ar, Ar1%Oz , Ar2%Oz' Ar5%CO z , Ar20%CO z , CO z , 85%He13%Ar-
15%CO z (BOC Helishield 1). Ar and COz were included to examine their
effect on fusion characteristics, not to establish their suitability
as a shielding gas [20, 29]. This work systematically examined
shielding gases with pulsed current MIG welding of mi Id steel, some
information 1s also available for stainless steel consumables which
will be covered briefly later [30].
As would be expected, CO 2 shielding prevented the production of

spray-like transfers resulting in a globular transfer mode and heavy
spatter. Light spatter was also reported with Helishield 1. Ar/O z
and Ar/CO z mixes gave the 'smoothest' arc characteristics. Shielding
gas had no significant effect on deposition rates which was explained
by the authors in terms of the analysis by Wasink et al [31]. This
considers wire melting phenomena, showing that it is doainated by a
work function effect which is independent of gas type. The anode fall
potential, an effect whJch is influenced by gas composition is con-
sidered to be small in consumable electrode arc processes.
14
Silicate formation at the bead edges was found to be absent in pure

argon. increasing with CO, content (ranking the gases in the following
order: Ar. Helishield 1. Arl%O" Ar2%Oz. Ar5%CO,. Ar20%CO" CO,. With
the exception of Helishield I, thi s order also described decreasine
bead/plate wetting.angle and an increase in bead width. Bead geometry
was related to the collective influences of arc voltage. oxyeen
availability and plate temperature.
In conclusion. the above authors recommended Ar5%CO , as the 'best'

all-round gas for general applications although not implyine its
suitability for universal application. Baxter [23] in his report on
welding linepipe steel with pulsed MIG welding also chose Ar5\Cn , as
giving a clean. spatter free and penetrating arc.
A study of shielding gases for the pulsed current MIG weldine of

stainless steel [30] reports that at low mean currents (-100 A).
Ar2%O, is the optimum shield gas in terms of arc stability, surface
oxidation, bead appearance and fusion characteri sties. Above 100 A.
Air Products Astec 30 (a mixture of Ar30%He) was thought to be the
best all-round gas.
2.4 METAL TRANSFER I~ MIG WELDI~G
Metal transfer and the processes of heat and mass transfer are not the
concern of this work. However, a short section is included since
control over metal transfer is one of the main features of the pulse
MIG welding process. Far more detail is available in other works
concentrating on the subject [19, 33, 34, 35].
The IIW [36] proposed, in 1972, a classification system for metal

transfer modes. Short-circuit or 'dip' transfer occurs at low
currents when the wirefeed rate is greater than the wire burnorf rate.
The arc is extinguished on touching the weld pool, molten metal j s
then pulled from the electrode into the pool by surface tension
forces. The short circuit causes the current to rise rapidly. fUSing
15
the electrode tip and re-igniting the arc to start the process again.
Short-circuiting may occur up to 200 times per second. This mode of
operation finds most use in the welding of thin sheet steel and up to
the advent of pulsed current MJG welding, was the only way to MJG weld
positionally with ferrous consumables. The process is spattery and is
often associated wjth fusion defects due to the inherent low energy of
the arc.
Globular transfer occurs at low arc currents, wi th drop) ets larger

than the electrode diameter detaching themselves purely by virtue of
their weight exceeding the surface tension holding them to the
electrode. Droplets are of a random nature in both volume and
detachment frequency. Since gravjty is the dominant detachment force,
globular transfer can only be used in the flat position. This mode of
transfer has no real practical application being spattery in nature
with low penetration characteristics.
Increasing the current above a transition current (the level of which

is dependent upon the consumables, for 1.2 mm mild steel in an argon
based shielding gas this is of the order of 250 A) results in a change
of transfer mode from globular to spray type transfers. Thi s mode is
characterised by small droplets transferring, their size being similar
to the wire diameter. Electromagnetic forces are dominant in
detaching the droplets. The spray transfer mode may be further
subdi vided into two regions: projected and streaming spray (w1 th
increasing current respectively).
In projected transfer the droplets are detached before they grow to a

size greater than the electrode diameter. The mol ten tip of the
electrode does not become tapered. Stream spray is characterised by
the formation of a tapered mol ten tip to the electrode (wi th steel
wires) wi th very rapid detachment of small droplets. The projected
transfer mode is associated with a discontinuity in the arc current v.
burnoff rate curve, see Figure 2.7 (taken from [37]). It can be seen
that there is a region on this curve where burnoff decreases wi th
increasing current. This region had previously been identified in
pulsed welding [38] and in aluminium MIG welding [39, 40]. It was
16
observed for C-Mn steel by Ma [39, 40] occuring over a narrow 20 A

range between the globular and spray regions. Ma termed the transfer
observed in this region 'drop-spray', but it would appear to be the
same projected transfer mode as identified by previous reports. Lower
fume and spatter levels were reported in this mode, with lower droplet
temperatures being proposed as the reason for reduced fume formatjon.
At currents above the stream spray level (above 345 A for a 1.2 mm
mild steel wire in Ar, [41]) a long molten neck is formed which then
rotates expelling droplets from the tip. This rotational transfer
mode finds little practical application. A summary of the dominant
forces governing metal transfer is given in Table 2.1 (taken from
[36]) with schematic diagrams given in Figure 2.8.
2.4.1 Metal Transfer in Pulse Current MIG Welding
The principle of pulsed current MIG welding is to detach metal

droplets from the electrode by imposing a short duration high current
pulse on a relatively low background current level. In effect, this
gives spray-like metal transfer at mean current values usually
associated with short-circuit and globular transfer. A diagram
showing the usable ranges of mean current with various diameter mild
steel wires is gjven in Figure 2.9 (taken from [20]). \Jnt!] the
advent of solid-state power supplies full control over metal transfer
was not possible, owing to limitations in the available pulse
frequencies (related to mains frequency). A transistor power supply
has none of these limitations, with virtually any pul se height and
width available. Such power supplies then allow precise control over
metal transfer in terms of the number of droplets detached per pulse,
when detachment will occur during the pulse. the droplet volume and
the nature of transfer.
It is generally agreed that one droplet should be detached per pUlse.

This allows the peak energy to be minimised, for a given .ean current,
ensuring that there is sufficient energy during the background
duration to maintain a stable arc. Ma [19] has also reported that the
17
first drop detached per pulse is of a 'drop-spray' projected type.

Subsequent detachments are of a stream spray nature with formation of
an elongated neck of molten metal at the electrode Up./, Clearly.
droplets other than the first would be of a variable nature. reducine
the control of the' process. Ma also accounts for the low fume levels
of one drop per pulse welding in terms of the predicted lower droplet
temperature of projected transfer.
If conditions for one drop per pulse have been establi shed. prec i se
control over the volume of the transferring drop is possible by
variation in background parameters. Application of a simpl e
'frequency per amp' linear relationship [29] then gives a known drop
volume over a range of mean currents.
Minor disagreements exist in the literature as to exactly when during

the pulse the drop should detach for optimum operation. It has been
reported that detachment should occur at the end of the peak time on
the pulse trailing edge [24]. A further report [26] recommends
detachment just after the pulse at the beginning of the background
period. Although these appear to be contradictory. the nett effect is
the same. Detachments are made a t the end of the pu 1se so that the
drop travels through the arc during the 'quiet' background period.
Examination of the droplet velocity. typically 2 - 3 m/s [19]. reveals
that transfer time is between 1.5 and 2.5 ms. Whether detachment has
occured on the edge of the pulse or slightly after. is therefore not
critical. as the drop will have entered the pool before the next pulse
is imposed.
2.5 FUSION BEHAVIOUR
Numerous attempts have been made to predict the influence of welding

parameters on weld bead shape. Two main approaches have been adopted.
Consideration of the physics of the situation leads to a mathematical
model which Is subsequently compared with particular practical
observations.· The experimental approach invol ves production of a
18
large number of test welds from which equations or 'tolerance boxes'

may be derived. Usually, there is no physical justification behind
these empirical relationships other than that they describe the
experimental results obtained at the time.
It was not the purpose of this work to critically assess all the
models available for prediction of bead shapes, but to indicate the
main approaches adopted. Theoretical works based on heat conduction
theory [42, 43, 44, 45] have given a basis for prediction of plate
fusion phenomena. There are many difficulties in predicting weld
geometry since the shape of penetration is affected by the process
chosen and several other factors, even including minor element changes
in the parent plate [46].
A more detailed examination of the various works on this subject has

been carried out by Shinoda and Doherty [47].
2.5.1 Gas Shielded Welding
Literature covering the inert gas shielded processes is extremely

limited, possjbly due to the compJex interactions between many
variables. Fusion characteristics wi th the TIG welding process are
influenced by the geometry of the electrode, electrode composi ti on,
parent material, etc. MIG welding introduces variables of metal
transfer mode, droplet characteristics and heat being transferred both
by the arc and metal droplets. It can clearly be seen that
successful modelling of fusion behaviour from first principles can
easily become complex, if not impossible, when attempting to account
for all these factors.
Equations for MIG and COz welding have been derived by the Welding
Institute [48, 49, 50]. However, these results are based on work done
wi th submerged arc welding, an inherently different process.
Demyantsevich I s work [50] was Umi ted to a specific 2 mm diameter
wire, so it, and the other approaches, cannot be considered general,
Indeed, it serves to illustrate the difficulty of the problem.
19
2.5.2 Pulsed Current MIG Welding
Due to its relatively recent introduction, little work has been

publ1 shed relating welding parameters to bead characteristics. The
bulk of published. work has inevHably concentrated on bead-on-plate
weld runs. While such tests may reveal basic fusion and operational
characteristics, they are not representative of the problems
encountered when attempting to complete a real joint. The behaviour
of pulsed current MIG welding when applied in actual situations is not
yet fully understood. Work needs to be done in this field i f the
process is to be used correctly and not discarded before the full
benefits of the process are realised.
2.5.2.1 General fusion characteristics
Allum and Quintino [20, 29, 51] have published work concerning the
general fusion behaviour of the pulsed MIG welding process using
bead-on-plate techniques with mild steel wires. This work covered
the effects of shielding gases on deposjtion rate, bead shape and
fusion behaviour. The influence of the major welding parameters.
e.g. current and travel speed was also looked at. A simple model
of plate melting behaviour was presented.
Pulse structure was shown to have little influence on fusion

behaviour (for a given mean current). This is at variance wi th
work published by the Welding Institute [52]. Examination of
Allum and Quintino I s analysis shows that arc pressure is the
dominant force causing penetration and not droplet momentum. The
arc force is proportional to the detachment parameter, D (0 =
Ip2. Tp). If 0 is kept constant to satisfy the one drop per pulse
criterion, it is, therefore, expected that pulse structure should
not influence fusion behaviour. (Essers and WaIter [53] proposed
that droplet momentum was dominant in causing penetration, but
this is small compared with the arc pressure).
20
Maximum penetration and plate fusion (at a fixed arc current) was
shown to occur at travel speeds of 1.5 - 2 mm/s. This speed ranee
is associated with a transition of the arc from actiD2 directly on
the parent plate to a cushioning effect of the weld pool.
Dilution behaviour was shown to be controlled by the product I.v

(mean current x travel speed), with the maximum dilution approach-
ing 50% at values of approximately 1,000 A.mm/s. This maximum
dilution figure was influenced by the wire diameter and the
shielding gas composition (dilutions of the order of 60% were
obtainable with 1.2 mm wire in Helishield 1). Usine this inform-
ation, it can be seen that the structure of heat input is
important. For a given value of heat input, the mean current and
travel speed may be used to produce a variety of dilution values
and bead shapes. A simi lar effect has been observed wi th the
submerged arc process [54]. A chart of general fusion character-
istics may be constructed, see Figure 2.12, which allows (to some
extent) independent selection of fusion characteristics for a
given operational requirement. It should be remembered that thj s
chart refers to single bead-on-plate weld runs, in the flat
position. It may need modification for multi-pass welds, root
welds and for welding in position.
It was noted that only about 5% of the available arc power was
required to melt the observed plate fusion areas. In the zone of
conditions applicable to manual pulsed current MIG weldjng this
results in dilution figures of around 20%. When combined with
poor bead shape and incorrect operational technique, fusion
defects are likely. This would indicate that pulsed current MIG
welding may be more suited to mechanised applications allowing the
use of high currents and fast travel speeds to raise the dilution
level and reduce the incidence of defects.
21
2.5.2.2 Modulated wire feed and arc oscillation technigues
Fusion behaviour with pulsed current MIG welding has been shown to
be affected by using modulated wire feed ('thermal pulsing') and
arc oscillation techniques.
Thermal pulsing with a synergic power supply has been shown to

offer several benefits [52]. Low frequency (0.5 - 2 Hz) pulsing
of the wire feed rate was claimed to offer advantages when welding
thin sheets, reducing distortion and bridging larger root gaps.
Better control of the weld pool when welding vertical fillets was
also reported with this technique. Switching between a spray arc
and a low current pilot arc (along with the necessary changes in
wire feed rate) was found to be useful for welding thick sections
and root runs. This was attributed to the penetrating spray arc
being followed by a time period at the lower current level. thus
allowing the weld pool to solidify to some extent. Using this
technique closed butt root welds with a self-supporting underbead
can consistently be produced. No report was given as to the ranges
of conditions under which this could be achieved or whether this
could be applied in all welding positions, e. g. an orbital pipe
weld.
Arc oscillation or 'weaving' has long been used to control the

weld pool and bead shapes. Work by Brown [55] has shown that when
applied to pulsed current MIG welding in a controlled manner many
benefits in fusion behaviour are to be gained (dependent on the
application) .
Using this technique, a wide variety of bead shapes was produced.

being dependent on oscillation frequency, oscillation width.
welding current and travel speed. The usual central 'finger'
penetration of the MIG welding process could be broadened into a
saucer shape or made into various assymetric shapes. In general.
it was reported that an oscillation frequency of 5 Hz or greater
was required for uniform fusion behaviour, although this is
related to the .current and travel speed. Oscillation frequency
22
being directly proportional to both current and travel speed. The

oscillation frequencies required are clearly much higher than
those used for manual welding. However, this is not a problem
since the technique is essentially a mechanised one.
Controlled weaving should therefore offer benefits regarding

fusion behaviour. This is especially so when applied to control of
positional weld beads, and even more so for mechanised weld
surfacing giving smooth deposits with uniform penetration and low
dilution.
2.6 TRAXSMJSSIO~ PIPELI~E WELDING
The field welding of transmission pipelines is probably one of the

oldest appl ications of fusion welding. Initially using oxyacetyl ene
welding following its invention in 1901, the 1920's saw the succesful
introduction of electric arc welding [56].
In the early 1940's, the H.C. Price Company introduced a new

technique, commonly called 'stovepipe welding'. This process was
virtually unchallenged until the 1970's and is still predominant today
for land based applications [57]. Welding is done vertically-down
with the welder starting at the 12 o'clock position and finishing at 6
o'clock. The key to the success of this technique was the development
of the cellulosic coated electrode.
This type of electrode has three main characteristics. Firstly, when

used at high current densities with a short arc length, the arc has a
harsh action which can penetrate the joint root to form a 'keyhole'.
When welding vertically down, weld metal flows In at the back of the
keyhole forming a flat unbacked root bead. Secondly. the cellulosic
electrode also has a relatively high deposition rate characteristic
when compared with other types of manual metal arc electrode.
Thirdly. the weld pool has a relatively thin slag covering and can be
manipulated by the welder in all positions. These three character-
istics together give a technique to produce unbacked root welds in all
23
positions at a high deposition rate.
2.6.1 Semi-Automatic Arc Welding
With the introduction of the semi-automatic MIG welding process in the

1960's, it seemed logical to apply the process to the welding of
transmission pipelines [57]. Small diameter. solid wires used with
high welding currents allowed a higher deposi tion rate than manual
metal arc stovepipe welding, wi th an indication of lower operator
skill requirements.
After an initial success welding low pressure pipelines. the use of

the process (with a CO 2 shielding gas) encountered problems when used
on high pressure pipelines with the necessarily more stringent
standards of examination. To use the relatively high deposition rates
available. it was necessary to weld vertically downwards. The welder
balances the gravitational forces causing the weld pool to flow
downwards with the arc force pushing it upwards. If, for some reason
this balance is not maintained. the weld pool flows ahead of the arc
creating lack-of-fusion defects. If the defect occurs in the root, it
may go undetected by radiography owing to the lack of slag within it.
With the doubts regarding detection of defects, some inspecting
authorities required higher levels of non-destructive testing (NOT)
than had previously been applied. This, along with a lack of
enthusiasm among operators, led to a decline in the usage of the
process for high pressure pipelines [57].
2.6.2 Mechanised Arc Welding
The replacement of manual welding by mechanised systems has always

held many attractions. These include potential improvements in weld-
ing speed, metal deposition rate, duty cycle and reliability. There
is also less reliance on manual skills to maintain weld quality,
although skilled operators are still required to conSistently meet
quality standards.
24
While straight welds in the flat position or rotated circumferential

welds have been readily mechanised using submerged arc welding or an
inert gas shielded process, the mechanisation of orbital welding has
proved far from simple [58]. General orbi tal welding equipment is
currently dominated by the TIG welding process. The process gives
excellent quality results and is particularly suited to small diameter
pipe/tube welding. However, the low deposition rate makes it
uneconomic for large diameter pipelines. Currently the MIG welding
process is limited to the more advanced applications. These include
(i) the one-sided welding of spherical tanks [59],
(ii) the orbital welding of penstocks [69],
(iii) the sub-assembly and erection stage in shipbuilding
[61, 62],
(iv) the welding of process pipe and transmission pipelines.
All the examples quoted have used short-circuit metal transfer with a
carbon dioxide shielding gas.
This process has been chosen over manual welding methods for a number
of advantages. The small amount of slag created leads to less
inter-run grinding and slag entrapment problems, while the high
deposition rate allows a root run which is the equivalent to the root
and hot pass in stovepipe welding [66]. The low hydrodrogen level of
the process also reduces the possibility of hydrogen induced crackjng
in the heat affected zone. However, the process sees little general
mechanised use for positional welding, mainly due to a susceptibility
to lack-of-fusion defects. Various reasons have been put forward for
this problem: faulty weld preparation, faulty voltage selection and
control, poor operator skill, operator fatigue [65]. the low heat
generated for a unit volume of weld metal [67], the incorrect
combination of heat input and cooling rates, and the use of codes of
practice based on manual metal arc welding [58],
25
2.6.2.1 Mechanised orbital MIG welding systems
To date, four mechanised orbital MIG welding syste.s are known to

be in use or to have reached an advanced state ot approval [57].
Each system used short-circuit transfer MIG welding with a carbon
dioxide or argon/carbon dioxide gas shield. Wire diameters are
relatively small, being in the range 0.9 - 1.0 mm.
For the wire diameters used, the welding currents are relatively
high (180 - 270 A). This gives a high deposjtion rate whj ch will
give good productivity whilst also providing sufficient heat input
to ensure adequate sidewall fusion.
Even with the short circuit COz welding process, the complex
interactions between the process variables affecting bead shape.
root stability, etc. are not fully understood. Indeed, the
equipment itself prevents investigation of the welding variables
independently. It is therefore to be expected that pulsed current
MIG welding has yet to be used in this application.
2.6.2.2 Mechanised orbital MIG welding techniques
In the basic process approach all systems have much in common, it

is in the root run welding that major differences appear. The eRC
system [68] employs an internal root run which is welded
vertically down, using welding heads built into the line-up clamp.
The hot pass is performed by an external welding head or 'bug'
which fuses into the internal root pass. The other systems make
the root pass onto a backing bar (which may be permanent or, more
usually, of copper) which is built into the line-up clamp.
The normal welding direction is vertically down, with the weld

head weaving across the joint for the filling and capping passes.
However, the Serimer 'Saturne' system [69] completes the root run
vertically upwards (although the joint is filled and capped
vertically downward). The Dimetrics "Metal Beam" system, when
26
girth welding pipe in the 5G position welds the root vertically

down. The weld is completed with a vertical-up technique. It has
been reported that this technique less prone to tusion defects
[57]. This is because the weld pool can never tlood the arc and
prevent it from acting on the joint sidewalls. Indeed, a Japanese
mechanised pipe welding system [63] used this technique for the
complete welding cycle of root, fill and cap for its greater
resistance to lack-of-fusion defects. The increased welding time
being offset by the reduction in repairs. (In this application
repairs were made more difficult than usual owing to the necessity
to weld underground beneath a city.)
2.6.2.3 Metallurgical effects
All mechanised MIG welding systems have two major effects which
may become more significant as the strength of line pipe steels is
increased.
The first to consider is the weld heat input. When compared with
manual metal arc (or semi-automatic) welding, the welding currents
used are higher, as are the travel speeds. Hence, heat inputs are
lower and the weld thermal cycle experienced by the HAZ is rapid,
see Table 2.2. This is heightened by the small er number of weld
runs made. Table 2.2 also shows that the heat input per unit
volume of weld metal deposited is much higher for manual metal arc
welding than semi-automatic or mechanised MIG welding. This has a
significant effect on cooling rates and also indicates why the MTG
welding process is prone to lack-of-fusion defects.
Hardness values as high as 450 Hv have been recorded in the HAZ

[57], dependent on material and thickness, this is obviously
unacceptably high « 248 Hv is the usual requirement for sour gas
service). Baxter [32], in his report on welding l1ne pipe steel
with the synergic MIG welding process, gives a maximum HAZ hard-
ness of 345 Hv in the capping pass. In the rest of the weld HAZ
the hardness values were in the range 235 - 283 Hv. The plate
27
used was 19 mm thick, conforming to APJ 5L X65 specif ication.

Various measures have been taken to overcome thi s probl em. One
method has been to use manual metal arc welding tor the capping
pass. This increases the heat input and so reduces hardness.
Alternatives are the application of preheat, post weld heat
treatment and interpass heating. All these solutions are clearly
detrimental to weld productivity, espeCially for offshore
applications where laybarge space is at a premjum.
The second point to take into account is weld toughness. The

manual metal arc process usually provides adequate toughness due
to the many weld runs made (giving a high proportion of reheated
weld metal). Since mechanised welds contain a small number of
relatively heavy runs, the microstructures are predominantly
as-welded, which is generally of low toughness. (C-Mn deposits
have not been acceptable on occasions in the as-welded condition
requiring post weld heat treatment [57]). Dorling and Rothwell
[71] investigated the toughness of mechanised MIG welding
deposits, simulating the CRC welding system with a variety of wire
compositions. They report an increase in weld metal toughness by
using manganese-molybdenum and nickel-alloyed wires. Titanium
additions were also shown to be highly beneficial. Low oxygen
potential shielding gases (Ar/CO l , helium mixtures) also increased
weld metal thoughness. However, these gases were not acceptabl e
from an arc stabl1 ity point. Baxter [32] carried out a limited
metallographic examinations along with hardness surveys and
toughness measurements using synergic MIG welding on API 5L X65
steel. Thyssen K5 Ni wire was used in an Ar5%CO z shielding gas.
Resul ts showed that properties were at least the equivalent to
that achieved with current practices, and satisfied current
offshore and land pipe requirements.
2.6.2.4 Weld productivity
The production rate of a mechanised pipeline welding operation, as

wi th manual metal arc welding, is governed by the speed of the
28
front end crew [68]. With a mechanised system the production rate
will therefore be fixed by the root bead arc time. The effective
welding speed on the root pass is usually increased by the use of
multiple welding heads.
The follow-up welding station completine the fill and cappjne of

the weld wi 11 obviously be slower owing to the reduced travel
speed of the bugs when weavine. As a result, it is usual to have
more than one follow-up station in order to keep pace with the
front end crew.
One major advantage of a mechanised weldine system is the

reduction in the number of operators required. The number of
welders is independent of pipe diameter, only increasing wi th
increasing wall thickness. This gives a manpower advantage on all
but small diameter, thin wall pipe [68]. Clearly, this advantage
becomes greater with heavy section, large diameter pipes.
2.6.3 Summary
The mechanisation of orbital pipe line weldine is attractive for a

number of reasons. There is always a need for increased productivity,
particularly wHh heavy section, large diameter pipes. Accompanyine
this is a requirement for improved quality and mechanical properties,
particularly fracture toughness.
In this area, the use of a pulsed current power supply could prove
useful in investigating new wire compositions and shielding gas
mixtures for improved properties. These power suppl ies should also
help improve weld quality, by giving more predictable and consistent
welding conditions. The ability to give an open, controlled arc over a
wide range of mean currents gives the opportunity to investigate
fusion behaviour more thoroughly. This is especially so for the all
important root weld run. Improvements in the production of the root
weld could give substantial increases in productivity. Other gains
could come from reduced defect levels, less setting up time due to
29
variations in different power supplies and the very low levels of

spatter which can necessitate frequent nozzle changes.
2.7 NARROW GAP MIG WELDING
The exact definition of narrow gap welding (NGW) is unclear, although

it may be generally defined as welding in essentially parallel sided
(a preparation of up to 5· may be used), thick material (up to 200
mm). The preparation often takes the form of a square edge open butt
joint, with a backing bar. Although, various root faces have also been
used. The various edge preparations reported are shown in Figure 2.3.
The following welding processes have been used for NGW: electrogas.
electroslag, submerged arc, TIG and MIG welding. Individual processes
each have positive and negative aspects, but MIG welding is becoming
more widely used with the flexibility to weld a range of materials. A
survey of Japanese fabricators [52] showed narrow gap MIG \\'elding
being used in 78% of all applications.
NGW was originally developed (first used in the 1930's in the USA) on
the economic basis of reduced weld metal volume and hence lower costs.
The advantage of the process in these terms in illustrated by Figure
2.14 showing a comparison of a conventiona 1 joint and a narrow gap
weld in plate of the same thickness.
Various authors have listed the advantages of NGW [52, 73, 74] these
are:
reduction in welding time,
lower consumable costs,
reduction in slag removal time,
reduction in preparation cost,
reduction in preheating and post-weld heat treatment,
improved joint toughness.

30
Although the above account gives a picture of NGW as being potentially

almost too good to be true, the process has many major problems to be
overcome if it is to realise its full potential. Obviously, the main
problem is ensuring adequate sidewall fusion and the various methods
used to try and solve this are covered in later sections. Adequate
gas shielding to avoid porosity and arc instability was also reported
as sometimes giving problems. Apart from these two difficulties other
factors, not qui te so obvious, need to be considered. These are:
increased assembly time, high operator skill level and most important,
the difficulty of carrying out repairs.
2.7.1 Narrow Gap Welding Processes
Three processes are currently favoured for NGW, submerged arc, TIG
(with cold and hot wire additions) and MIG welding. Since this work
is concerned with the MIG welding process it will be covered in most
detail. However, there are numerous works covering the other processes
(e.g [75, 76, 77]).
2.7.2 Narrow Gap MIG Welding Techniques
Two basic techniques may be identified (see Figure 2.15): one in which
the contact tip is below the plate surface near the weld pool or,
alternatively, with the contact tip near the plate surface using a
long electrode extension. The latter technique was investigated by
Jackson and Sargent [78] and has also been covered by Russian and
Japanese workers [79, 80]. However, this technique is limited to
relatively large diameter wires (- 3.2 mm) to prevent the electrode
from becoming plastic due to resistance heating. Large diameter wires
also require large currents (400 - 450 A were reported) resulting in a
large weld pool, limiting its use to welding in the flat position. In
the former case there have been a variety of torch designs patented
[81,82,83, 84] to provide contact tip and shield gas access, wHh
several methods of achieving consistently good sidewall fusion. These
techniques may be split into single or multiple wire systems.
31
2.7.2.1 Single wire narrow gap welding systems
When using a single wire i t is almost universally reported that

some means of arc oscillation is required to ensure adequate
sidewall fusj on. The influence of electrode weaving has been
investigated by Futamura [85]. The operational envelope of
welding parameters which produced acceptable welds was
substantially increased by the application of a weave technique,
see Figure 2.16.
The techniques used for arc oscillation are shown in Figure 2.17.
These are:
(i) lateral movement of the contact tip,
(ii) rotation about a pivot [72, 86, 87],
(iil) plastic deformation of the wire [88, 89, 90, 91],
(iv) rotating contact tip techniques (using either an

assymetric contact tip with co-axial wire or a
symmetrical tip with eccentric wire position [92],
(v) pre-cast wire depositing alternate stringer beads.
A combined MIG-TIG welding technique has also been reported [93].

Here narrow gap MIG welding is followed by a hjgh current TIG
welding remelt to ensure no fusion defects. Magnetic arc
deflection techniques have only been documented once for narro~'
gap welding [94]. An arc control system based on the interaction

between the natural and external magnetic fields was used [95].
The technique proved to be less reliable than mechanical arc
weaving.
2.7.2.2 Multiple wire systems
Here, metal is deposited in stringer beads using staggered contact

tips to aim the arc and weld metal at the sidewall s, see Figure
2.18. Inclined torches, curved contact tips and pre-cast wjres
32
have all been reported [74]. Using three wires. a central bead is
also deposited [96].
A novel combination of the single/multiple wire system is the

'twist arc' process [97. 98. 99]. see Figure 2.19. Arc movement
is caused by the melting behaviour of two intertwined wires. with
welding currents in the range 480-550 A (shielded wi th Ar 10 -
20%CO z ) .
2.7.3 Assessment of Narrow Ga~ Welding Techniques
The above multitude of narrow gap MIG welding techniques indicate that
none has attained wide acceptance or is a proven commercial system
(most appear to be 'one-off' constructions). Each technique suffers
from Umi tations which could make it unsuitable or unattractive for
continuous welding fabrication. Since most authors do not list the
difficulties which may be encountered. an attempt is made here to list
the potential production problems.
A mechanical translation system must be subject to gap width

limitations. e.g. consider the problems in moving in an 8 mm diameter
contact tube across a 10 mm wide gap. Difficulties could also be com-
pounded by contraction of the joint preparation due to thermal stress-
es. requiring accurate seam tracking equipment. Pivoting the torch
may also only be effective for relatively shallow grooves « 100 mm).
All wire deformation techniques. e. g. flapping plate, cogs, spi ral

arc. Loop Nap. etc. suffer from problems of contact tip wear,
fluctuation in current pick-up point and most significantly wire feed
inconsistancies [100]. These systems cannot easily cope with changes
in joint fit-up, causing a need for a different weave width.
Pre-casting the wire is difficult to achieve consistently due to the
variable cast on the wire as it unwinds from the spool. Contact tip
wear problems can also be present.
33
Rotation of an assymetric contact tip is complex and requires a

substantial torch mounting if vibration is to be limited, although the
rotating eccentric wire contact tip [92] does seem to ofter a simpler
solution. High speed rotation of the contact tip .ay induce gas
shielding difficulties.
The 'twist arc' technique may also be subject to the usual contact tip
wear and wirefeeding problems. Additionally it may prove difficult to
achieve arc reproducibility with a twisted wire.
Multiple wire systems are obviously a more complicated and costly than
single wire systems. The posHional capabil i t j es of multip] e wi re
methods are somewhat limited (high heat input [74]). Indeed. most if
not all the techniques described cannot really be used as a positional
welding process. Many use conventional flat characteristic power
supplies. operating in the spray transfer mode (> 250 A) wHh the
associated large weld pool. The only reported use of a modern
transistor power supply using pulsed current [101] still operates with
large currents (> 350 A) in the flat pOSition.
2.7.4 Torch Design
Essentially. a narrow gap welding torch consists of a contact tip and

a gas shielding system. With the extended stick-out type of NGW. the
torch is similar to a conventional torch, maybe with the addition of a
gas box to enhance shielding.
It is more usual for the contact tip to extend into the jojnt,
requiring a specialist design. A typical design is shown in Figure
2.20 [97]. showing a water cooled contact tip flanked by gas jets.
Some designs have also relied on the trailing gas shield to produce
weld pool manipulation. see Figure 2.21. Details of various
individual torch designs may be found in many of the references
already quoted.
34
Some general aspects of torch design which need to be considered are

covered in this review. Generally, the torch assembly is of copper
construction and so the whole body is electrically 'live'. Hence.
some form of insulating coating is required to prevent stray arcing to
the sidewalls of the groove [102]. PTFF. ('Teflon') has been reported
[102] along with various plasma sprayed ceramics [86, 102]. A coating
of 87~AL203 - 13%Ti0 2 covered by a layer of Metco BP has been reported
as being particularly hardwearing [104J. However, there are reports
[90] that PTFE may be preferable to ceramics due to the brittle nature
of the latter. In many designs. the contact tip is expendable, being
electrically isolated from the main torch body [101. 103]. This
ensures that burnback damage does not extend beyond the contact tip.
The shielding gas orifice Is usually slit-like and angled towards the
arc region to avoid air entrainment. This may be supplemented by an
auxilliary gas box with a flexible skirt to seal the edges [103].
2.7.5 Weld Bead Characteristics
Narrow gap welding. if it is to be a reliable process producing sound

welds. obviously requires tight control over bead shape. For this
purpose, an understanding of fusion characteristics and the influence
of welding parameters is undoubtedly essential. An attempt to
quantify the effects of welding parameters has been undertaken by
Russian and Japanese workers [79, 80, 105. 106]. These may be useful.
however, it should be remembered that these mathematical expressions
are based on laboratory conditions, and may not be able to predict the
parameters relating to given practical situations with sufficient
accuracy.
It is generally accepted that each weld bead should be concave, with

beads having width to depth ratios in the range of 1.5 - 2.5 [107]
with a length of twice the width. Kurokowa [80] has quantified the
effects of arc voltage, welding current, travel speed and electrode
polarity on the weld profile ratio. When using electrode positive,
suitable values of weld profile ratio could not be obtained, with
35
centre line cracks always appearing. Examination of his welding

parameters show that this would be expected. High travel speeds (400
mm/minute) accompanied by the high welding currents needed to promote
sidewall fusion (up to 700 A) result in a large extended weld pool
solidifying from the sidewalls. Electrode negative polarity reversed
this trend, as did a reduction in welding current and increasing the
travel speed. Pulsed current [108,109] and, of course, electrode
weaving can also favourably affect the weld bead profile.
2.7.5.1 Arc voltage
Arc voltage is reported as acUng on weld bead shape in the

conventionally accepted way, i. e. higher vol tages producer wider
beads. Kurokawa [80] showed (with a constant groove width) that
bead width is directly related to arc voltage. This voltage must
be related to the gap width used to avoid undercutting which could
give rise to to slag entrapment. Low arc voltages require
accurate positioning of the electrode between the sidewalls to
ensure positive fusion of both sides.
An equation has been proposed [79] which calculates arc voltages,

using an Ar25%CO z gas shield, for narrow gap welding. This gives,
for example, with a 1.6 mm wire in a 10 mm wide groove, an arc
vol tage range of between 31 V and 36 V. Such a high arc vol tage
would give an extremely long arc which would tend to be 'floppy'.
This may tend to jump from sidewall to sidewall giving inter-
mittent fusion defects. Use of this approach would require
careful consideration of the predicted parameters for any given
practical situation.
2.7.5.2 Welding current and travel speed
Since most of the narrow gap welding reported uses spray type
metal transfer, the welding current is generally high (usually
about 300 A but it may be as high as 700 A). Hence, the effect of
36
welding current on sidewall fusion is not readily quantif ied.

(Welding equipment is available for use in pipeline applications
using a vertical-down technique with short-circuit transfer and
electrode weaving [65].)
However, several workers have looked at heat input as a varjahJe.

In one case, this is quoted as the 'linear deposition rate'
(weight of metal deposited per unit length)[106]. This gives, for
a 8 mm gap, sound welds with a deposition rate of between 210 and
270 g/m. With a 12 mm gap this range has increased to between 300
\
and 450 g/m. /;llthough more filler metal is required with the
larger gap, it can be seen to give greater tolerance. Hence, if
the heat input is too low, lack of fusion defects are Ukely
(Cazes and Ducrot [110] have reported a minjmum heat input of 0.42
kJ/mm for a 9 mm gap). It has also been shown that if heat input
is too high (low travel speeds), flooding of the weld pool is
Ukely, with this again causing lack of sidewall fusion defects.
Kurokawa [80] established an inverse relationship between weld
pool width and travel speed. Pool flooding occured at speeds
below 200 mm/min, with width becoming independent of travel speed
at around 500 mm/min. Arc stability was affected at higher speeds
due to poor gas shielding.
2.7.5.3 Electrode polarjty
Conventionally, MIG welding is done with electrode posjtive

polarity; electrode negative is generally not feasible on flat
plate. However, there are reports of electrode negatjve gjvjng an
improvement in bead character1sicts in narrow gap welding [80].
Investigations of arcs running in constricted grooves [111]
indicate that this may be due to a change in the arc envelope and
an associated change in the arc force. When welding with electrode
negative polarity smaller droplets are detached as the gap width
is reduced. It has also been noted that the sidewalls produce a
'pinching' effect associated with arc cooling [112].
37
Kurokawa [80] observed a change in solidification behaviour with a

change in polarity. When the electrode was positive. solid-
ification was said to occur from the sidewalls to the centre.
resulting in a high incidence of solidifaction cracking. However.
he reports that when welding with electrode negative polarity.
solidification takes place from the bottom and back of the pool.
No details of the methods used to establish these cooling patterns
was given.
2.7.5.4 Wire diameter
Wire diameters in the range 0.9 mm to 4.8 mm have been used for
narrow gap MIG welding [103]. The extended stickout method of
welding requires the larger diameters of 2.4 mm to 4.8 mm [112].
although there is a preference for 3.2 mm diameter. These large
diameters are required to maintain a degree of wire stiffness to
give accuracy in wire positioning. Smaller wires would soften and
wander due to resistance heating effects. Clearly these larger
diameters are associated with high welding currents and so are
largely non-positional. Smaller diameters are preferred where
more control of the weld pool is desired (as in positional
welding) . The electrode diameter has a direct effect on bead
characteristics, generally an increase in wire diameter increases
the depth of penetration but the weld bead becomes more convex
[74].
Flat characteristic power supplies are normally used with wires up

to 3 mm diameter. Thicker wires require a drooping character-
istic power supply. using voltage control on the wirefeed unit (as
in submerged arc welding).
2.7.5.5 Joint gap width
Groove width will obviously have a prenounced effect on bead

characteristics. If the gap is too large lack of fusion may
38
result. If the gap is too narrow, lack of penetration between

runs may occur as the arc tends to concentrate on the sidewal] s
[80]. It is widely accepted that the minimum practical gap size
is in the region of 6 mm [74]. Torches of such dhensions would
probably present engineering problems in their manufacture, apart
from practical welding considerations. Optimum widths would
appear to be in the range 10 - 14 mm [80, 89] with an operational
range of B - 16 mm [113]. Ducrot [114] has reported gaps of
16 - 20 mm wi th a 7 mm tolerance. However, he has used a weave
technique with twin wires.
2.7.6 Metal Transfer Mode
The most generally reported mode of metal transfer for NGW is spray
transfer. Short circuit welding is usually associated with excessi ve
spatter and lack of fusion defects. However, short-circuit transfer
is used successfully for a 'stove-pipe' type of vertical down pipe
welding technique [65, 68]. Morigaki [108] has reported a combined
spray/short-circuit process. Periodically imposing a spray condition
on a short-circuit arc was found to improve the sidewall fusion and
wetting in, while accelerating the solidification rate.
Conventional current pulsing, e.g. 50 Hz, 100 Hz, has also been
applied, with claims of improved fusion behaviour [74. 115,116]
Lebedov [109] used a 25 Hz pulsing condition, where a pulse of 900 A
was superimposed on a basic current of 350 A (with a 3 mm wire).
Longitudinal hot cracks were then avoided.
It should be noted that there is little or no reported use of

transistor power supplies using pulsed mean currents below the spray
transition current. This is presumably because they have only become
widely available in the past few years. It has been suggested that
pulsed current transistor power supplies may significantly enhance
fusion and reduce porosity [117].
39
2.7.7 Shielding Gases
2.7.7.1 Shielding gas compositions
Most reported· NGW techniques use argon based gas .1xtures wi th

upto 50% COz added (this is for C-Mn steels, clearly the gas
choice is material dependent). The most common mix is of
Ar20%CO z '
The occurrence of pores and cracks has been related to shielding

gas mix (using Ar/CO z ), with an increasing likelihood of defects
with increasing CO 2 content [93]. Kimura et al [98] investigated
shielding gas composition (Ar/C0 2 ) by relating it to the sidewall
fusion and depth of penetration. Minimum fusion was independent
of gas composi tion, although maximum fusion increased wi th CO 2
content, Ar20%CO z was given as an optimum mix.
The ternary system of Ar/He/C0 2 was investigated by Jackson and

Sargent [78]. They identified a range of mixtures which
stabilised the cathode root on the molten droplet. This was
deemed desirable for the production of sound narrow gap welds
using globular transfer with electrode negative polari ty (3.2 mm
diameter wire). The mixtures identified as unsuitable allowed the
arc to stray between the electrode and the sidewall. They
recommended mixes of CO 2 with upto 50% Ar or 90% He. Ar20%CO z was
regarded as an unsuitable mix, which is at variance with the
majority of other workers. This could be accounted for by the use
of globular as opposed to the more usual spray transfer.
2.7.7.2 Shielding gas flow rate
One of the major problems of NGW is the avoidance of porosity

which can be a~gravated by the use of deep ~rooves. When using a
conventional MIG type shroud from above the plate, Kurokawa [80]
found that plate thickness was 8 Umi ting factor. With a 100 mm
thickness, 8 minimum flow rate of 25 l/minute was needed (Ar20%CO z )
40
to produce pore-free welds. Above 100 mm. this critjcal flow rate
was observed to rise sharply. see Figure 2.22. Gas shielding in
these cases is often augmented by a form of gas box. with a
flexible skirt to seal the edges. Extra side jets may also be
used [88] .
Most deep joint reports involve a specially designed torch with

integral gas ports adjacent to the arc. as discussed previously.
In these cases the shielding gas flow rates are obviously linked
to the individual design. In general. 25 l/min is the reported
minimum flow rate.
Details also exist of additional gas jets being used to influence

the weld bead shape [88).
2.7.8. Joint Geometry
The majority of cases use a parallel sided joint. These are normally
machined to ensure accurate fit-up and remove problems associated with
surface defects etc. from a flame cut preparation. In some instances.
an angle of up to 10· may be made between the joint faces to allow for
thermal contraction effects. Kurokawa [80) investigated the extent of
joint closure for a given amount of joint filled. Most of the joint
closure was observed during the first quarter to one third of the
joint depth. This is due to the restraining effect of the deposited
weld Jletal. Distortion cannot be quantified directly owing to the
vastly differing conditions of any given fabrication.
2.7.9. Metallurgical Considerations
A detailed investigation of all the metallurgical iJlplications of

narrow gap MIG welding is beyond the scope of this review. and would
clearly be bound by specific materials and applications.
Addi tionally. there is little information on the subject. However.
the general metallurgical considerations will be briefly covered to
41
put the process in perspective. These are largely due to the

relatively low heat input (usually less than 2 kJ/mm). This gives lo~
distortion with a narrow heat affected zone (HAZ). The low heat input
coupled with the rapid cooling effect of the thick sections ~enerally
encountered may however, give rise to high HAZ hardness values.
2.7.9.1 Application of preheat
The amount of preheat is related to the material being used and

its combined thickness. Advised preheat levels are given by
8S5135 [118] but it is not possible to apply this standard to all
reported applications as there is insufficident information. Most
NGW authors give no preheat information, so presumably none has
been used. With the section thicknesses involved in ~GW (often up
to 200 mm) cooling rate has been stabilised, giving little change
in any required preheat level [74]. Preheats of 150·C have been
used for welding alloy steels (CE > 0.59) with 100 mm combined
thickness (a level in agreement with 8S5135). In order to achieve
the required properties other alloy steels may require upto 200·C
preheat [102]. It has been claimed that hardenable steels may be
welded without preheat using a mUltiple wire system [96].
In some instances, low levels of preheat (60·C) have been applied

to remove any moisture from the joint [102].
2.7.9.2 Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of most narrow gap welds are acceptable

due to the tempering effect of successive passes over the
preceding beads (as welded). It has been reported that weld metal
tensile strength and notch impact thoughness values are
acceptable, although fracture toughness was so.ewhat reduced
[102]. Stress relief heat treatment restored fracture toughness
to the level of the parent plate.
42
As may be expected, with low heat inputs and the heat sink effect
of the thick sections welded, cooling is rapjd resulting in narro~
heat affected zones with higher than usual hardness values.

Changes reported range from 175 Hv in the parent plate with a HAZ
hardness of 200 Hv, to 225 Hv in the parent plate wi th a HAZ
hardness of 400 Hv. Clearly, these values and other mechanical
properties are highly material and application specific [117, 119,
120]. The joint geometry also resul ts in more uniform plate
dilution.
Jackson and Sargent [i8] observed higher toughness and tensile

strengths with Ar/C0 2 mixtures than with the equivalent He/C0 2
mixtures. This was attributed to the buffering effect of argon
with to its larger atomic size (compared with helium) slowing the
diffusion of carbon dioxide through the mixture.
2.7.10 Positional Narrow Gap Welding
Data on NGW in all positions, other than flat, is limited. A report

of a horizontal-vertical NGW process reveals on closer inspection that
i t is not a 'true' narrow gap welding process [1211. Thin materia 1
was welded (38 mm) using a 20' preparaUon on the upper plate (the
lower plate having a square edge). A 5 mm root gap was used with
multiple stringer beads being deposited.
Vertical-up welding is the most widely reported positional technique,

although there are still only few accounts available [85, 122. 123.
124] Three of these are Japanes processes termed VERT!\AP (Kippon
Steel [122], MACH ARC (Robe Steel [124]) and NOW-VB (Tomoegumi Iron
Works [85]). The fourth technique is by Messer-Griesheim and is
called SFN-300 [123].
The MACH ARC process used strap shaped electrodes to weld plate up to
20 mm thick, and is, therefore, of little interest. The VERTKAP
technique, see Figure 2.23, deposi ts weld metal across the groove,
contrasting with the NOW-VB and SFN-300 processes, with metal being
43
deposi ted along the groove. Manipulation of the weld pool by a

trailing shield gas flow 1s a feature of the SFN-300 technjque.
NOW-VB welding has only been used for plate thicknesses up to 50 mm.
with details of the technjque being somewhat confusin~. The SXF-300
process has however. been claimed to be able to deal with 300 mm
sections.
2.7.11 Summary of ~arrow Gap Welding
In theory. r.lGW offers an attractive alternative to other mechan i sed

welding techniques. simple joint preparations. lower joint volumes.
reduced distortion, lower costs. etc. However. XG\\' is not a common
and universally used technique. A large number of research papers.
giving a multitude of differing techniques. would indicate that the
major limitations of the process have still not been overcome. The
most common of these being the achievement of guaranteed sidewa 11
fusion. Many methods have been proposed for the all evj ati on of thj s
problem. Amongst them are various wire weaving techniques. current
pulsing. directing the arc towards the sidewa)ls and multiple weld
beads. They all possess limitations but no particular method
dominates, although their use does give much greater tolerance to
welding parameters which can give sound sidewall fusion.
Adequate gas shielding of the arc and weld pool is another common)::l
reported difficulty. This is especially so in deeper grooves (> 100
mm in depth). Access in a narrow gap joint is limjted and so careful
gas nozzle design is required to give a smooth shielding gas flo~
without air entrainment. A supplementary gas box and/or side gas jets
have been used to enhance shielding.
When used as a positional welding process, NGW could offer potentially

hu~e savings in terms of cost and time. However, .any of the
techniques reported are unsuitable for positional work by thei r very
nature. The large currents used to give spray metal transfer and
reliable sidewall fusion result in large weld pool volumes. Cnti 1
recently, spray transfer was the only method of achieving a consistent
44
'open' arc without the spatter and 'coldness' of globular and

short-circuit transfer due to the types of power supply availabl e.
With transistor power supplies now offering current pulsing of
virtually any level and frequency, controlled metal transfer coupled
with an open arc is possible over a wide range of mean currents below
the spray transition level. The use of such a power supply has not
yet been reported for NGW, and the precise control over metal
transfer, current and therefore fusion characteristics, may allow the
deposition of single beads without having to introduce mechanical
weaving. This degree of control may also lead to the possible use of
the process in all welding positions.
45
type I
increasing mean current
-
"'-
fixed: Tp, le
.
variable. lp, Ib,Tb
type II
fixed: lp, Tp
variable: Ib, Tb
type III
r'" '" '. ~ IW
,.,.,.. ',..... - . .,.,...,
ficed: Tp,lp, Ib
variable: Tb
' ....... .....-....
- ......
figure 2.1 Three types of synergic control programmes.
46
WIRE FEED
SPEED
CONTROL
arc voltage
() ...
/
~} I
'"
'-"
mean current demand

t
current
PULSE pulse POWER
structure
GENERATOR AMPLIFIER
WELDING POWER SUPPLY
figure 2.2 Arc voltage control by wirefeed trimming.

47
I....
c::
Cl.I
'-
a'-
(L
.r:.
.o-l
"-
o
Q,)
-<
0-
.....
Co;
c
'"'
0-
-
(I.:
.c
.........
•
wire feed WIRE FEED
speed demand
SPEED
CONTROL r--
() ...
/
0 ' "'- ::::-

CD
arc voltage
I
mean current
VII CURVE current PULSE pulse POWER
SIMULATOR demand GENERATOR structure AMPLIFIER
- ----
WELDING POWER SUPPLY -~
Figure 2.4 Arc voltage control by current modulation.

49
u
'-
d
.
>.
oX
:1 u
CS
..c:l
"'C
OJ
~
-
on loff switching
- -- JUl
- --
- -
"\..SO Hz
arc
, /
V
supply V"
o
llf1-
reference
" V /
feedback
figure 2.6 A block diagram of a secondary switching type lnmsistor power supply.
51
....'-
QJ
'-
.....
c:
QJ co
>
c: '-
.- E
c
co
'"'
Cl'
.....co
"0
.::t.
U
......o
~
<
52
Enter:
Wire material
Wire diameter
Stand oH
Bead shape
Automatic
selection of
lp' T p,1 b' Tb and WFS
(using section 4)
Yes
Monitor Im' Vm Monitor I.,., Vm

and WFS and WFS
Ye!'
figure 2.8 A flow chart of power supply microcomputer control.

14. .
l = 20 mm
l =10 mm
-12
c:
·e
I I /"
......
-....
E
CII 10
I \ spray / ~ ~ l =S mm
cs
"-
........
0
c: •
"-
:::J fine glob /proj. spray
..0
~/
\J1
6
/ VI
globular
4t- /~ 1·2 mm ~ Bostrand LW1
ArS % (02
arc length = 5 mm (nominal)
- - - -
electrical stickout =l
2
100 140 180 220 260 300 340 no 420 460

fiCjure 2.9 Wire hurnoff data for mild steel in Ar~~r02' after Nunes [37J. arc current (A)
140 A 180 A 190 A
o o
200 A 220 A 260 A
figure 2.10 Illustration of metal transfer modes.
mean current (A)
o so 100 150 200 2 300 3
wire diameter
-1-0 mm
unstable""'" spray welding -1·2 mm
-1-6 mm
IJ'
IJ'
deposition rate (kg/hour)

1 2 3 4 5 6
_ I ___ 1__ _ _ ~l--=- . ____ I
1-0 mm
1-2 mm
1-6 mm
approximate zone for manuaL ~ 500 A power ....J

all-positionaL welding ., supply limit ..
figure 2.11 Illustration of thp lIsFlb]p ranges of pldspn clIrrpnt tHe wp]dinq. mi]d stpp] wi fP jn Af5D~[02'
S6
Current [A] I/v =200A.mm/s

400
-e
non-positional
conditions
__ all-posltlonal
..
-e
c
o
....... conditions
-
:;::
o
L-
QI
C
QI 300
c..
4·0
20
'·5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
welding speed [mm/s]
~5 7.5 52 5p .
45 40,
wetting angle (!5°)
.
I- -I
region of maximum penetration
& plate fusion for any current
Figure 2.12 Generalised representation of fusion characteristics

(1.2 mm mild steel wire in ArS%C0 2 ).
57
8-16mm
__----~~ -~I------
ll-2-5'
R.Smm
t
2 mm
t
parallel-sided with backing bar U - type preparation
U preparation radi used lands 'buttered' joint
--''''1-5 ,"m 1 mm
H ( Price joint prepara tion (R( joint pr!paration

figure 2.13 Some of the reported joint preparations for narrow gap MIG welding.
58
narrow gap joint preparation

10mm
100 mm
cross-sectional
area =1000 mm 2
I J
conventional joint preparation
cross-sectional
area = 2890 mm 2
narrow gap joint shows -65 % saving in weld area
figure 2.14 A comparison of conventional and narrow gap joint volumes.

59
figure 2.15 The two basic approaches to narrow gap welding.

-
E
E
c..
c
C"
....c::
.·0
...,
14
,
, . ... -----------x--- with weQving
,
/
., '"
Cl
,
, \
\
,,
I
I
10 \
,
,,
I
\
~
,,
without weaving
30 34 38 42 arc voltage (V)

figurE' 2.16 A chart showing how the range of conditions which produce acceptable welds can be incre3sed
by torch weaving, after Futamara [B~J.
61
,~:~
:,, ""t ,,,
, ; ,
,, ""
: :'
I "
- -
,l
Figure 2.17 Some of-the reported techniques for arc oscillation in narrow gap
MIG wpldin .
62
plan
view
J
tra.wl
direction
figure 2.18 Multiple wire narrow gap welding techniques.

63
figure 2.19 The 'Twist Arc' narrow gap MIG welding tpchniqup.
64
Cl)
CS
C\
C\
c:
:a~
- N
.~ N
,£;0
Cl)C
0000000
-
0.00000
- 0"
c::
-
"0
Cl.:
~
0-
m
0"
~
o
'"'
'"'
m
0000000
.000000
- c::
m
....0-C"i
...
>.
Cl
N
t
Cl .,
1:.0
o :::J
'"' ....
65
_ - controlling gas
contact
tube
arc "'--f--- shielding gas
molten pool
figure 2.21 The principle of fluidic control for weld bead shape,
80
-.-e
c
-
.......
l! 60
a
L..
0-
sound welds 0-
-~
~
~
Cl
40
porosity
20
50 75 100 125 150

r igure 2.22 The mInImum gas flow rate in relation to plate thickness for the plate thickness (mm)
production of sound narrow gap welds, after Kurokaw8 [80].
67
contact tube
sliding copper
shoes gas
- -
_ _~/Il\
_------~w---- weld metal
figure 2.23 The 'VERTNAP' narrow gap MIG welding process.

68
Transfer Type Dominant Force or Mechanism
Drop Gravity and electroaacnetic

Globular
Repelled Chemical reaction cenerating

vapour
Projected Electromagnetic pinch instability

Spray Streaming Electromagnetic
Rotating Electromagnetic kink instability
Explosive Chemical reaction to form a gas

bubble
Short-circuiting Surface tension and electro-

magnetic forces
Bridging
Bridging transfer Surface tension and (hot wire)

without inter- electromagnetic forces
ruption
Flux-wall guided Chemical and electromagnetic

Slag-protected
Other modes Chemical and electromagnetic
Table 2.1 Dominant Forces In Metal Transfer

Typical stovepipe Typical CO 2 CRC automatic Serimer Saturne McDermott
practice semi-automatic automatic TIG
Root Fill Cap Root Fill Cap Root Fill Cap Root Fill Cap Root Fill Cap
Arc voltage V 24 26-32 24 20 22-25 25 19.5 23.5- 20.5 22.5 23- 19 9.4 11.5 11.5
24.5 24.5
Arc current A 150 150- 145 170 180- 210 200 250- 200 230 210- 180 340 500 350
180 210 265 240
Travel speed mm/min 241 155- 107 218 130- 102 762 281- 381 580 220- 290 305 381 292
315 250 1016 450
Arc energy kJ/mm 0.9 0.98- 1.96 9.14 0.96- 3.09 0.31 0.37- 0.65 0.54 0.66- 0.71 0.63 0.91 0.83
1.8 2.42 0.97 0.93
'"
\D
Deposition rate 1.16 1.16- 1.12 2.51 2.66- 3.10 2.55 3.76- 2.93 3.65 3.29- 2.20 1.47 3.74 2.00
kg/hour 1.39 3.10 4.88 4.02
Deposition weight 80 66- 175 192 178- 506 56 62- 128 105 119- 126 80 164 114
g/m 150 397 21J 176
Arc energy/weight 11 12-15 11 5 3-5 3 5.5 4.5- 5.0 5.0 5.0- 5.6 7.8 5.5 7.2
deposited kJ/g 6.0 5.5
Number of runs 8 - 14 7 6 7 6(est)
Average run depth 1.8 - 2.8 3.1 3.7 3.1 3.2

- ---- --
Table 2.2 Comparison of the characteristics of some arc welding systems, after Salter et aI [57].
70
3. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
3.1 EQUIPME~T
3.1.1 Power Supplies
Two transistor power supplies were used for thjs work: a GEC (AWP)
M500 and a GEC (AWP) M450 PS. The M500 is a series regulator type
machine equiped with a water cooling system, while the M450 PS 15 a
swi tch-mode device controlling the current by rapid switching
(- 32 kHz). The M500 was 'slugged' to give it a similar current rise
time to the M450 PS (- 1 ms/500 A). The technical specifications of
these power supplies is given below.
Input:
voltage: 380/400 V - 3 phase
frequency: 50 Hz
Output:
OCV: 55 V
Characteristics
-output current/voltage relationship infinitely variable

between constant current and constant voltage.
-current rise time variable between 0.1 - 10 ms in 0.1 ms

steps.
-short circuit current variable between 0 - 499 A with

variable short circuit detect voltage.
-peak and background levels between 0 - 500 A in 1 A

steps.
-accuracy * 0.5%.
-peak and background duration between 0 - 999.9 as in
0.1 ms steps.
-reproducibility and accuracy:

current * 1% at full scale setting
timing * 0.5% for each control.
71
M450 PS
Input:
voltage: 380/420/440 V - 3 phase
frequency: 50/60 Hz
power:
peak: 28.5 kVA
continuous: 15 kVA
Output:
voltage: OCV 65V
@ 450A 45V max.
Characteristics:
-constant current.
-regulation: 5 A/50 V.
-accuracy maintained for line voltage variations

of * 6%.
-peak and background current levels between 0 - 450 A

in 1 A steps.
-peak and background duration between 0 - 999.9 ms in

0.1 ms steps.
-display accuracy * 2 A.
-reproducibility and accuracy:

current * 2% full scale setting
timing * 0.5% for each control.
The M500 and M450 PS power supplies are shown in Figures 3.1 and 3.2
respectively.
3.1.2 Welding Torches
3.1.2.1 Bead-on-plate and root welding trials
For these experiments a Union Carbide ST12 water cooled torch was
used. This was rated at 700 A with a 100% duty cycle.
72
3.1.2.2 Narrow gap welding
For horizontal-vertical (H-V) welding with joint gapa In the range

of 6 - 10 mm, using 25 mm plate, the ST12 torch was used with an
extended contact tube. This was machjned back to 4 . . 1n diameter
to enable it to work in these restricted grooves without arcing to
the side wall of the joint, see Figure 3.3.
Due to the nature of narrow gap welding, suitable torches are not
readily available 'off-the-shelf'. Hence, torch design evo] ved
throughout the experimental programme with modifications being
made where necessary to overcome the problems encountered.
In total, five basic designs were used. The original torch being
based on information derived from the literature survey. The
reasoning behind each development will be covered in the 'Results
and Discussion' section further on. Illustrations of each torch
design are given in Figures 3.4 to 3.8.
3.1.3 Wirefeed Units
3.1.3.1 Bead-on-plate and root welding
A Millermatic S-54D wirefeeder was used in conjunction with the

M450 PS power supply. Wirefeed speeds of 0 - 18 m/minute can be
obtained with this unit. A digital display of wirefeed speed was
given on the control unit, with an indicated accuracy of * 0.1
m/minute. A remote trimmer control gave * 20% over the set
wirefeed speed to give control over the nominal arc length.
3.1.3.2 Narrow gap welding
Narrow gap welding was done using a Cranfield designed stepper

motor wirefeeder. This was mounted directly above the torch.
73
3.1.4 Welding Table
The welding table was capable of rotating about 2 axes to simulate any
welding position, see Figure 3.9. The table moved beneath a fixed
welding torch by means of tacho-stabi lised servo-driven lead screw
lIechanism. This gave consistent travel speeds in the range
o - 20 mm/s. The horizontal position and height of the torch above
the welding table was controlled by means of manually adjustable lead
screws.
3.1. 5 Torch Oscillation System
A Cranfield designed and built system was used. To drive the torch it
used an electromechanical actuator and a pivoted torch mount. It is
not possible to give an accurate specification for this system due to
interaction between various demand settings. For instance, owing to
the poor mechanical performance, increasing the weave frequency would
reduce the width of stroke. In general, weave widths of approximately
5 mm were obtainable at around 0.5 Hz. Frequencies of up 2 Hz could
be obtained with very small oscillations.
3.1.6 Arc Length Control
For bead-on-plate work, the arc length was monjtored with a lens
projection system. The lens was used to project an image of the arc
onto a calibrated screen with the arc length being controlled using
the wirefeed trimmer. In other cases where this sytem could not be
used the arc length was controlled by monitoring the arc voltage.
3.1. 7 Instrumentation
With the M500 power supply, welding current and arc voltage were
lIeasured using the built-in digital meters. The M450 PS only
indicated welding current and hence arc voltage was indicated using an
74
external digital voltmeter. In both cases welding current was

measured * 0.1 A and arc voltage * 0.1 V. Calibration of the welding
current meters was checked with a dummy resistive load using an
accurate current shunt and digital multimeter.
For observation of metal transfer phenomena, arc voltage readings were

captured using a transient recorder and displayed on a dual beam
oscilloscope. Permanent records were obtainable using the transient
recorder linked to an ultra violet oscillograph. A view of the
instrumentation used is given in Figure 3.10.
3.1.8 Metallographic Equipment
After sectioning on a bandsaw, specimens were prepared using rotating

silicon carbide grit papers, progressing to diamond polishing wheels
using 1 j..Im polish. A solution of 2% nital (nitric acid in alcohol)
was used as the etchant.
3.1.9 Weld Bead Measurement
Weld bead dimensions (width, height, penetration, fusion and rein-

forcement area) were determined from magnified trac ings made wi th a
projection microscope. Measurements of linear dimensions and area
were then taken using a SAC sonic digi tiser linked to a BBC micro-
computer system. Several readings were taken and an average
calculated for each dimension.
3.2 MATERIALS
3.2.1
All narrow gap welding was carried out using Murex Bostrand LWl wire
of 1.2 mm nominal diameter. Two wire types were chosen for comparison
75
as a suitable pipe welding consumable with pulsed current MIG welding.

These were Thyssen K5 Ni (MOD) and Linde Hi84, both of 1.2 mm and
0.9 mm nominal diameters.
Designations and specifications of all these wires are liven in Tables

3.1, 3.2 and 3.3.
3.2.2 Plate Material
C-Mn steel conforming to BS 4360 grade 500 was used throughout. For
bead-on-plate welding, root welding trials and H-V narrow gap welding
25 mm thick plate was used. Plate of 13 mm was used for complete pipe
weld simulations.
3.2.3 Shielding Gases
The following shielding gases (all supplied by BOC) were used:-
Ar5%CO z special gas mix containing no residual oxygen
Argoshield 5 commercial mix of Ar5%CO l with a varying

residual oxygen content (up to - 2%)
Ar20%CO z special gas mix containing no residual oxygen
Arl%Ol commercial mix
Helishield 1 commercial mix of 85% He, 13% Ar, 1.5% COl'
Gas flow was regulated and monitored by means of a tapered tube and
and float device.
76
® ®
r igure ~. 'I M) OO power supply _

77
I ig ure 3 . 2 M4 50 PS power supply.

78
c::r>
c
.~
U
.--I
Q)
~
0.
co
c::r>
~
o
""
c""
co
>I
:c
""o
4-
.c.
u
""o
....,
N
.--
(j')
Q.l
.c.
-i-l
c::r>
C
.~
Cl)
:J
79
i CJurc 3 . 4 ~, l l' I' OW CJilp wC' I cl i 1lC] 1 0 ITll - J)l' ~ i Ci f) 1\ .

80
......- ••ctrode
copper tube ...
carrying welding
ent "... shie lding
c:r .- "'~.... gas tubes
,
~Tufnol"
j blocks
r-~~ __~~__~__- L____~L-~~~
....----4-4---4-4-- alumina
coating
) [J
figure 3.5 Narrow gap welding torch - Design B.

B1
roiL.
D 5/8" shielding
gas tubes
)
[J ~
figure 3.6 Narrow gap welding torch - Design C.

82
I igu re 3 . 7 Narrow gap welding r orc h - Design D.

83
r igure 3 . 8 Narrow gap welding arch - Design

84
I
-. ~
o
4J
co
.-t
::::l
..,
.Q.
C
co
E
CJ'l
.C..,
'0
.-t
Q.l
~
\I-
o
~
.Q.l..,
>
85
Figure 3 . 10 Vi ew or instrumentation .
86
MUREX 'SOSTRANO' LW1

complies with BS 2901: PART 1: 1970: A18.
Chemical analysis of wire(\) as specified by SS 2091:
C Mn Si S P
0.12 max 0.90 - 1.60 0.70 - 1. 20 0.040 max 0.040 max
Typical all-weld metal chemical analysis (%) :
C Mn Si S P
Argoshield 20 0.08 1.2 0.7 0.02 0.02
Argoshield 5 0.07 1.3 0.8 0.02 0.02
Table 3.1 MUREX 'BOSTRAND' LWl specification.
Union Carbide Linde Hi84
AWS specification A5.28-79

class ER 805-02
Typical all-weld metal chemical analysis (%):
C Mn Si s p Mo Cr Ni T1 Zr
0.12 1.80 0.60 0.025 0.025 0.50 0.08 0.15 0.0015 0.002
Table 3.2 Union Carbide Linde H184 specif1cation.

87
Thyssen K5 Ni (MOD)
actual wire analysis:
c Si Mn Ni P S
0.12 0.75 1.36 1.34 0.00 0.010
Table 3.3 Thyssen K5 Ni (MOD) wire analysis.

88
4. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
The objective of the experimental programme has been the application

of the pulse MIG welding process to two problems of current intprest.
These are the production of single-sided girth welds for linepipe and
narrow gap MIG welding. Conventional MIG weldine techniques have
proved to have limitations in both these applications and it was hoped
that the use of a solid-state power supply would offer improved
versatility and fusion characteristics.
The ini tial stage of the work presented covers the more fundamental
aspects of the process. This involved the determination of pulse
parameters and the selection of wires and shielding gases. A
programme of bead-an-plate welding then followed to examine basic
fusion characteristics. Three welding positions were investigated:
flat, overhead and vertical.
Resul ts of the initial investigations were appl ied to the producti on

of root welds, complete pipe welds and the feasibility of narrow gap
MIG welding (flat and horizontal-vertical positions). Clearly, a
proportion of the application work is of a qualitative nature, but
does serve to indicate the route for further process development work.
A schematic diagram of the experimental programme is given in Figure
4.1.
4.1 METAL TRANSFER A~D ARC STABILITY
In order to use a pulsed current power supply with a iiven combination

of wire/shielding gas, it is first necessary to establish sui table
pulse parameters which will give a stable arc and controlled metal
transfer over a range of mean currents. This information may
subsequently be used to define an algorithm for the selection of pulse
parameters to match precisely any wirefeed speed.
89
All experiments were done in the flat position, bead-on-plate. Test

plates were 250 mm x 50 mm x 25 mm, with a machined top surface. A
constant stand-off of 20 mm between the end of the contact tube and
plate surface was used, along with a constant nominal arc length of
5 mm. This was monitored and controlled by using the previously
mentioned lens system and calibrated screen. For all shielding gases
a constant flow rate of 20 l/minute was used.
4.1.1 Variables
For each combination of wire type and shielding gas, the variables
examined were:
Peak current (I p )'
Peak duration (Tp),
Wirefeed speed (W).
Background conditions, current (Ib) and duration (Tb) are known to

have little effect on metal transfer. However, they do influence arc
stability [24]. It is known that Ib should generally be greater than
20 A and Tb less than 30 ms. It may be noted that using extended
background durations (> 30 ms) causes a stroboscopic effect which can
be most uncomfortable for the operator, and those in the vicinity of
the welding operation.
4.1.2 Experimental Procedure
Droplet detachments were analysed by using a transient recorder/

oscilloscope system to monitor arc voltage fluctuations. Constant
background conditions of 50 A at 10 ms were used with 1.2 am wires and
35 A at 10 ms for 0.9 mm wires. Peak parameters were then changed in
the ranges 400 A > Ip > 250 A and 10 ms > Tp > 2 ms for the 1.2 mm
wires. With 0.9 mm wires the ranges 350 A > Ip 200 A and 10 ms > Tp >
2 ms were used. With each change of Ip or Tp the wirefeed speed was
90
adjusted to give a constant arc length of 5 mm. Notes were made of

the number of detachments per pulse, the mean current, arc voltage and
wirefeed speed for each combination of Ip and Tp. The exercise was
repeated for all wires and shielding gases.
4.2 COMPARISON OF WIRE TYPE/DIAMETER/SHIELDI~G GAS
Since there are a large number of permutations of the above variables.

a choice needs to be made of a wire and shielding gas which may be
deemed optimum. This is to reduce the subsequent experimentation to a
manageable level. The choice was made in terms of bead appearance,
fusion characteristics and operational considerations.
Using a constant mean current of 150 A at a travel speed of 3 mmls a

bead was deposited with each wire type/diameter/shielding gas. These
welding conditions were chosen as being in the central region of the
chart shown in Figure 2.12 representing general fusion
characteristics. This avoided all extremes of behaviour, so allowing
a good comparison of consumable combinations. During welding, notes
were made of arc stability, spatter levels, silicate formation and
bead appearance. Subsequently, each bead was sectioned. polished and
etched to reveal the fused boundary.
4.3 BEAD-ON-PLATE FUSIO~ CHARACTERISTICS
In an attempt to quantify bead-on-p1ate fusion behaviour and make a

comparison with previous work [51], a series of bead-on-p1ate weld
runs were done. From the results of the work described in section
4.2, 1.2 mm Linde Hi84 wire was used, with Ar5%CO z as the shielding
gas. The reasons for this choice are given in the 'Results and
Discussion' section.
91
Test plates were 250 mm x 50 mm x 25 mm with a machined top surface,

these were degreased with acetone immediately prior to use. A single
plate was used for each run to ensure that any pre-heating effects
were eliminated.
Weld beads were deposited using mean currents in the range 80 - 200 A
and travel speeds between 1 - 18 mm/so The test plates were
subsequently sectioned, polished and etched to reveal the fused
boundary. Bead dimensions were then measured using the sonic
digi tiser.
This procedure was repeated in the flat, vertical and overhead

position.
4.4 ALL POSITIONAL ROOT WELDING
The success of a pipe welding procedure will depend critically on the

ability to perform the root pass. This will be dependent on the joint
geometry as well as the welding parameters.
Four main possibilites exist for the weld preparation. These are:
(i) internal root pass,
(il) use of a copper backing strip,
(iii) free backface with an open root,
(iv) free backface with a closed root.
It is considered that these are listed in more or less increasing

technicial difficulty. Of all these possibilites, the most desirable
in terms of ease of fit-up, handling, etc. is the closed butt joint.
For this reason, it was decided to investigate the closed root, and
only to revert to the other configurations if it proved difficult to
achieve consistent self-supporting underbeads in all positions.
The root geometry chosen is shown in Figure 4.2.

92
4.5 COMPLETE PIPE JOINT WELDING
As an additional aspect to the programme, it was thouKht of interest

to examine the productivity and fusion behaviour of the pulsed current
MIG welding process when completing a full pipe joint. This involvpd
the root, filling and capping runs. Productivity could be assessed by
comparing the results obtained with data already available for the
short-circui t, CO z ' welding technique currently employed for orbita 1
pipe welding [68].
After completion of the root weldin~ trials, a short pro~ramme was

undertaken to investigate techniques for making a complete weld in the
5G position. This included investigation of welding current, travel
speed and torch weave parameters. Full width weaving was used for all
passes except the root. Following initial trials and results from the
root welding programme, the joint geometry shown in Figure 4.2 was
used.
4.6 XARROW GAP WELDI~G
Flat position experiments were initiated on the basis of the torch

design and welding parameters arising from the literature survey. It
was soon apparent that procedural development was closely linked to
the torch design. This influenced minimum groove width. maximum
groove width without a weave technique. intermittent arcing to the
sidewalls, gas shielding and the occurence of porosity. Clearly, a
coherent programme of experimental work could not be undertaken with
the torch introducing unpredictable and unwanted effects. Hence, a
substantial period of time was devoted to building a suitable narrow
gap welding torch. The development of torch design is given in the
'Results and Discussion' section. Wi th the finalised deSign experi-
ments were confined to grooves equal to, or greater than. 12 mm in
width.
93
Specimens were fabricated from C-Mn steel 25 mm )( 50 mm )( 300 mm,

arranged as shown in Figure 4.3. Further welds were aade using thick
section steel, typically 100 mm x 100 mm )( 300 mm. Parallel sided
grooves were used for all investigations. Restraint was supplied by
welding such sections onto suitable 'strongbacks'. also shown 1n
Figure 4.3.
Interpass temperature was monitored by a thermocouple, capacitor

discharge welded into a 1 cm deep hole midway along the base of each
specimen. This was always maintained below 150'C to eliminate plate
temperature affecting fusion behaviour. The weld head was manua ll~'
centred in the groove, with small adjustments to lateral position
occasionally being made during a weld run. A constant electrical
stickout of 15 mm was maintained, along with a nominal arc length of
5 mm. Sections were subsequently cut, polished and etched for
examination of fusion characteristics.
4.6.1 Shielding Gas
Trials were made using a 12 mm groove width with .Ar5\C0 1 and

Helishield 1. A flow rate of 30 l/min was used in both cases.
4.6.2 Choice of Pulse Parameters
Peak pulse parameters were based on the metal transfer trials

described previously. Other parameters were chosen using the method
given in the 'Results and Discussion' section, defining the complete
pulse structure and wirefeed rate for a range of mean currents.
4.6.3 Flat Position Welding With No Torch Oscillation
Welds were made using fabricated specimens, with the narrowest groove
allowable (12 mm) by the present welding torch. No weave was
employed, i. e. a straight wire fed centrally into the groove. Mean
94
currents in the range 150 - 250 A and travel speeds of 2 - 5 mm/s were
investigated.
4.6.4 Flat Postion Welding with Torch Oscillation
In order to accommodate torch movements, the gap width was increased

to 15 mm. The Cranfield weave system limited frequency to
approximately 1 Hz, while widths of upto * 1.5 mm were used. The mp-an
currents used were between 200 - 250 A at travel speeds of 1 - 3 mm/so
4.6.5 Initial Horizontal-Vertical Welding
A systematic examination of fusion characteristics was undertaken in

the H-V position using 12 mm groove, fabricated specimens. Mean
current was varied between 110 - 220 A with travel speeds of 2-8 mm/so
The influence of weaving on bead shape was also examined at this

stage. Experiments started from a successful downhand condition (220 A
at 1.5 mm/s). A variety of weaving techniques were employed, e.g.
longer dwell times on the top face, asymmetric torch angles, etc.
Since no successful conditions were indentified by the above approach,

mathematical modelling considerations were introduced. This was an
attempt to gain a broader understanding of the significance of
experimental variables. The results gave rise to the series of
experiments described below.
4.6.6 Final Horizontal-Vertical Welding
Modelling considerations indicated that groove widths of less than 10

mm would need investigation. Since the narrow gap torch used so far
would not fit into grooves of less than 12 mm, a new approach was
needed.
9S
Specimens were fabricated from 25 mm thick C-Mn steel. which enabled

welding to be done using a standard welding torch. Utilising a
machined down contact tip, welding could be done in any desired groove
width (subject to a lower limit of about 5 mm), see Figure 4.4.
Groove widths of 6 mm. 8 mm and 10 mm were investigated. was

It
thought that grooves narrower than 6 mm would prove impractical. due
to the problems of manufacturing a torch to operate in such a groove.
Mean currents in the ranee 200 - 300 A were used wJth tra-vel spepds
between 2 - 10 mm/so
96
1
..--e;- f
~
Cl)
.
E
E
co
'Q""
0"
'""
Q.
......
co
.<-J
C
Cl)
E
......
r...
Cl)
Q.
X
Cl)
l.-
Q
E
co
'""
0"
co
......
u
~
u
......
!
J .<-J
co
T ~
E
Cl)
u
tJ')
-
97
drawings not to scale
25mm
1 mm
r igurE' 4.2 Joint geometry - root welding trial.
13 mm
Figure 4.3 Joint geometry - complete pipe weld.

98
. 18
-
DiMensions in mm
NIt to scale
so
r
weld
(
•
so -
100
•
100
I I
I
I
\
- strongback
L backing bar
Figure 4.4 Joint geometry - narrow gap welding.
99
- 2S 1'11'1
•
reduced diameter
contact tUbe.J
J:
_____.I1=J--
machined surfaces - - - «
r--...;).,.------l
SOmm
rigure 4.5 Joint geometry - H-V narrow gap welding.

100
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 METAL TRANSFER AND WIRE DEPOSITION
5.1.1 Metal Transfer
It is generally accepted that pulse current MJG weldine requj res one
drop of metal to detach per pulse. For maximum stabil! ty the drop
should detach at the trailing edge of the pulse. Having only a single
drop detaching per pulse also aids arc stability as it minimises
energy expended during the peak. When two or more transfers occur per
pulse the process is less controlled and usually accompanied by fine
spatter and excess fume. This reduction in control may be attributed
to:
(i) Fundamental differences that may exist between the first

and subsequent drops. The first drop is of a projected
type, while the second is generally stream spray [19].
(ii) To minimise spatter droplets are best transferred across

the arc during the background period, hence they must
detach at the end of the current pulse. This minimises
droplet acceleration and superheating effects.
(iii) The first drop may be of a somewhat lower temperature [19)

which could contribute to the minimal amount of fume assoc-
iated with the process.
The parametric zones for combinations of Ip and Tp which give one

drop/pulse, have been plotted for each combination of shielding gas!
wire type/wire diameter. These plots are shown in Figures 5.1 - 5.6.
Using this data, pulse parameters which detached metal droplets at the
trail ing edge of the pul se were chosen. It can be seen that there is
no major difference in these curves for each shielding gas, with the
exception of Helishield 1. With this gas the arc was stable over a
much narrower range of peak parameters. Stabil i ty was onl y observed
with Jp > 360 A with insufficient data to plot a meaningful Ip v. Tp
chart. For 1.2 mm diameter wires a droplet detachment parameter (D)
of 545 A'l. s was established, while for 0.9 mm wires a value of 360
A'l.s was obtained. (Droplet detachment parameter: Ip'l·T p .)
101
5.1. 2 Wire Deposition Characteristics
Burnoff data for the used range of pulse parameters is given in

Figures 5.7 - 5.23. It may be noted that, again, no major effect was
caused by the shielding gas. This is in agreement wi th previous
reports [20, 125]. The graphs show a substantially linear
relationship between wirefeed speed and mean current. which can be
expressed in the form:
W = 0:.1, (5.1)
where W wirefeed speed.
0: = constant,
I = mean current.
The actual value of <X for each wire used is given in Table 5.1; the
differences in these values for 1.2 mm wires was considered to be
caused by variations in the actual wire diameters. Although the wires
were marketed as nominally 1.2 mm diameter. the measured diameters
varied from 1.13 mm to 1.26 mm, as detailed in Table 5.1. This
variation would result in a change in electrical resistance of some
20%. a value which correlates with a 23% change in ~. It can be noted
that the 0.9 mm wires (actual diameter 0.89 mm) showed only a 5\
variation in the value of <X, which can be attributed to changes in
resistivity.
5.1.3 Discussion
The data presented here shows no great deviation from previous reports
of C-Mn steel wires in argon rich shielding gases. It can be noted
that the plots of Ip v. Tp representing the transfer of one drop per
pulse may be open to a degree of interpretation. This is due to the
method used to determine when detachment occurred (arc voltage fluctu-
ations captured using a transient recorder/oscilloscope). However. in
combination with visual observations and assessment of arc stabil1 ty
102
this lIethod was considered more than adequate for practical welding
considerations. In general terms, with Ip > - 1.4 tilles the spray
transi tion current and Tp > - 3 ms, a wide range of atable arc ing
conditions are possible. Using such a 'rule of thumb' would allow a
pulse current MIG welding power supply to be quickly re-programmed for
different materials. This approach would clearly not give the optimum
pulse conditions but would serve as a very useful initial baseline
from which to work. A more quantitative approach is given below.
Having established pulse parameters to give a single detachment per

pulse, it is possible to combine this data with wire burnoff data to
give a system for the calculation of the complete pulse structure.
These simple arithmetic rules will give precise control of metal
transfer over a wide range of mean current levels [20].
As shown previously, wirefeed rate is approximately linearly related

to mean current, i.e.:
W • ex. I.
The volume of metal transferred per detachment (0) is:
W.a
o= Fd (5.2)
where a wire cross-sectional area,

Fd = detachment frequency.
However, since pulse parameters have been chosen to give a single

detachment per pulse, the droplet volume may be precisely controlled
by pulse frequency (F):
o = a.a.I (5.3)
F
For 'spray like' transfers (a spherical droplet with a diameter equal

to the wire diameter). this gives a simple F I} relation to calculate
the required pulse frequency for any mean current. From the
103
experimental results the following values were obtained:
1. 2 mm wire Fir 60 Hz/100 A
0.9 mm wire Fir ~ 70 Hz/100 A.
These figures were derived as follows:
e.g. 1.2 mm wire
o 0.9 mm'
« = 3.0 m/min/100 A
therefore
W 0.5 mm/s/A
W.a
F = -0-
F 50 x 1.13
- =
0.9
I
F/l = 60 Hz/100 A.
A similar exercise may be performed for 0.9 mm wires.
The above figure of 70 Hz/100 A for 0.9 mm wire gives a droplet dia-
meter of 1.2 mm and not 0.9 mm. This was done because with a droplet
diameter of 0.9 mm. impractically short background durations would be
indicated (F II would be 154 Hz/100 A. giving a very limited usable
current range). It is also known that projected spray droplets are
1.1 - 1.2 mm in diameter regardless of the wire size [2].
Using the above experimental values for F/i. « and D. it is a simple

exercise to define the complete pulse structure. The method used is
similar to that given by Allum and Quintino [20]. giving controlled
droplet transfer for all mean currents. This approach is documented
104
in Appendix A. along with a simple computer program to aid selection

of pulse parameters.
Consideration of the wire burnoff curves. Figures 5.7 - 5.23. gives

the reason for the choice of this selection method. as opposed to th~
other 'synergic' relations. It can be seen that at a given value of

mean current, the peak current can inf luence the burnoff rate. This
effect was not so easily observed with 1.2 mm wires but can be signif-
icant with 0.9 mm and smaller wires. Increases in wire deposition of
up to 20% were observed by using higher values of peak current. This
effect was caused by resistive heating of the wire extension, giving
the strong dependence on current as ohmic heating is proportional to
the square of the current (llRt). The effect was also more pronounced
wi th reduced wire diameters due to the increase in resistance.
Although the wirefeed/current relation, W = <XI, given previously
implies that these resistive heating effects are negligible, as has
been shown, they can be significant. However, with fixed peak
parameters and pulse frequency proportional to mean current, such
resistive heating effects are also directly portional to mean current
[51]. Hence a linear wirefeed/mean current relation is expected.
From these considerations, it may be seen that if the value of peak

current is changed for a given mean current, there will be a non-
linear wirefeed/current relationship. Also, i f the peak duration is
fixed (as in type I control systems, see Section 2.1.2) metal transfer
characteristics become uncontrolled since the detachment parameter, D.
is then continually changing.
5.2 BEAD-ON-PLATE FUSION BEHAVIOUR
5.2.1 Comparison of Wire Type/Diameter/Shielding Gas
This piece of experimental work was primarily undertaken to compare

the Linde and Thyssen wires, to enable a selection to be made for the
root welding trials. Deposition characteristics of LWl have been
105
documented previously [20]. Typical bead profiles are shown in Figur~
5.24. Results are essentially qualitative, with subjective views

regarding bead appearance, arc running behaviour, etc.
In general, the Linde Hi84 wires provided smoother bead surfaces and
better arc stabil ity than the Thyssen wires. This was observed with
both diameters and all shielding gases. However, in terms of fusion
there was 11 ttle to choose between the two wire types, except when
using Helishield 1 as the shielding gas.
Ar5%CO z gave smooth transfer with both wire types, with almost a com-
plete lack of spatter and silicate formation at the weld bead edges.
Fume levels were minimal. Fusion characteristics were considered
good, although it should be noted that the recorded differences are
small and therefore difficult to quantify.
Results obtained with Argoshield 5 were almost identical to those with

Ar5%CO z . However, there was an adverse effect on arc stabi 1 i ty,
together with increased spatter although these effects were minimal.
Silicate levels at the bead edges were increased.
Ar20%CO z caused metal transfer to become intermittently globular,

while significant amounts of silicates were formed along the bead
edges. Silicate slag 'islands' were also formed along the top of the
weld bead, spatter levels, too, were noted to increase. Plate fusion
was generally thought to be better than Ar5%CO z ' with a slight
increase in plate fusion at the bead edges. This gave a more 'bowl'
shaped fusion profile. The fusion differences were not great and must
be considered alongside the somewhat uncontrolled nature of the arc.
Arl%Oz resulted in stable metal transfer and arc characteristics, with

an extremely smooth bead appearance. The same result was obtained
.i th both wire types. However, wi th the lower arc ener2'Y associated
with this gas, fusion at the bead edges was marginal.
The Thyssen wires of both diameters proved to be slightly unstable in

Helishield 1, while the Linde Hi84 wires ran very smoothl y giving
106
excellent bead appearance. Note from Figure 5.24 the vastly different
fusion characteristics of the two wires. with the Thyssen wires
showing a complete lack of 'finger' penetration. Puae levels were
higher than with the argon based gases and the plate adjacent to the
weld bead was covered 1n a brown. sooty deposit. This was easily
brushed off but could prove inconvenient 1n a jojnt preparation and
uncomfortable for operators. Very fine spatter was observed from the
molten wire tip. which was always expelled to the same side of the
weld bead.
Considering all factors (these will be discussed later) 1.2 mm Linde

Hi84 was selected as the wire for further work. Ar5%CO z was chosen
for the shielding gas.
5.2.2 Bead-on-Plate Fusion Characteristics
Previous work has been done to indicate the basic fusion behaviour of
the pulse current MIG welding process [20]. This programme provided a
comparison with those results and also gives an examination of fusion
characteristics in the vertical and overhead positions. All beads
were deposited using Linde Hi84 1.2 mm wire in an Ar5%CO z gas shield.
Trends in behaviour are thought to be general and transferable to
other materials/gases by changes in the appropriate physical constants
[20]. hence results obtained with this wire should be extremely close
to the other wires chosen for this work (only minor variations existed
in composition).
Variables expected to influence bead geometry were heat input and its
structure, and the pulse structure. These are investigated in the
following sections. (The major geometric aspects of a MIG weld bead
being considered are shown in Figure 5.25.)
107
5.2.2.1 Influence of pulse structure
Three weld beads were deposited using a constant detachment para-

meter of 570 A'.s. at a mean current of 150 A and a travel speed
of 3 mm/s. Bead dimensions are given in Table 5.2 where it may be
seen that although a variation in peak current of over 100 A
exists. bead dimensions were virtually unaffected.
5.2.2.2 The effect of the structure of heat input
Figures 5.26 and 5.27 show heat input plotted against total weld
bead area for the flat and overhead positions. Heat input is
represented as Ilv and not as I,V/ v as is usually quoted. Voltage
is known to have only a small effect on deposition [20] and.
therefore. assumed to be effectively a constant.
The plots show a substantially linear relationship between heat

input and total weld bead area. Insufficient data was available
to enable a meaningful curve to be plotted for the vertical
posi tion.
Figures 5.28 and 5.29 show depth of penetration obtained with

variations in heat input for the flat and overhead positions. In
this case results are plotted as depth against welding speed with
curves being drawn at various mean currents. In the flat pos-
i tion it can be Been that penetration is at a maximum at an
approximate speed of 2 mmls at all current levels. Visual observ-
ations indicated that this was a point of transition. Below this
critical speed the arc acts on the weld pool, above this speed the
arc impinges directly on the plate. Curves are sillilar in the
overhead position except that weld pool instabilities prevented
speeds lower than 3 •• /s from being investigated. This
corresponds to a .aximum heat input in the region of 1.25 kJ/mm.
Previous work [20] has used modelling considerations to show a

relationship between dilution levels and the product of mean
current and welding speed (I.v), in the flat position. Figures
108
5.30-5.32 show data plotted in the flat, overhead and vertical-up

positions. These plots are in good correlation with those publish-
ed previously [20], with dilution reaching a aaxiaua ot 45 - 50%
in all posi Hons at values of I. v around 1000 A _/a. Note that
there is no significant change in behaviour with the different
welding positions.
5.2.3 Discussion
The choice of a wire type and shielding gas will depend on severa 1
factors which may often be conflicting, therefore making a choice will
be a compromise. This part of the work did not attempt to quantify
accurately all aspects of shielding gases/wire combinations, but to
give a general overview of how a choice should be made and the points
to consider. Clearly, there is much scope for detailed examination of
the effects of shielding gas and wire composition with respect to
pulsed current MIG welding.
No significant differences in fusion behaviour were noted when chang-

ing wire/shielding gas. Arl%Ol gave slightly inferior plate fusion
compared to ArCO l mixtures. This may be accounted for in terms of the
lower thermal conductivity of this gas mixture. Work by Quigley [126]
has determined that the rate of energy transfer from the arc is gov-
erned by the thermal conductivity of the shielding gas. Carbon di-
oxide is dissociated in the arc with the result that thermal conduct-
ivity becomes strongly temperature dependent. TherJIal conductivity
(and energy transfer) therefore increases with COl content, giving
iaproved plate fusion. Clearly, arc stability is also an important
factor with stability decreasing with COl content, so that a com-
promise mixture is required. As Figure 5.24 shows, use of Helishield
1 resulted in auch wider beads and also a lack of finger penetration.
An increase in bead width can be expected due to the high column power
associated with helium shields. Resulting arc voltagea are of the
order of 30 - 33 V (compared with 20 - 25 V for argon rich mixtures).
The lack of finger penetration was attributed to the highly unstable
operation of certain wires in this gas. It should be noted that this
109
gas was never marketed for use with C-Mn wires but for conventional
stainless steel MIG welding.
Arc running behaviour and bead appearance also need to be considered

alongside fusion characteristics. From this point of view. Arl%Oz
gave a very stable arc wi th a smooth. even weld bead. However. the
lower energy of the arc gives poor fusion characteristics. With
Ar20%CO z ' spatter and fume levels were increased which was associated
with slightly uncontrolled metal transfer. Plate fusion with this gas
was increased. as was slag formation. which was absent wi th Arl\Oz.
From this work. Ar5\CO z is presently considered to be the best choice
for an I all-round I shielding gas for mild steel wires. a recommend-
ation also made by other workers [26. 32]. This gas gave a clean.
penetrating and essentially spatter free arc. Stability was excellent
and allowed accurate control over lIetal transfer. Helishield 1 was
thought to give an arc that was too unstable for general usage.
although there is much scope for development of other He/Ar/COz/O z
mixtures suitable for pulsed MIG welding. As a result of this work. a
supplementary project was undertaken [125] to evaluate commercially
available gas mixtures using the pulse MIG welding process on C-Mn
steels. Improvements in fusion characteristics were claimed by the
use of a He/Ar/CO z mixture, Helishield 101.
The influence of pulse structure on bead dimensions can be examined by

the consideration of bead penetration mechanisms by Allum and Quintino
[20]. The characteristic finger penetration which is usually observed
in MIG welding has been associated with droplet forces [53]. However,
finger penetration can also be observed when there is no metal trans-
fer (TIG and plasma welding). arc pressure alone being responsible for
penetration. The forces exerted by the arc and transferring mass are:
-z
•
IJ Ix
-.::;0_ _
F(arc) 41f (5.4)
(5.5)
110
In pulsed welding it can be shown that these forces are proportional

to mean current, i.e.:
'" D.x
0
F(arc) ---411
(5.6)
and
F(drop) = p.a,Vd· ex . I (5.7)
Estimates of these forces show that total arc force 1s approximately

50 times greater than the droplet force. Additionally, if the arc is
to act directly on the plate then the total arc pressure must be
capable of supporting a head of liquid metal greater than the
reinforcement height. For a semi-circular deposit the critical speed
at which this was shown to occur [53) is given by:
2 ex a (pg)'.!
(5.8)
(2.76!)'
217
= (mm/s)
I
Therefore the speed at which the arc acts directly onto the plate is 1
mm/s at 200 A and 3 mm/s at 70 A. This is in good agreement with the
data presented in Figure 5.28, which shows a penetration maxjmum in
the region 1.5 - 2 mm/s. Visual observations of the arc/weld pool
also substantiated this conclusion, see Section 5.2.2. The resul ts
further support the suggestion that arc forces are dominant in plate
melting, with finger type penetration being likely at speeds greater
than vc'
The above expressions show that mean current is the controlling factor
determining penetration (at a given speed). The structure of mean
current has little influence, with arc pressure being mainly
responsible for pool depression (F(arc) is proportional to detachment
parameter D). Experimental data (Table 5.2) confirms this, showing
111
little change in bead dimensions even though peak current has changed
by over 100 A. Smati a] so reports that pulse parameters have no
effect on fusion characteristics in pulsed MIG weldin&, but &'ives no
explanation as to why this was so [26].
Choice of peak parameters may therefore be used to influence

deposition behaviour while having effect little
on fusion
characteristics. Experimental data has shown burnoff may be increased
by the choice of higher peak currents, with increases of the order of
20% being obtainable with 0.9 mm wires. For surfacing applications it
may be desirable to maximise deposition by selecting a high peak
current. For orbital welding it is possible to vary deposition
continuously depending on position, while maintaining plate fusion
characteristics.
As the given results show, fusion characteristics are mainly

influenced by mean current, travel speed and shielding gas
composi tion. Finger-type penetration was generally observed, with a
degree of secondary penetration at the bead edges. Clearly, a large
amount of work needs to be done to quantify the effects of the major
process variables on all these characteristics. It was the purpose
of this work to concentrate on the more general and fundamental trends
of fusion behaviour.
In an attempt to generalise fusion characterisUcs of the process,

dilution (0) was used as a measure of fusion. 0 1s given by:
A
o P (5.9)
where Ap = plate fused cross-sectional area
Ad = deposited bead cross-sectional area.
Previous published work [51] used simple conduction .odelling, on

thick plate, to show that 6 is a function of Lv. Experimental data
substantiated this relationship, and it 1s confirmed by the data
presented here in Figures 5.30 - 5.32. Welding position caused no
112
significant differences in fusion characteristics. This would bp

expected, as for a given mean current and travel speed the total plate
heating and the amount of wire deposi ted is constant. The welding
position is therefore irrelevant to fundamental fusion character-
istics. The deposited bead shape wi 11, of course, be determined by
2ravitational forces as will the maximum size of deposit which may be
supported. Hence, the followin2 analyses may be applied to any
welding position (up to the point where pool instability occurs).
As Figures 5.30 - 5.32 show, 6 increases with I.v, eventually reaching

a maximum value (6 m) at high values of I.v. Above this point, plate
fusion becomes a function of heat input. However, below 6m a range of
plate fusion values will exist at any given value of heat input
depending upon its structure. It can be seen that typical positional
manual welding currents and speeds (110 A, 4 mm/sI give rise to low
dilution levels of the order of 20%, indicating that lack of fusion
defects may be likely.
The presentation of the data in the form 6 • f(I.v) makes it difficult

to quantify actual fusion areas in terms of welding current and speed.
However, a linear plot is obtained by plotting 1/6 against 1/1.v'
This gives:
1 c
6
= -61 + (5.10)
m I.v
where c z a constant representing the line slope.
Data is presented in this form in Figures 5.33 - 5.35. Linear

regression correlation coefficients of 0.9 to 0.98 were obtained
showing a good straight line fit. Plate fusion behaviour is now
quantified by two constants. In all cases Om was found to be 50~. a
figure matching the theoretical prediction of [:51]. It can be seen
that the value of c for the vertical-up position differs quite
markedly from the flat and overhead positions, although the intercept
113
is the same, Figures 5.33 - 5.35. However, examination of 6 as a

function of I.v, Figures 5.30 - 5.32, shows that the vertical-up data
does fall well within the values obtained in the flat and overhead
positions. The lack of a better correlation can be attributed to the
small number of results and no points being obtained at low values of
1. v (usually associated with high heat inputs), due to weld pool
instabilities. Figures 5.36 - 5.38 show the data of Figures 5.33 -
5.35 fitted to the above straight line relation.
Rearranging the dilution relationship gives:
(5.11)
W.a
since Ad = -v- (5.12)
0:. la
=-- (5.13)
v
This gives
~.a[i/J
Ap (5.14)
[~m
c
- 1] + --
Lv
Examining behaviour at high and low values of I.v shows:
6
-
O:.a
m I
Ap -+ 1-6 v
as I.v -+ = (i.e., 6 - 6 ) (5.15)
m
m
- -z
o:.a.1
Ap -+ as I.v -+ 0 (i.e, 6
m
> 6) (5.16)
C
Hence, when I.v is large, as is the case in mechanised applications,

plate fusion is governed by heat input. At low values of I.v (manual
welding) plate fusion is strongly influenced by mean current with
114
welding speed having a lesser effect. The above expression for Ap can
be used practically to chose plate fusion areas and deposi ted areas
directly from welding current and speed. From experimental resul ts
the following values were obtained (1.2 mm wire in Ar5%CO z ):
c 515 A.mm/s
~ = 3.0 m/min/100 A
a = 1.13 mm 2
Z
0.566 i z
A mm (5.17)
P I. v+515
This enables I to be determined as a function of v for a given fusion

area, this is presented in Figure 5.39. Also plotted is data for
deposited areas. It is then a simple matter to select welding
conditions from the intersection of the required deposition and plate
fusion lines. These characteristics have been shown to be dependent
on shielding gas, om approaching 60% in a helium rich gas [51].
Clearly, the wire diameter influences the value of «, and therefore om

will increase with wire diameter. Actual measured areas are plotted
against welding current and speed, along with values of Ap predicted
by the above expression, see Figure 5.40. As can be seen, correlation
is more than adequate for most practical welding purposes.
It is thought that this representation of general fusion behaviour 1s

of more direct practical value than the representation given by Allum
and Quintino [51], see Figure 2.12. However it can be used in
combination with such a chart as the data presented here does not give
any other bead characteristics. Fusion and deposi t areas can be
calculated from three constants (ex, c, om>' which are characteristic
of any given wire material and shielding gas. A possible practical
application of this data would be the calculation of welding
115
parameters for a given fillet weld size. If If is the fillet leg

length, then:
z
If
Ad = 2 (5.18)
2
I 'f
and (5.19)
v
20:.a
By using Figure 5.39. values of welding current and travel speed may
be read off directly which will give the required weld size and a
choice of plate fusion areas.
The results presented show that if the likelihood of fusion defects is

to be minimized (i .e., () is high) high currents and welding speeds
need to be used. This indicates that the process may be more sui ted
to mechanised applications. In typical manual welding situations
dilution is 10 - 20%, therefor extreme care needs to be taken by the
operator to avoid lack of fusion (remembering that below 1.5 - 2 mm/s
the arc begins to act on the surface of the mol ten weld pool). In
these cases, fusion is dominated by current, which therefore needs to
be maintained at a high level. This is, of course, subject to limit-
ations of posi tion and operator control of the weld pool. The choice
of welding parameters can also be based on metallurgical requirements,
e.g. proportion of reheated weld metal. This is particularly import-
ant in terms of weld metal toughness and reheat cracking of certain
steels. From a given level of heat input (l/v) and therefore heat
affected zone size, plate fusion area and deposit area may be chosen
to optimise the percentage of reheated weld metal. Improvements in
fusion characteristics may also be possible by future development work
on the application of pulsed current operation with flux and metal
cored wires.
116
5.3 APPLICATION OF PULSED CURRENT MIG WELDING TO A LINEPIPE

WELD WITH A CLOSED BUTT JOINT
Full penetration closed butt welds wi th controlled stable underbeads

have proved difficult to achieve with conventional MIG and ~~A
welding. Possi be defects are: failure to obtain full penetra ti on,

we Id underbead instabi li ty and, eventually, burnthrough. Therefore
single-sided root welds generally employ a root gap or some form of
weld backing (see Section 2). A single-sided root weld has clear
advantages in terms of productivity, e.g. less preparation time, no
internal root pass, no back-gouging, etc.
An investigation has been carried out to assess the application of the

pulse MIG welding process to this problem. The major part of the work
has been done in the flat position, although a brief examination of
root welding in the vertical-up, vertical-down and overhead positions
was carried out. Results are also presented for a complete weld
(root, fill and capping passes) in 13 mm thick C-Mn steel. in three
welding posi tions. This is essentially an experimental work indic-
ating the influence of welding parameters on fusion behaviour, and
full penetration welds.
5.3.1 Flat Position Root Welding
Due to limitations of time, only a single weld preparation could be

used, see Figure 4.2. This was a 90° included angle wi th a 1 mm nose
and was a root preparation typical of many actual weld preparations
documented (see Section 2). Figure 5.41 shows the tolerance of weld-
ing conditions (mean current and travel speed) for full penetration
welds with a stable underbead. (Figure 5.42(a) shows typical macro-
sections, Figure 5.42(b) weld underbeads.) These conditions may be
represented by:
v ~ 0.04 I - 3 burnthrough, (5.20)
v ;;. 0.06 I - 2 no penetration. (5.21)

117
These empirical relations show that * 20% variations are allowable in

either welding current or travel speed while still retaining a full
penetration, stable weld. However, this gives no indication of vari-
ations that could occur in bead dimensions. Figure 5.43 shows plate
fusion area (Ap), t~tal fusion (At), and underbead areas plotted
against heat input (1/ v), Plate fusion areas were assessed by sub-
tracting the deposit area (Ad) from the measured total fused areas.
It was known that Ad
could be accurately found from Ad • ;Ia/ v .
This method was used to remove any geometric variations that may have
arisen due to joint contraction, variations in joint preparation
angle, etc. This plot shows that weld bead dimensions for full pene-
tration welds are solely determined by heat input (provided that it
exceeds the minimum value necessary to achieve penetration.
Both Figures 5.41 and 5.43 indicate that this is approximately 0.5
kJ/mm.). It was found that
the maximum underbead that could be
supported was approximately 20 mm z , corresponding to heat input values
of - 1.25 kJ/mm.
In thick plate welding, it has been shown that a relationship exists

between dilution and the product of lIean current and welding speed.
However, as may be seen from Figure 5.44, this relationship does not
appear to hold for full penetration welds, dilution being substant-
ially constant at around 55-60% regardless of welding conditions.
5.3.2. Positional Root Welding
Time constraints did not allow all possible combinations of welding

parameters to be investigated. However, basic fusion characteristics
are similar to those observed in flat position welds. The major
difference in behaviour being that pool instabilities occur at higher
values of heat input. This would have the effect of moving the burn-
through line of Figure 5.41 vertically, while the line for no pene-
tration remains substantially the same. Differences in underbead and
face side bead shapes, owing to the action of gravi ty on the weld
pool, were noted. Additionally, it was found to be almost impossible
to obtain full penetration in the vertical down direction (250 A > I >
118
175 A, 13 IImls > v > 6 mm/s). In this case, the arc was always
cushioned by the weld pool which flowed ahead of the arc. Increases
in welding speed (upto 13 mm/s) resulted in the production of
solidification cracks along the centre line of the weld. Sectioning
of these welds showed fusion to be marginal in all cases, and hence
all further vertical welding was carried out in an upward direction.
In terms of bead shape, all vertical welds showed a convex face side
bead and convex underbead. A proportion of overhead welds showed a
flat underbead with a tendancy to give 'suckback' and a concave under-
bead. The front face of these welds was substantially flat. Insuffi-
cient welds were performed to allow the production of a 'tolerance
box' chart to be plotted as was done for flat welding, see Figure 5.41.
However, i t was found that satisfactory vertical-up root welds could
be performed at 150 A between 4 and 8 mmls, welding overhead was
successful at 150 A between 3 and 8 mmls (with a tendancy to give
'suckback' below 5 mm/s).
Although the number of experiments performed in position was not

great, it is felt that sufficient evidence was obtained to indicate
that full penetration root welds can be obtained in all positions.
Typical positional root bead macrosections are shown in Figures
5.45(a), (b) and (c), vertical-down. vertical-up and overhead
positions respectively.
5.3.3 Production of a Complete Pipe Weld: All Positions
A full examination of all interacting process parameters was not the

objective (nor was it possible due to time and equipment limitations)
of this section of the work. A series of complete welds were made in
order to show the fusion characteristics which lIay be expected when
applying the pulse current MIG welding process on an orbital 5G weld.
Welding was carried out in three welding positions (vertical-up,
overhead and flat) on the joint preparation shown in Figure 4.3. It
was hoped to transfer the conditions from these trials to an orbital
119
weld of a 1 m diameter pipe. However, suitable equipment to perform

the weld did not become available.
5.3.3.1 Root weld
Based on the results from Sections 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 a root weJdjne
condition of 150 A at 6 mm/s was chosen as this gave acceptable
underbeads in all positions.
5.3.3.2 Filling and capping welds
Full width weaving was used for both weld runs. Clearly, there is
a direct relationship between weave frequency, lIean current and
travel speed (e.g., high travel speeds require high weave
frequencies and mean currents [55]). Wi th the severe performance
limitations of the weave system avallable (- 1 Hz), successful
welds could only be produced at relatively low mean currents and
travel speeds.
Figures 5.46(a) (b) show complete weld macrosections in the

flat, vertical-up and overhead positions. Figures 5.47 (a) - (e)
show the general surface appearance of these welds. Mean welding
current was 115 A at a travel speed of 1 mm/s in all cases. As
can be seen from the macrosections, fusion characteristics of the
process are excellent, wi th a smooth surface appearance and no
undercutting. During welding, spatter was vi rtually absent and
fume levels were minimal. Welding in the vertical-up direction
proved to be particularly tolerant to surface defects 1n the
previous weld bead. Since the arc was always acting ahead of the
weld pool, it was possi bl e to wel d over any undulations wi thout
the production of fusion defects. Previous Japanese work has also
found the vertical-up technique to have superior fusion
characteristics [63].
120
In terms of productivity. the weld produced here does not compare

favourably with a weld in a comparable thickness produced by
conventional mechanised MIG welding. Results fro. a CRC procedure
[68] give welding currents of the order of 250 A at travel speeds
upto 19 mm/s. welding in the vertical-down direction. However.
five passes were needed (13 mm wall thickness) using an internal
root pass. Weave frequencies of 2.5 Hz were used at a width of
6-8 mm. Taking figures from [68] for the five passes give a total
arc time/lOO mm of 63 s. For the three pass welds produced here.
the arc time/lOO mm is 216 s. Hence. for the three pass technique
to complete the weld in the same arc time. travel speeds need to
be 4 mm/s or greater for the fill and capping passes. This would
require a corresponding increase in mean current and weave
frequency.
5.3.4 DISCUSSION
As can be seen from the results presented. full penetration closed

butt welding is possible with the pulse current MIG welding process.
with good results in all welding positions. The exception to this is
the vertical-down welding technique which produced only marginal
fusion in most cases. The action of gravity on the weld pool prevents
the arc from acting directly onto the joint preparation. and the
technique is as such unsuitable for closed butt root welds. However.
the technique is commonly employed in commercial welding systems since
high welding currents and speeds can be used. Clearly more work needs
to be done with the pulse current MIG welding process in the
vertical-down direction with respect to filling passes. The high
currents and travel speeds possible require rapid. accurate response
from the torch weave system. Discussion of fusion behaviour with full
penetration welds is based primarily on work done in the flat
position. although results are directl y applicable to other welding
positions with suitable limitations on heat input.
As Figure 5.41 shows. there 1s a direct relation between the mean

current required to produce full penetration and welding speed.
121
Clearly, this mean current level must also be related to the effective
thickness of the joint preparation. Mean welding current and plate
thickness are then the dominant variables in determinine full pene-
tration behaviour. An estimate of the minimum current needed to iive
full penetration per mm of thickness can be made fro. Pll'Ure 5.41 by
extrapolating back to the current axis. This gives a rough figure of
50 A/mm, although this value would need to be conf irmed by further
experimentation and will be dependent upon jOint geometry. WHh a
constant joint preparation, as in this work, and mean current levels
above - 50 A/mm, it will be expected that heat input is the only
factor determining fusion characteri sties, see Figure 5.43. Thi s has
also been found by Smati [26], although his report does not give any
bead dimensions or process control tolerances.
Consideration is now given to the practical implications for closed

butt joint full penetration welds. In automated/mechanised welding
systems it is assumed that travel speed. (v), can be very accurately
controlled (* 0.15% [127]). Therefore process tolerances are linked
only to the ability of the power supply to give a constant output.
Taking a mean current value of 150 A at a travel speed of 6 mm/s as an
example. would give an acceptable underbead shape some 2 mm l in cross-
sectional area (from Figure 5.43). Allowable variations of * 1 mm l
are then imposed, giving a tolerance on mean welding current of * 10 A
or * 6%. This imposes high control requirements on the power suppl y,
which shows that a stable, sol id-state power supply must be used.
The above asssessment also assumes perfect fit-up and no joint
preparation machining variations. More work would have to be done to
assess the tolerance to such variations although it is proposed that a
high degree of control over fit-up and lIachining would be necessary.
Against these stringent requirements the advantages of a single sided
root weld; namely. no back-iouging, no backing required, reduced weld
.etal volume, etc., lIust be considered.
Performing a similar procedure for lIanual weldini, travel speed

variations of only 0.5 mm/s are allowed, with
mean a constant
*
current. This is an extremely high tolerance to place on a manual
welder, indicating that mechanised operation is preferable. With some
122
synergic welding power supplies using arc voltage control, the mean
current is changed in response to torch-work distance variations.
This will further reduce the tolerance to variations in welding speed.
Figure 5.44 shows that for full penetration welds, dilution remains
substantial I y constant regardless of the welding paraaeters. Such
behaviour is also shown by the linear relations of total fused area
and plate fused area to heat input, see Figure 5.43. This behaviour
can be explained by consideration of two dimensional heat conduction.
As Figures 5.42 and 5.45 show, heat is being extracted in a linear
manner (as shown by the heat affected zone) and so this approach is
considered applicable.
q' = 8 K T
m5
[1. + Vd]
4«
- Reference [43], (5.22)
1. V
E
where q' '"' - , - (5.23)
q' the line source strength, represented here by

an equivalent plate heating voltage {VEl.
K = plate thermal conductivity,
« = thermal diffusivity,
T plate melting temperature,

m
d = effective bead diameter due to bead truncation

effects .
d may be replaced by plate fusion area (A )

p
A '"' d.l . (5.24)

P
Rearranging the above expressions gives:
A = 15 (5.25)
p
123
ex V
E
where {3 (5.26)
2 K T
m
8 K T
m
and I = R (5.27)
c 5 V
E
-l e is defined here as the critical arc current required to produce any

plate fusion (1 when Ap = 0) and is directly proportional to plate
thickness.
Dilution (0) can now be obtained, since the deposit area (Ad) may be
accurately assessed from deposition data.
ex I a
Ad v
A
0 E
A + Ad
P
Combining the above expressions then gives:
{3 (I - Ic )
0 (5.28)
{3 (I - Ic ) + ex- I
From this relationship it can be seen that dilution behaviour is

solely dependent upon I, f and VE' The critical current lc is
proportional to f, and lc and the factor {3 are dependent upon VE' In
practical full penetration welding I > lc (currents required are a
minimum of M 50 A/mm simply to give full penetration and in this work
they are of the order 150 - 200 A). This gives an essentially
constant value of dilution tending towards a maximum of (3/({3 + ex).
Hence, for a given material dilution behaviour is primarily influenced
by the value of {3, which is determined substantially by the shielding
gas composition. ex, the burn-off factor has been shown to be
essentially independent of shielding gas composition, but may, of
course, be modified by the wire diameter. Fusion behaviour can be
quantified from experimental data of full penetration welds.
124
Assuming I > le:
15 I
A =- v
- (5.29)
P
-
Hence 15 may be obtained from a plot of Ap v. I/v. see Figure 5.43.
From this graph 15 was evaluated to be 0.7 A.s/mml. Knowledge of ~ now
allows the effective plate melting voltage. VE' to be found from the
definition of". Thermodynamic data [128] gives values of ex 5 - 6 I;
l
mm Is for a characteristic temperature between that of the plate and
melting point. and the value of K (at this value of ex) is I; 30 W/m.R.
2 K T 13
V = _-ex-""",m-
E
= 9.5 V.
This value of VE is slightly higher than that observed for bead-on-

plate welds. giving values of 6 - 7 V [51]. Thi s indicates that a
higher proportion of the total process power is being transferrred to
the plate. an observation confirmed by comparison of Figures 5.39 and
5.43. It ean be seen that plate fusion areas are correspondingly
higher for root welding than for bead-on-plate welds wi th the same
heat input. This behaviour is thought to be attributable to a greater
area of the plate being exposed to the arc in a V-preparation (since
it has been shown that plate heating and melting is largely due to arc
heating [51]).
The critical current to cause any plate aelUng (ic) can also be
evaluated.
le
_ 8 K T m=
.. ___
• 5 V
E
125
This gives Ic/ I = 7 A/mm. The mean currents used in this programme
were more than 15 - 20 times this critical level. justifying the
approximation I > Ic' Also. when j > Ic. 0 ~ om. the maximum possible
dilution. which for practical welding currents becomes a constant.
Hence.
13
6
(13 ... ex)
(5.30)
0.7
0.7 + 0.5
6 = 58%
This value is independent of mean current and plate thickness and is

in excellent agreement with the experimental dilution data presented
in Figure 5.44.
An attempt was also made to account for the size of the underbead and
the maximum size which would remain stable in terms of the welding
parameters. However. a correlation could not be obtained wi th the
static balance of forces approach used. This was thought to be due to
this type of model not accounting for flow effects in the weld pool
and indeterminate forces at the solid/liquid interface.
As the results of Section 5.3.3 show. the pulsed current MIG welding
process has proved to have excellent promise as a process for the
production of mechanised linepipe welds. It is appreciated that some
results are limited and more procedure development is needed with
commercial mechanised welding equipment. However. pulsed current MIG
welding has never been reported in this application and it is fel t
that these results present a basis for further work.
It has been shown that reproducible full penetration root welds were
possible in all welding positions. In the flat position. suff ici ent
data was gathered to enable a quantitative assessment of the
tolerances allowable on welding conditions.
126
Vertical and overhead results were limited by time considerations,

because of this results are discussed in a general manner, along with
the results for complete welds. It is considered notable that
vertical-down welding only offered minimal plate fusion and was
incapable of producing full penetration root welds. Most commerc ia 1
systems use this technique. However, a 'buried arc' short circuit
transfer mode is used at relatively high currents and travel speeds,
wi th an internal root run or an open root preparation with a backing
system. Vertical-down welding with the pulse current MIG welding
process may be suited to the filling and capping passes. When welding
downwards, high speeds are possible, improving productivity. Such a
procedure could not be investigated here as the equipment was unable
to give the weave frequencies necessary.
In general. the process gave few operational problems. As Figure 5.46

shows, fusion characteristics are good without the lack of fusion
problems usually associated with the MIG welding process. Fusion
defects are, however. likely to arise if the weld pool is allowed to
run ahead of the arc. This will shield the plate from the direct
action of the arc (which has been shown to be primarily responsible
for plate fusion) and increase the susceptibility to lack-of-fusion
defects. It should be remembered that the MIG welding process will
always have a tendancy to produce poor plate fusion characteristics
when it is considered that heat input is usually low, with an
associated low ratio of heat input to the volume of deposited metal.
An important aspect to consider for future work arising from this

investigation is the effect of shielding gas composition. As the
results presented have shown, fusion characteristics are closely
related to shielding gas composition. This influences the proportion
of process power associated with plate heating and melting, and has
been attributed generally to the thermal conductivity of the shield
gas. Here, this behaviour has been quantified in terms of an
equivalent plate heating voltage, VE' This approach could be adopted
for other gases to allow a comparison to be made and to quantify
fusion characteristics. When assessing shielding gas mixtures,
127
consideration also needs to be given to the arc stability and running

characteristics (spatter levels, fume, etc.)
Of particular interest in a pipe welding application is the metallurg-

ical effects of the process. Dorling and Rothwell reported [71]
improved properties with low oxygen potential shielding gases instead
of the usual CO 2 , However, it was claimed that such gases adversely
affected arc stability with short-circuit transfer. Pulse current MIG
welding now offers stable open-arc operation over a wide range of mean
currents with a variety of shielding gases.
Gas composition has been shown to affect the toughness of MIG welds
[71], mechanical properties being linked to the oxygen potential of
the shield gas. Pulse current welding will now allow a range of gases
to be investigated in terms of important effects such as weld-metal
toughness. This is particularly relevant now higher strength steels
are becoming available and with higher performance requirements being
placed on the welding process (tight control of the process variables,
faster completion rates and low defect levels).
Mechanised systems for linepipe welding currently employ the convent-

ional MIG welding process which can limit the choice of consumables
and be prone to fusion defects. High quality pipe/tube welding systems
are dominated by the TIG welding process but these have a low deposit-
ion rate. The application of power electronics to welding power
supplies has now given a high level of control over metal transfer,
arc and fusion characteristics. This should allow the MIG welding
process to achieve high integrity, all-posi tional welds with a high
deposition rate.
5.4 NARROW GAP WELDING
This section of the work is considered more as a feasibility study

than a thorough investigation of all variables. The learning curve
content was necessarily high considering the problem being tackled.
and the lack of previous work and equipment. The resul ts presented
128
follow a pattern of process and equipment development. This caused

considerable delays in the programme, and also influenced the
direction of experimental work.
5.4.1 Torch Designs
Flat position welding experiments were based on torch designs and

welding parameters from the literature survey. However, after initial
trial welds it became apparent that procedured development was closely
linked to the torch design and construction. Thus, torch design
influenced the groove sizes which could be investigated, unwanted
sidewall arcing from the torch body and gas shielding efficiency.
Hence, the experimental programme progressed along lines which were
directly linked to the torch and its Hmi tations. The development of
the torch design employed is documented below, along with the reasons
for introducing modifications. For the short arcing times involved in
the programme, water cooling was not considered necessary.
5.4.1.1 Design A
This design was based upon the findings of the literature survey,
see Figure 3.4. This was a single body, slot-like construction
made of copper, encorporating four shield gas lines with a central
wire feed conduit and screw-in replaceable contact tips. In an
attempt to provide electrical insulation a plasma-sprayed alumina
coating was applied to the torch body. This coating proved to be
only partially successful primarily due to its brittle nature. It
became easily detached by minor knocks etc., which led to sidewall
arcing from the torch body. This further aggravated the coating
problem causing additional damage to the torch and contact tips.
5.4.1.2 Design B
In an effort to reduce the electrically live area of the torch, a

129
segmented construction was developed, see Figure 3.5. This

consisted of a central copper tube, sprayed with alumina and
tapped to accept standard screw-in contact tips. Shielding gas
was supplied by four stainless steel tubes of 3/8" o.d. The whole
arrangement was held together by two "Tufnol" blocks.
This design drastically reduced the incidence of unwanted arcing,

but instabilities continued to occur owing to poor gas shielding.
The small diameter gas tubes appeared to create turbulent fl ow
causing air entrainment. This design was particularly sensitive
to changes in shielding gas flow rate and tube positioning.
5.4.1.3 Design C
In an attempt to reduce air entrainment into the shielding gas,

the four gas lines were replaced by two of larger area (5/ 8 "
o. d. ), see Figure 3.6. Th i s des ign was reasonabl y successfu 1 bu t
other aspects of the experimental results indicated the need to
introduce a mechanical weave facility.
5.4.1.4 Design D
This torch was basically Design C, with the addition of a

mechanical weaving ability. This was achieved by pivoting the
central conductor in a slot made in the Tufnol blocks. Movement
was generated by an electromechanical actuator, see Figure 3.7.
Occasional problems with gas coverage arose again, presumably
because of the moving contact tipl fixed gas line set-up. Hence,
further modification was deemed neccesary.
5.4.1.5 Design E
This design replaced the tubular gas lines with rectangular

orifices. These had a much larger outlet area, see Figure 3.S.
130
This proved extremely successful but limited work to a minimum

groove width of 12 mm.
5.4.2 Choice of Shielding Gas
Two gases were examined, Ar5%CO z and Helishie1d 1. A comparison of

welds made with these gases is shown in Figures 5.48 (a) and (b). It
can be seen that Helishield 1 has a strong influence on the degree of
sidewall fusion, with positive undercutting of the joint preparation.
It can also be seen that pronounced finger penetration (associated
with Ar5%CO , ) was absent with Helishield 1. Therefore, all further
work was undertaken using Helishield 1 as the shielding gas.
5.4.3 Choice of Pulse Parameters
From the results of Section 5.1., peak pulse parameters of Ip • 380 A

and Tp = 4 ms were used. Background parameters were calculated using
the method given in Appendix A, with F/i s 50 Hz/IOO A.
5.4.4 Flat Position Welding with No Torch Oscillation
As a prelimiary exercise to the investigation in narrow gap prepar-

ations, a series of bead-on-plate welds were made to establish a
relationship between mean welding current, travel speed and weld bead
width. This was done to avoid unessecary narrow gap welds being made
where the bead width failed to bridge the joint gap. Results are
shown in Figure 5.49. Multiple regression analysis of these results
gives the empirical relationship:
w s -1.36 v + 0.1 I.
where w s weld bead width (in mm).

131
Weld beads were deposi ted in 12 mm grooves over a range of mean

currents (150 - 200 A) and travel speeds (2 - 5 mm/s). Observations
of the resulting weld beads are presented in Figure 5.50. As may be
seen, sidewall fusion defects occured when the heat input was outside
specific limits. This was associated with either too .uch (weld pool
flooding, see Figure 5.51) or too little deposited metal. This
behaviour was also observed in previous work [80, 106, 110]. However,
even in the zone of optimum welding parameters intermittent minor
fusion defects were observed, see Figure 5.52. Further welding trials
failed to eliminate these defects. It was concluded from this that
some form of wire manipulation was required.
5.4.5 Flat Position Welding with Torch Oscillation
Using a weave technique across the groove necessitated an increase in

gap width to 14 mm to accommodate oscillations of 1.0 - 1.5 mm. With
this wider gap and a weave technique it was also necessary to weld at
reduced travel speeds. A weld made in 100 mm thick material using
this technique is shown in Figure 5.53. It can be seen that fusion
characteristics are uniform with the elimination of sidewall fusion
defects. The condi tions used for this weld (220 A, 1. 5 mm/s) gave a
deposition rate of 3.3 kglhr and a heat input of 4.4 kJ/mm.
5.4.6 Initial Welding in the Horizontal-Vertical Position
An examination of fusion characteristics was undertaken using a ]2 mm

gap with a range of mean currents and travel speeds. The observed
behaviour is given in Table 5.3. No successful condition was
identified. The main problem encountered was that of the weld pool
'sagging', see Figure 5.54, which effectively shielded the bottom
joint face from the direct action of the arc. This gave little or no
bottom face fusion. Sidewall fusion at the top face i.proved with
increasing current. It was often associated with undercutting owing
to the direct action of the arc.
132
The influence of torch weaving was investi~ated at this sta~e. It was

thought that this .ay allow control of the weld pool and prevent it
sagging onto the bottom face. Ini tial atte.pts were ba8ed upon a
successful flat posi tion condi tion (220 A, 1.5 .m/s). A variety of
weaving techniques were employed (e.g, assymetric dwell ti.es, various
torch angles, etc.), however, no successful conditions resul ted. In
view of this failure, bead .odelling considerations were introduced to
gain a more fundamental understanding of the influence ot process
variables upon bead shape.
5.4.7 Modelling of an Unbounded Weld Bead in the Horizontal-

Vertical Position
The experimental results presented so far for the H-V pos! tion in-
dicate that a variety of defects .ay occur, therefore an alternative
approach is required to optimise bead shape in terms of welding para-
.eters. The vast range of experimental variables involved meant that
a full experimental investigation was beyond the scope of the present
work. The .ain emphasis here has been to explore the basic character-
istics of the problem and to indicate the most fruitful regions for
further experimental work (both in the flat and H-V positions)
Consideration was given to an unbounded bead on a vertical plate and

to examine welding conditions under which bead profiles free from
undercut and overhang would be obtained. It is appreciated that such
a bead-on-plate model does not represent the problem of a bounded weld
bead. However, it is felt that such an approach is valuable for
indicating the influence of welding variables, and to provide a base
tor further experi.ental investigations. Modelling was based on some
ini tial work by Russian workers [129] on a bead-on-plate depos it in
the H-V position. The aodel is essentially a two-diaensional
hydrostatic balance of surface tension and gravitational torces.
Only the points considered relevant are presented in this section, the
full model developed can be found in Appendix B. Bead surface shape
is defined by r - r(x), where x is a co-ordinate along the plate from
133
one end of the bead and r is the perpendicular heie-ht ot the bead.
This is shown in Fie-ure 5.54, alone- with the characterisation of
defects in bead shape. Nee-Iecting arc pressure (justified Bince the
pool is still molten iaaediately behind the arc) the balance of grav-
itational and surface tension forces on any surface ele.ent gives:
-"R .. P g (h - x) + c (5.31)
where e .. a constant,
g .. acceleration due to gravity,
" ... surface tension coefficient,
h bead width,
R .. curvature of the two-dimensional surface.
The constant appearing above can be identified from the curvature at

the lower contact point (x .. h) and R. The curvature is generally
related to bead shape by:
-R1 .. r
'/
(5.32)
(l - t) z
where t .. -drdx
A full solution is given in Appendix B, with relevant results shown
here in terms of dbensionless bead width (h o ) and area (Ao) para-
.eters, see Fie-ure 5.55, where actual bead width (h) and area (A) are
&,iven by:
h • ho I"Pe- (5.33)
and A - Ao' L
pg (5.34)
134
Figure 5.55 (a) shows the region where the top surface angle is
greater than (1. e. , no undercutting) , Figure 5.55 (b) shows the
00
region where the bottom surface angle is less than 80 0 (1. e. , no
overhang) and Figure 5.55 (c) represents the maxi mu. bead area which
could be supported on a vertical plate. COllbining all these
relationships gives the zone of acceptable bead profJles, 1.e stable
bead wi th no undercut or overhang, Figure 5.56. To convert this
information into actual welding parameters, the following physical
constants were used:
., = 1.5 N/m
p = 7.0 X 10' kg/m'
L .. 2.18 mm -2
pg
This result has been used to construct Figure 5.57, which gives
allowable values of A and h in terms of welding parameters. It can be
seen from this graph that the maximum possible bead width for a stable
weld pool is approximately 12 mm. This corresponds to a maximum heat
input level of the order of 1.2 kJ/mm. Hence, conditions which would
give a bead width of 12 mm or greater are likely to give a sagging
bead profJle. This is confirmed by plotting the unsuccessful
experimental conditions on a graph simJlar to Figure 5.57. This is
given in Figure 5.58. It can be seen that the majority of conditions
fall within the region of bead sagging. Figure 5.57 also shows that
maximum tolerance would obtained with bead widths in the region 8 - 10
mm. Therefore this should be the size of joint gaps that need to be
investigated.
5.4.8 Further Horizontal-Vertical Welding Experiments
In order to validate the predicted areas of experiaental variables

likely to be successful, a short series of tests were aade using 25 mm
thick plate and a conventional MIG welding torch. The technique is
described in Sections 3 and 4.
135
Figure 5.59 shows the weld profiles obtained with this technique,
using gap sizes of 10 mm, 8 mm and 6 mm. These results show that with
a 10 mm gap, it is not possible to generate a bead of luff1cient width
without the weld pool sagging onto the bottom face. Thi. would be ex-
pected from the bead-on-plate modelling. Problems of 8rc stability
were also encountered welding in 6 mm grooves. It is also felt that
this size of gap is not practical from a torch engineering point of
view. The 8 mm gap showed the most tolerance to welding parameters
producing a series of acceptable bead shapes The bead model indicat~d
that this would be the gap size offering the greatest tolerance to
welding parameters. Welding currents of at least 275 A were necessary
to generate an arc of sufficient width and energy to produce sidewall
fusion at both faces. This was increased to 300 A, and produced the
series of beads shown in Figure 5.59 (b) (at travel speeds of
10 mm/s - 5 mm/s). Weld pool instability occurred at 5 mm/s. The
optimum condition identified here, 300 A at 7 mm/s, gave a weld bead
perpendicular to both sidewalls, with positive fusion at both faces.
This condition gives heat input of 1.28 kJ/mm. This is slightly
higher than the maximum figure indicated by modelling (- 1. 2 kJ/mm).
A representative macrosection of this weld and sections from welds
made with 10 mm and 6 mm gaps are shown in Figure 5.60.
5.4.9 Discussion
The developments reported here have neccessarily involved a 'learning

curve' exercise where the experimental investigation of fusion
characteristics has been constrained by torch design. This has been
slower than was hoped, and the extent of the investigation was reduced
owing to frequent interruptions for torch modifications and repairs.
Therefore, when analysing the results emphasis has been given to the
i.plications for further process development.
Consider ing the problems encountered with the torch design there is
clearly much scope for improved design and superior material s, e. g.
advanced ceramics. The results show that design would need to
concentrate on torches with the narrowest possible body. However,
136
there are other factors which need to be considered. e.g. water cool-
ing for industrial duty cycles. robustness. shielding gas flow. etc.
Two possible approaches for the reduction of torch width (at present
governed by a cylindrical contact tube) are proposed in Fiiure 5.61.
The use of a helium based shielding gas was previously unreported I
with the most popular choice being an argon based mi xture containing
around 20%CO z . The high column power developed in a helium based
shielding gas proved to be extremely beneficial in improving fusion
characteristics. However. it was noted that the shielding gas used I
Helishield 1. was prone to instability at mean currents below 200 A.

As with pulse MIG welding in general. shielding gas development is
needed. The use of other shielding gases gives an additional need for
further narrow gap MIG welding investigations.
The precise control over metal transfer and welding parameters

obtainable with a solid-state power supply have shown that narrow gap
welding without wire manipulation may be possi ble. However. this
would require the use of gap sizes significantly less that the 12 mm
investigated here. The technique used for H-V welding with 25 mm
plate could be applied to the flat position to generate fusion data
for such gap sizes. Joint gaps of 12 mm and greater require the use
of some form of wire manipulation to ensure positive sidewall fusion.
The guarantee of achieving sidewall fusion is absolutely essential if
narrow gap welding is to be used commercially. The repair of a narrow
gap would obviously be extremely costly. e.g. consider having to
remove a defect in a weld over 100 mm thick. Inspection of these
welds also presents a problem as radiography is not feasible and
ul trasonic inspection requires a large area either side of the joint
to be prepared in order to examine the full depth of the weld.
An attempt is now made to quantify the results obtained and to use

them to indicate combinations of experimental variables most likely to
be successful in future investigations. This approach would enable
the most favourable parameters to be established. and then to build
the welding torch to this specification. An initial. somewhat
arbitrary design could not hope to meet this requirement and. as has
137
been shown, this can limit the experimental investigation severely.

Taking the experimental results from flat position welding, shown in
Figure 5.50, the region of successful results may be quantified in
terms of a weld profile ratio. This is defined as the ratio of weld
(gap) width to the weld pool depth. Figure 5.50 gives a range of
profile ratios of 1.6 - 4.0 for acceptable bead shapes. Values below
1.6 result in weld pool flooding and above 4.0 give insufficient
joint filling. It was now possible to predict the welding parameters
which are likely to prove successful for any gap size, using simple
arithmetic relationships. Profile ratio (Pr) is defined as:
G
(5.35)
H
where G = joint gap width,
H weld pool depth.
G.H (5.36)
ex.a.1
and Ad = - -
v
Rearranging the above expressions gives:
z
G v
(5.37)
ex. a. I
and with 1.2 mm wire used in this case:
2
G v
Pr = --=---=--- (5.38)
0.565.1
This equation was used to construct Figure 5.62, showing the

relationship between gap size and possible fusion characteristics. The
maximum filling rate per pass for a given gap size, is also obtainable
and this is shown in Figure 5.63. It can be noted from these graphs
138
that there are competing factors to be considered when chosing

parameters. For the maximum depth of fill per pass, e . g. reduced
completion time for a given thickness, the gap size needs to be as
wide as possible. However, increasing the gap size .ay well requi re
weld head weaving to avoid fusion defects.
While Figure 5.62 shows values of heat input likely to give good
fusion characteristics, it says nothing as to the effect of the
structure of heat input. This has already been shown to significantly
affect bead-on-plate fusion behaviour. In this application there are
two considerations: (a) the current must be high enough to ensure
enough arc energy to give fusion of both sidewalls, and (b) the
combination of current and travel speed chosen needs to give a weld
pool width greater than the gap size. The minimum current level
required will be related to the gap size and would need to be
determined by further experiments. Weld pool width data has been
presented in Figure 5.49. The relationship obtained can be combined
with the general representation of fusion characteristics given in
Figure 5.60, to give an aid to the selection of successful welding
parameters. A computer program has been devised from all the
relationships presented. This enables the user to obtain possible
fusion behaviour by inputting values of gap size and welding current.
The program is given in Appendix C, along with sample outputs.
Clearly, the program is open to modification as more experimental data
is obtained and hence improve its accuracy.
Results obtained in the H-V position show the value of simple model-
ling considerations for the design of experimental investigations.
Although at present the amount of experimental data is limited,
results show a good correlation between the model and actual weld
profiles. The main value of the approach has been the indication of
the experimental variables which are of the right order for successful
welds. Experimental work which needs to be done can be significantly
reduced by such considerations and give more useful data.
It has been shown that narrow gap welding in the H-V position is
possible with reduced gap sizes and accurate control over welding
139
parameters. Figure 5.57 may be used as a basis for the choice of

variables for further experiments. Joint gap size needs to be below
10 IIIm and resul ts showed that 8 mm was the optillua size. With a
10 mm gap it was not possible to bridge the gap without the weld pool
becoming unstable and falling onto the bottom joint face. Any
shielding of the joint by the weld pool is likely to result in
lack-of-fusion defects (since it has been shown that plate melting is
largely due to arc heating). Joint gaps significantly below 8 mm can
give torch engineering problems and unstable arc conditions.
Heat input values can also be selected from Figure 5.57, indicating a
maximum allowable level of 1. 2 kJ/mm. The optimum weld obtained
during trials (300 A/7 mm/s) gave a heat input of 1.28 kJ/mm. This
was slightly higher than the predicted maximum, but the weld bead was
now bounded by the joint sidewalls. Hence, there are additional
surface tension forces to be considered at the weld pool/sidewall
interface. An attempt was made to model a bounded weld bead but the
problem becomes complex and did not reach a stage where a correlation
could be made between process variables and predicted bead profiles.
As can be seen, increasing the heat input gave an increase in the
sagging of the weld pool, Figure 5.59. This was in line with the
model as heat input values move further into the region which predicts
bead overhang.
The level of mean welding current also needs to be considered, as it

does in flat position welding, if fusion is to be obtained at both
sidewalls. Combining these considerations, high current and high
travel speed procedures will be required to produce sound welds using
joint gaps much smaller than have been used previously.
5.5 GENERAL DISCUSSION
The pulsed current MIG welding process has been shown to be capable of
producing high quality welded joints in all positions. Stable,
controlled operation is possible with a range of wire and shielding
140
gas compositions. Other works have shown the process to be capable of

welding materials such as aluminium, stainless steel and hardfacing
alloys [6, 22, 30]. Indeed, most materials which are now used with
conventional MIG welding can be successfully used with a pulsed
current power supply giving improved control of arc and fusion
characteristics [24].
A major criticism of the MIG welding process has always been its
susceptibility to give fusion defects. These are always likely with a
high deposition, low heat input welding process. The problem is
heightened by welding in position, as short-circuit transfer is the
only mode of operation possible. The pulsed current MIG welding
process now allows stable open arc welding at mean current levels
significantly below the spray transition current (stability is
maintained at mean currents as low as 50 A). This can drastically
reduce the incidence of fusion defects. However, the heat input per
unit weight of metal deposited is still less than half that of manual
metal arc welding. Poor welding technique may therefore give rise to
fusion defects: these are usually associated with travel speeds being
too low. This results in a cushion of molten metal forming underneath
the arc, shielding the plate from direct arc heating. As arc heating
is dominant in providing the energy for plate heating and melting,
poor plate fusion can be expected.
Further development work is needed to help reduce the incidence of

fusion defects and make the process more tolerant to operator 'abuse'.
Resul ts presented show that shielding gas composition plays a major
role in the determination of plate fusion characteristics. Particular
attention needs to be paid to the development of He/Ar/COz/O z mix-
tures. It may also be beneficial to utilise larger wire diameters in
an effort to reduce the deposited weld metal volume for a given heat
input. The use of a helium based shielding gas gave considerable
improvements in the fusion characteristics with both bead-on-plate and
narrow gap welding. However, the shielding gas used (Hel1shield 1)
was not intended for use with C-Mn steels, accounting for the arc
instability observed at mean currents below 200 A. Work with another
commercial helium based shielding gas, Helishield 101, based upon
141
results reported in this thesis, has indicated strongly that improved

results can be obtained. However, slight process instabilIty was
still observed at low mean currents « 150 A). It is felt that the
application of solid-state pulsed current power supplies to flux and
lIetal-cored wires would offer further improvements in fusIon
characteristics and give increased versatIlIty. Such developments
would need to combIne shielding gas, power supply and welding
consumable research in order to achieve optimum results.
The basic fusion characterIstics of the process have been quantified

with behaviour defined in terms of three constants (<<, c and 6 m).
These constants were arrived at by first considering simple physical
modelling of the welding process. This approach was also used to
understand root welding and H-V narrow gap welding fusion behaviour.
Here, modelling does not set out to give the definitive description of
all behaviour but to indicate basic trends and combinations of
parameters likely to yield the most interesting and desired results.
This then helps to identify those process variables which have a major
influence on fusion characteristics and to show how the interaction of
parameters will affect the weld bead shape. Experiments can then be
designed to investigate these trends, yielding more useful data and
reducing the number of test welds that need to be made. Wi th the
introduction of transistor power supplies and current pulsing
techniques, detailed examination of welding variables is possible.
Such investigations are impossible with conventional MIG welding power
supplies.
In the case of basic bead-on-plate welding, heat conduction modelling

indicated the relationship between dilution levels and j. v. It is
unlikely that such a relationship would have been derived from an
arbitrary series of experiments. An experimental approach would also
involve a large number of tests, possible none of which would be in
the region of interest. For example, i f all welds were lIade at high
currents and travel speeds, the dependence of dilution on I. v would
have never been seen. It has been shown that dilution becomes a
constant at high values of I.v (> 1000 A.mm/s).
142
Having used simple modelling to indicate the 0 v. I. v relationship,

analysis of the form of the results obtained showed the linear I/o v.
l/ y. v relationship. This was subsequently used to quantity behaviour
in terms of the major process parameters mean current and travel
I
speed. Other consumable combinations can be accommodated by changes

in the appropriate physical constants.
Physical modelling of the welding situation proved to be invaluable

for the H-V position narrow gap welding trials. Although the model
adopted was only a simple two-dimensional balance of forces on a
bead-on-plate deposit, it gave many useful points. The main con-
clusions from the model were that a reduced gap width and a low heat
input would be required for a successful weld. The previously used
initial experimental approach only yielded a large number of welds and
no positive conclusions. Indeed, it may have been concluded that H-V
position narrow gap welding was not feasible and no further
investigations would have been made if only the experimental path had
been followed.
The use of a basic physical model of the welding situation and

application of the pulsed current MIG welding process has been shown
to be beneficial in applications as diverse as closed butt root
welding and H-V narrow gap welding. The mode lling approach adopted
need not be excessively theoretical or accurate to indicate trends in
behaviour and interaction of process parameters. Prom this, exper-
imentation can be made more significant and the understanding of the
welding process improved.
143
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Ar20%(02 Ar20%(02 Ar20%(02

Ar 20%(02 C3'
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Arl%0 2 Arl%02 Arl%02

Arl%02
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Helis hitld 1
Hi 84 1·2 mm KS Ni 1·2 mm Hi 84 0·9 mm KS Ni 0·9 mm

magn if ication x3
Figure S. 24 Typjcal bertd - on- plate wpJd bead profiles .
167
bead width
deposited area height

Ad
plate fusion area

Ap
depth of
penetration
F jgure 5.2 5 The major geome tric characterjstics of a MJG w Jd bad .

168
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tra vel speed ( mm/s)
figure ) . 28 Dept h of penetrat ion var i C'lli o ns with heal input - fJat position .
• 175 A
0 150 A
5r 0 125 A
E
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2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1B 20
19ure 5. 2 travel speed (mm!s)

Depth of penetration variations with heal input - over he~d pos itJon .
60
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10 ~ 00
by Allum and Quint ino (201
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Lv (A.mm/ s )
rigure 5 . 30 Dilution (6) v . l. v - flat position .
~------- -----
17 3
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174
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2 4 6 8 10 12 11.. 16 18
figure 5. 35
1
111. v (s/A .mm) )( 10- 4
16 v. '/-
1• v
- vertical - up posjtion .
178
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179
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181
400
I
(A)
300
200
100
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
travel speed (mm/s)
Figure 5 . 39 Plate and deposit bead areas as a fun cljon of m an w Jdin
current and trav e l speed (1.2 mm wire jn Ar5%C0 2 ) .
182
2
measured areas (mm )
20 mm 2
400 •
0
> 20
10 - 20
I •
0
5 - 10
o- 5
(A)
300
200
•
• •5 mm 2
o
100
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
travel speed (m m/s)
Figur e 5 . 40 Predjcted plat e fusion areas compared with me urod pJal
fu s ion a r eas as a fun ctio n of m a n w Iding urr pn ! and
trav e l see d ( 1. 2 mm wir in Ar 5% 02 .
joint
/ . _ft geometry
12t- 1
1 mmT
Cl) 10
I
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E no penetration
"'0
cu
e CD
cu VJ
a..
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cu full penetration
i; 6
~
'-
burnthrough
50 100 150 200 250

Figu re 5. 41 I (A)
Re la tionship between travel spee d and mean welding current for full
penet rat i on root wplds ( flat position ) .
200 A, 7mm/s 200 A, 6 mm/s
CD
~
200 A I 5 mm/s 200 A, 4 mm/s

magn if ica t ion x 2
Figure 5 . 42 (a ) Typical full penetration weld macrosections ( flat position ) .
185
c
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(J)
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cr
o At total weld bead area
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60 • Ab under bead area
50
N 40
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E I 0
/ Ap
()\
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c...
c 0
/ •
0
201- ./ ~ Ab
10
10 20 30 40 50
figure 5. 43 Relations h ip between total fusion area , plalp fusjon area , I Iv ( A.s/mm)
underbead area , and heal inpul . t ull penplration root welds ( flat posit iar) ) .
•
60
• -----..--
• ••
50 •
0
~ 40
CD
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"'0
20
10
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Figure 5 . 44
I.v (A .mm/s)
RelaUon s hj[) bptwepn diJulion Rnd l.v for fulJ pPlwLr;-]\ i 0 11
root weJd s ( flal position ) .
188
200 A, 6 mm/s
(a ) vertical-down welding
150 A, 6 mm/s
magn ification )( 2
(b) vertical- up welding
Figure 5 . 45 Typical root weld macrosection s .

189
150 A I 6 mm/s
150 A, 4 mm/s
magnification )( 2
(c ) over hea d welding
Figure 5 .45 Typi ca l root weld macrosectio ns .

190
(a ) flat position
( b) vertical-up position
magnification x 2·5
(c) overhead position
Figure 5 .46 Complete pipe weld macro s ctions .

191
.-
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Figure 5 .47 (a ) 'Cascade ' pipe weld, surface and unde rb ad

appearance - flat position.
192
''ll'" I ,11 ',111'\'1:\1\1\111\1\1\1\1\1\1\'\1\1'

'Il' '1'( '
00 1 a' b 0\8 OiL °
1410 1510 1610 17 10 1810 190 20\0
-
210 22 \0 ,23\0 ,24\0
1510 16/0 17 10 1810 1910 2010 21'0 22\0

- 23\0 241
LUU~~-LLu.ul_LuIIIIIII1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII11 11111 II!IIIIII I!!III I1I!I!IIII! ~III 111111111111 11~1lw..
Figure 5 .47 ( b ) 'Cascade ' pipe weld, surfac and und rb ad
appeara nce - vertic a l-up position.
193
13 0 14 0 15 0
"10
IlllillWWllil .L!. !. !J,;~~l..I..I.:.L.Iu.:.u.I.,I,I,I,I,I,~""
lOO 120 1 1 1
IlIi'llllllll IlI dlllll'llllllll Illdllll I11 dllll
Figur e 5 .47 (c) 'Cascade' pipe weld, surface and underbead

appearance - overhead posi tion.
194
lJ
~
QJ
"..,
.r:
(f)
".., n.
~ C1l
QJ 0"1
I
E
E
N
.D
(f)
"-
E
E
r<"'\
er:
0
0
N
(f)
Q)
(f)
C1l
0"1
0"1
C
"..,
lJ
~
QJ
"..,
.r:
(f)
l.-
a
c
a
Ul
"..,
'-'
<'j C1l
0 n.
u E
' 0
0 , a
W"\ U
er:'-'
co
..::t
".....,
C1l W"\
Q)
'-'
:;J
0"1
"..,
u...
19')
20 I
• 200 A
18
• • 150 A
14
•
E
E 12
-
..c.
"t:J
3
"t:J
10
d
QJ
..0
"t:J B
QJ
~
2 3 4 5 6 7 B
travel speed ( mm/s)
figure 5 . 49 Re l a tion s hip be twee n mea n w lding urr e nt, trav J s p d
and we ld bead width .
197
Figure 5. 51 Sidewall fusion defects caused by weld pool flooding,

175 A, 1 mm /s o
'<D
CD
220 A I 4 mm/s 200 A, 3 mm/s
Figure 5. 52 Sidewall fusion defects, without wire weaving .

199
Figure 5 . 53 100 mm thick, flat position narrow gap w Jd

usi ng weave t c hnique
( 220 A, 1 . 5 mm/ s , ± 1 . 5 mm, 1 Hz) .
200
co-ordinate system
used in modell ing
e -ye e +ve e - ye
undercut overhang undercut & overhang
fig ur e 5 . 54 Co-o rdinat. e sys t em far ma dpJl j , 9 r a H-

be ad-an-pIat weld. Charact rj sat.ion a
bea d s hap e de f ect s .
201
- 6=0 0
no undercut
6 +ve
undercut
6 -ye
(a) no Lo p f ace und er cut
overhang
(/J > 90 0
no overhang
(/J < 90°
(b) no ove r hang
bead unstable
region where surface

tension supports bead
(c) total bead area wh ich may be s upport ed
Figure 5.55 We ld bea d characteristics as identifi d by mod ]l i n .

Ao
bead unstable
N
o
N
overhang
undercut
1 2
ha
f igurp 5. 56 Gpnpralispd characteristics of a H- V weld bead .
Ao
1-4l
25
I 1-0
1-
1-2
N
E 20
E
10[ I
I
~
~maximum
I
C
Q.I
gap width
0-8 t... 15
c
N
"'C 0
c
~0-6~
VJ
Q.I
.Ll 0 -5
-a 10
+- ::J
C +-
Q.I u
L:. 0-4 c
5
0 -2
OL 0
o 2
3 ho
~__ _L 1 ___ ____ _
o 2 4 6 8 10 12
actual bead width (mm)
figure 5 . 57 Allowable process paramete r s f or acceptabl e H- V wrJd bead s ha pps _
204
E -0
CIJ
E ...0
U
-0
Q.;
....
.c.
"t:J
c...
0-
ClJ
(J)
~ 0
.r::.
"t:J -'
d .r::.
Cl)
-'
.0
:;:
c..
m
0'
E
E
(J)
N U
Q
m
(J)
.r::.
(J)
...0
""'-0
:J m
(J) Q.;
CIJ.D
t...
...., ClJ
.......
m.D
...0 m
C-+-l
ClJ Q
E Cl;
...... U
t... U
CIJ ro
c..
x t...
c.., 0
t..-
t..-
o CT
C
C ''-'
0 .......
(J) .......
. ..... Cl;
t...l:;J
m 0
QE
E
o >-
U.D
o o U"'I
N o
(WW/ pt)
205
200 A, 6 mm/s 250 A, 8 mm/s
300 A I 10 mm/s 300 A, 8 mm/s
Figur e 5. 59 ( a ) Narrow gap we ld bead profil es i n th H- V

position , 25 mm t hick plat e - 10 mm gap.
206
300 A, 10 mm/s 300 A, 8 mm/s
300 A, 7 mm/s 300 A, 6 mm/s
f i gur e 5 . 59 ( b ) Narrow gap we ld bead prof i l es in t he H-V po i Lia r •

25 mm thick plat e - 8 mm gap.
207
250 A I B mm/s 250 A I 6 mm/s
200 A, 4 mm/s
r igure 5. 59 ( c) Narrow gap weld bea d prof i l es in th H-V po ilion,

25 mm t hick plat e - 6 mm gap.
208
10 mm gap
200A,6mm/s
8 mm gap
300A,7mm/s
6 mm gap
200 A, 4 mm/s
magnification x2
Figure 5 . 60 Typical narrow gap weld macrosections

i n the H-V position, 25 mm thick plat
209
electrode
~--contact
block
/ s t r i P electrode
Figure 5.61 Two possible approachps for the rpduclioll in

width of a narrow gap welding torch.
,·s lO 6.0 heat input (kJ/mm)
4·5
20
18
~ '6~
insufficient
filler metal N
o
a.. 14
a
01
..... 12 --------------------- l wire manipulation
c: necessary
weld pool
flooding
------ practical limit

on gap size
4
50 100 150 200

I Iv (A.s/mm )
figure 5.62 Relationship between ~ar sizp, weldinq paramptprs and possihle
fusion characteristics - flat position.
, 1 3 4 s 6 7
heat input (kJ/mm)
-I
-10
M
M
"
Q.
......
-
....
:
N
....o
£Q.
.,
"0
E
:::J
E
)(
"E
2
2 4 6 8 10
gap size ( mm )
figure 5.63 Relationship between maximum filling rate per pass and gap size - flat position.
212
measured
diameter diameter CIC
(mm) (mm) (m/min/l00 A)
Murex LW1 1.2 1.15 3.0
Linde Hi84 1.2 1.13 3.2
Linde Hi84 0.9 0.89 5.2
Thyssen K5 Ni 1.2 1. 26 2.6
Thyssen K5 Ni 0.9 0.89 5.5
Table 5.1 Burnoff factor, CIC, for the wires used.
Ip Tp Ib Tb I v width height penetra- fusion total

tion area fused
area
A ms A ms A mm/s mm mm mm mm' mm'
435 3 67 10 150 3 12.0 3.4 2.4 11.4 39.2
380 4 53 9 150 3 12.0 3.4 2.4 10.6 39.6
308 6 21 7 150 3 11.7 3.5 2.7 12.8 43.2
Table 5.2 A comparison of bead dimensions for changes In pulse

structure, at a fixed mean current and travel speed.
213
Mean current Travel speed Heat input Comments on fusion behaviour

(A) (mm/s) (kJ/mm)
110 2 1.65 Bead unstable
110 3 1.10 Bead stable, limited sidewall

fusion at top face
110 4 0.93 Bead stable, no sidewall fusion
110 6 0.55 Bead width < groove width
140 3 1.40 Bead stable, limited sidewall

fusion at top face
140 4 1.05
140 5 0.84 Bead width < groove width
140 6 0.70
175 3 1. 75 Bead stable, limited sidewall

fusion at top face
175 4 1. 31
175 5 1.05 Bead stable, no sidewall fusion
175 6 0.88
185 3 1. 85 Good sidewall fusion at top

face, limited sidewall fusion at
bottom face
200 3 2.00
200 4 1. 50
Bead stable, limited sidewall
200 6 1.00 fusion at top face, no side-
wall fusion at bottom face
200 8 0.75
220 3 2.20
Comments as for 200 A,
220 4 1.65 but with increased weld
pool sagging
220 6 1.10
220 8 0.83
Table 5.3 Observations of narrow gap welds in the H-V position,

12 mm gap.
214
6. CONCLUSIONS
1. All basic fusion characteristics of the process have been

found to be independent of the welding position. Heat input
will be limited by the onset of weld pool instability and
changes will occur in the deposited bead shape due to
gravity.
2. A linear relationship exists between the reciprocals of

dilution and the product of mean current and travel speed.
Fusion behaviour can then be quantified by three constants;
the wire burnoff factor. the maximum value of dilution and
the slope of this reciprocal relationship.
3. Full penetration closed butt welds with stable underbeads

are obtainable in all positions. Weld bead size is control-
ed by the heat input. To maintain constant bead dimensions
mechanised operation and accurate control of welding
current is required.
4. Full penetration welds always show a substantially constant

level of dilution. independent of thickness. mean welding
current and travel speed. Changes may only be affected by
the choice of shielding gas and wire diameter.
5. Pulsed current MIG welding is feasible for narrow gap weld-

ing in the flat position and gives improved fusion charac-
teristics with a wider range of parameters than could be
used previously. With reduced gap sizes « 10 mm) and a
helium based shielding gas, narrow gap MIG welding with a
centrally fed wire should be successful. Wider joint gaps
require wire manipulation to avoid sidewall fusion defects.
215
6. Narrow gap welding in the horizontal-vertical position

is feasible with the pulsed current MIG welding process.
Gap sizes of the order of 8 mm are needed. with high
current. high travel speed procedures. This ensures
adequate levels of sidewall fusion. while limiting the
heat input to control the weld profile.
216
7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK
Work on the effect of welding parameters on bead shapes may be done to

quantify aspects such as wetting angle, secondary penetration, fusion
shape etc. There should also be a general investigation of fusion
behaviour in grooves and mUltipass welding. Tolerance to joint fit-up
should also be covered.
In an attempt to improve the fusion characteristics of the process and

to make it more resistant to operational errors, development work
needs to be undertaken on shielding gas composition. In particular,
mixtures of Ar/He/COz/O z ' This may be done in parallel with power
supply development and the application of controlled current pulsing
to flux and metal-cored wires.
Further investigation of flat position narrow gap welding should be

carried out to examine welding in grooves of less than 10 mm in width.
Development of a practical narrow gap welding torch of some 7 mm in
width would allow a programme of work to cover flat and hori-
zontal-vertical welding in real joint situations.
217
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No. 5. 1984. pp 57 - 62.
95. Lebedov. V.K.et al A method of arc welding.

U.S.S.R. Priority Certifacte 503665.
publ. Byul. Izobret. 1976/7.
96. Mitsubishi Jukogyo Process and apparatus for triple

Kabushiki Kaisha electrode MIG welding.
U.K. Patent 1327733. February 1972.
97. Anon. The twist arc process.

Technical literature. Kobe Steel. Japan.
98. Kimura. S. et al Twist arc welding process (new narrow

gap welding process in flat position).
I.I.W. DOC. XII-B-258-79. July 1979.
99. Kimura. S. Narrow gap gas metal arc welding process

Ichihara. I. in flat position.
Nagai. V. Welding Journal.
Vol. 58, no. 7, July 1979, pp 44 - 52.
100. Render. G.S. Welding advances in power plant con-

struction - narrow gap welding.
Metal Construction.
Vo. 16, no. 11, Nov. 1984, pp 696 - 700.
101. Render. G.S. Using synergic MIG successfully.

Symposium.
Cranfield Institute of Technology,
Cranfield, Oct. 1984.
102. Henderson. 1.0. Developments in narrow gap welding,

Australian Welding Journal.
May/June 1978.
228
103. Butler, IN. et al Narrow Gap Welding - a Process for

all Positions.
Welding Journal,
Vol. 48, no. 2, Feb. 1969, pp 102 - 108.
104. Welding Design and Fabrication,

March 1979, pp 118 - 120.
105. Oba, H. Application of narrow gap welding for

civil construction.
Proc. of 2nd International Conference on
Advanced Welding Technology,
Japanese Welding Society, Osaka, Japan,
1975, Vol. 2, Paper 2-2(11), pp 345 - 350
106. Barabash, Z.N. et a1 Some technological aspects of narrow gap

welding.
Svar. Proiz.,
Vol. 9, no. 20, 1973, pp 19 - 21.
107. Hutt, G.A. A review of recent developments in

mechanised high efficiency gas shielded
arc welding processes for steel.
Welding Institute Research Report
235/1984, April 1984.
108. Morigaki, O. et al Narrow gap welding process with horizon-

tal groove used for building construction
I.W.W. DOC. XII-B-163-1974.
109. Lebedev, U.K. et al The gas shielding welding of joints in

low carbon high alloy steels with slit
preparations.
Automatic Welding,
Vol. 5, no. 3D, 1977, pp 1 - 5.
110. Cazes, B. Narrow Gap Welding.

3rd International Conference on Advances
in Welding Processes, Harrogate, 1974,
Paper 17, pp 129 - 136.
111. Matumoto, J. Transactions of JWS,

Vol. 11, no. I, April 1980.
229
112. Nakajuma, M. Development and application of narrow gap

arc welding processes in Japan.
I.I.W. Doe. XII-584-74, April 1974.
113. Vornovitskii, I. MIG arc welding of thick steel in

Kontorovskii, A.Z. a narrow groove.
Svar. Proiz ••
No. 2, 1967, pp 46 - 48.
114. Ducrot, A. New trends in narrow gap welding.

International Conference on Advances in
Welding Processes, Harrogate, May 1978,
pp 363 - 367.
115. Arata, Y. et al Transanctions of JW5,

Vol. 8, no. 1, 1979.
116. Nakajima, M. et al I.W.W. DOC. XII-B-104-72, 1972.
117. Welding Design and Fabrication.

March 1979, pp 118 - 120.
118. B55135 Metallic-arc Welding of Carbon and

Carbon-Manganese Steels.
British Standard Institute, 1974.
119. Eichhorn, F. DVS Berichte,

Groger, P. Aachen, West Germany, 1982.
120. Belchuk, G. Report AD-AOI9-225,

Titov, V.N. Naval Intelligence Support Centre,
Washington, D.C., U.S.A., Dec. 1975.
121. Bada, T. et al Automatic narrow gap welding process

used for pipe piles on offshore con-
structions.
2nd International Symposium on
Advanced Welding Technology,
Japanese Welding Society, Osaka, Japan.
Aug. 1975.
122. Ito, I.N. et al I.I.W. DOe. XII-11-B-161-74, July 1974.

230
123. Messer Griesheim DVS Berichte
124. Zosen, Vol. 22, June 1977, p 39.
125. Urmston, S.A. Effect of shielding gas composition on

metal transfer and fusion characteristics
of pulsed GMAW of carbon steels.
M.Se. Thesis, Cranfield Institute
of Technology, 1985.
126. Quigley, M.B.C. et al Observations of exploding droplets

in pulsed arc MIG welding.
CEGB Report RD/M/N522, 1971.
127. CRC Automatic Welding Technical Literature
128. Swift-Hook, D.T. CEGB Report R/M/N637 ,

Gick. A.E.F. June, 1972.
129. Berezovskii, B.M. Mathematical modelling and optimisation

Suzdalev, O.A. of the process of formation of
Stikhin, V.A. horizontal welds in the vertical plane.
Automatic Welding, no. 3, 1983,
pp 21 - 24
Welding Institute Members Reports and Research Bulletins may be

confidential to Members, depending upon embargo dates.
231
APPENDIX A
CALCULATION OF PULSE PARAMETERS FOR
CONTROLLED DROPLET TRANSFER

232
APPENDIX A
CALCULATION OF PULSE PARAMETERS FOR CONTROLLED DROPLET TRANSFER
From experimental data. the following constants need to be determined

(for a specific wire and shielding gas): the burnoff factor ;X. the
detachment factor D. and the F11 relationship. These constants can
then be used to calculate all the pulse parameters for a given mean
current by using the following procedure.
(i) Select a peak current value above the spray transition

level (the spray transition current x 1.4 may be used as an
initial value) and calculate peak duration Tp. from D.
(ii) Calculate the pulse frequency from Fll relation.
(iii) Since Tp is fixed. calculate Tb from Tb = F1 - Tp.
Calculate Ib from I
I - FI T
e.g. I = _ _--'P-..L.P
b FTb
The pulse structure is now completely specified and the wlrefeed speed
can be estimated from W = ~.I
e.g. 1.2 mm wire @ 150 A.
D 545 AZ.s.
F/ _ 60 Hz/IOO A.
I
choosing 370 A gives Tp = 4 ms.

233
Applying the above procedure gives:
F 1.5 x 60 Hz
90 Hz.
and,
1 -3
Tb = - 4 x 10
90
7 ms
150 - {gO x 370 x 4 x 10-3}

Hence. Ib -3
90 - 7 x 10
= 27 A.
Wirefeed speed is
W = 3.2 x 1.5 ,
= 4.8 m/minute.
A simple BASIC computer program is attached which calculates the above

pulse parameters (see next page). The program was written using a BBC
microcomputer but could easily be implemented on any computer or
programmable calculator.
234
10REM *****************************
20REM * *
30REM * PULSE PARAMETER SELECTION *
40REM * *
50REM * (c) W.J. Foote *
60REM * September 1985 *
70REM * *
80REM *****************************
90:
110@%=&20109
120F1-60:F2-70:TP-4E-3:IPl-370:IP2-300:WF1-0.03:WF2-0.05
130PROCTITLE
140PROCINPUT
150END
160DEF PROCTITLE
170PRINT CHR$(131);CHR$(141);CHR$(157);CHR$(129);" PULSE
PARAMETER SELECTION "
180PRINT CHR$(131);CHR$(141);CHR$(157);CHR$(129);" PULSE
PARAMETER SELECTION "
190ENOPROC
2000EF PROCINPUT
210CLS:PROCTITLE
220PRINTTAB(4,7);"Please enter wire size"
230PRINTTAB(4, 8);"1. 1. 2 mm"
240PRINTTAB(4,10);"2. 0.9 mm"
250PRINTTAB(4,12);"Enter 1 or 2 ";
260INPUT WO
270IF WO a1 THEN PROCPULSE(1)
280IF WD -2 THEN PROCPULSE(2)
290ENDPROC
3000EF PROCPULSE(X)
310 CLS:PROCTITLE
320IFX-1 F-60
330IFX=2 F-70
340IF X-1 W-WF1 ELSE W=WF2
350 IF Xc1 IP-IP1
360 IF X-2 IP-IP2
370PRINTTAB(4,7);"Please enter mean current ";
380INPUT CR
390IF CR <0 THEN 370
400F-INT(0.5+(CR/100*F»
410TB-1/F-TP
420IB-CR-(F*IP*TP)
430IB-IB/(F*TB)
41t0CLS:PROCTITLE
450PRINTTAB(4,7);"Peak current c ";IP
460PRINTTAB(4,8);"Back~round current - ";IB
470PRINTTAB(4,9):"Peak time - ";TP*1000
480PRINTTAB(4,10);"Back~round time c ";TB*1000
490PRINTTAB(4.11);"Pulse frequency = ";F
235
500PRINTTAB(4.12);"Mean current ";CR

510PRINTTAB(4,13);"Wirefeed speed = n;CR*W
520PRINTTAB(34.7)"A"
540PRINTTAB(34.9)"ms"
550PRINTTAB(34.10)"ms"
560PRINTTAB(34.11)"Hz"
580PRINTTAB(34.13)"m/min"
590PRINTTAB(4.16);"Repeat (Y/N) n;
600INPUT Q$
610IF Q$-"Y" GOTO 10
620END
630ENDPROC
Sample Pro~ram Output

*********************
Please enter wire size:
1. 1.2 mm
2. 0.9 mm
Enter 1 or 2 ? 1
Please enter mean current ? 150
Peak current 370.0 A

Back~round current = 26.2 A
Peak time = 4.0 ms
Back~round time
pulse freQuenc¥
Mean current
=
- 7.1
90.0
ms
Hz
W1refeed speed
- 150.0
4.5
A
m/min
Repeat (Y/N) ? N
236
APPENDIX B
PROFILE OF A WELD BEAD DEPOSITED IN THE HORIZONTAL-VERTICAL
POSITION ON A FLAT PLATE (2-D)

237
APPENDIX B
PROFILE OF A WELD BEAD DEPOSITED IN THE HORIZONTAL-VERTICAL POSITION
ON A FLAT PLATE (2-D)
o
xl Surface tension balances gravity in accordance

y y
with: - = pg(h - x) + ,
R R(h=x)
h
1
where R
r = r(x) ,
dr
t =-
dx
z
If 1 > t ( 'gentle' sloping bead assumption),
r =£i:
y
(h - x) + rh
and
r0 = £i: h + rh
y
r = ro - ex'
where C =£i:
y
z
Cx
r = rx -- + t
2 0
238
l
r x
Ch'
r '" - -- + t h
o 2 6 o
t I r I h, etc. need to be identified.

o 0
Points of interest are:
(1 ) at x '" h, r = O.
Therefore
Z
Ch'
0 = r o h2 - -- + t
6 0
h
and
r0 = [~h' _ t h] 2
0 Z
h
= ['
Ch
6 -
. 2
ro ] h
Therefore
r • -xh [ Ch Z
606
_ t ] _ Ch' +
r x
0
t • [C~Z _ tJ 2x
-
h
Cx Z
- -- + t
2 0
and
r _[c~ Z _ t ol h 2
- ex.
239
(ii) Bead area, A, is:
A -_ Jh r dx
o
Ch·
A - -- +
24
+--
6
(ili) Maximum bead width and position.
let x (max) = x* •
and r(max) = r * .
This will occur when t o ,
Cx
*2
i.e. o - -- + t
2 0
and
r* =
x*2
h
[C~ 2 _ r cl - -ex·'
6
-+ r x *
0
Ch·
A
72
Ch",
Z ,
C",
r
6
- --6
240
z
Chx
r = - Cx
3 2
Cx
r 3
- Cx ,
Ch Cx *
3
= 2
..
2
x* = h.
3
The general nature of the curve with r = 0 is:

o
t
o
o
o at x = h3
2
t = 0 at x = h
3
2 3
The value of r at t = 0 is r* = 81 Ch .
noting that
ex.l.a
A =
v
1/
h = [727~a
pgv
r] 4
and
2
r -81
241
APPENDIX C
COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR THE SELECTION OF WELDING PARAMETERS
IN FLAT POSITION NARROW GAP WELDING

242
10 REM ********************************
20 REM * *
30 REM * Narrow Gap Weldin~ *
40 REM * Parameter Selection Guide *
50 REM * *
60 REM * (c) W.J. Foote *
70 REM * January 1986 *
80 REM * *
90 REM ********************************
100:
110@,,-&20109
1.20MODE3
1.30 PROCSCREEN
1.40PRINTTAB(10.8) "Please enter the joint ~ap size (in mm) ":
150INPUT G
160PRINTTAB(10.10)"Please enter the mean current (in A) ft.,
170INPUT I
1.80PROCSCREEN
190PRINTTAB(O.5)"Joint ~ap '" ";G
200PRINTTAB(24.5)"mm"
210PRINTTAB(O.6)"Mean current = ":1
230PRINTTAB(O.8)"Travel speed Heat input Fill/pass
comments"
240PRINTTAB(O, 9)" mm/s kJ/mm mm"
250FOR V-l TO 10
260PRINTTAB(4,V+1.0);V
270PRINTTAB(1.9. V+1.0);I*0.03/V
280Ws(-1.36*V)+(O.1.*I)
290PR-(G*G*V)/(0.56S*I)
300PRINTTAB(33. V+ 10 );G/PR
31.0IF W<-G PRINTTAB(45.V+IO);"Weld bead width less than joint ~ap"
320IF W<-G THEN 360
330IF PR<=1.6 PROCFLOOD
340IF PR>-4.0 PROCNOFILL
350IF PR>1.6 AND PR<4.0 PROCOK
360NEXT V
370IF G>-ll PRINTTAB(l.22);"Wire manipulation may be required to
avoid fusion defects with this ~ap size"
380PRINTTAB(19,24);"Run the pro~ram a~ain (Y/N) ":
390REPEAT
400 IF GET-89 THEN 130
lUOUNTIL GET-78
420CLS
430 END
440 DEFPROCSCREEN
450 CLS
460REPEAT:P.P+l:PRINT"*";:UNTIL p-80
470 P - 0
480PRINT" Narrow Gap Weldin~"
490PRINT" Parameter Selection Guide"
243
500REPEAT:P=P+l:PRINT"*"::UNTIL p-Bo
510P-O
520ENDPROC
530DEFPROCFLOOD
5AOPRINTTAB(45.V+IO);"Weld pool tloodin~ likely"
550ENDPROC
560DEFPROCNOFILL
570PRINTTAB(45.V+IO);"Insutticient tiller metal"
580ENDPROC
590DEFPROCOK
600PRINTTAB(45.V+IO);" O.K."
61.0ENDPROC
244
Sample Pro~ram Output

*********************
*************************************************************************
Narrow Gap Weldin~
Parameter Selection Guide
*************************************************************************
.Joint Gap - 8.0 mm
Mean Current = 200.0 A
Travel Speed Heat Input Fill/pass Comments

mm/s kJ/mm mm
1.0 6.0 14..1 Weld pool floodin~ likel~
2.0 3.0 7.1 Weld pool floodin~ likel~
3.0 2.0 4..7 O. K.

4..0 1.5 3.5 O.K.
5.0 1.2 2.8 O.K.
6.0 1.0 2.4. O.K.
7.0 0.9 2.0 O. K.
8.0 0.8 1.8 Insufficient filler metal
9.0 0.7 1.6 Bead width < than joint ~ap
10.0 0.6 1.4. Bead width < than joint ~ap
Run the program again (Y/N) ?Y

245
*************************************************************************
Narrow Gap Weldin~
*************************************************************************
joint Gap - 10.0 mm
Mean Current - 200.0 A
"Travel Speed Heat Input Fill/pass Comments

mm/s kJ/mm mm
1.0 6.0 11. 3 Weld pool flooding likely

2.0 3.0 5.7 O. K.
3.0 2.0 3.8 O. K.
4.0 1.5 2.8 O. K.
Run the pro~ram a~ain (V/N) ?V

246
*************************************************************************
Narrow Gap Weldin~
*************************************************************************
joint Gap 12.0 mm
Mean Current - 275.0 A
Travel Speed Heat Input Fill/pass Comments

mm/s kJ/mm mm
1.0 8.2 12.9 Weld pool floodin~ likely

2.0 4.1 6.5 O. K.
3.0 2.7 4.3 O.K.
6.0 LA. 2.2 Insufficient filler metal
Wire manipulation may be reQuired to avoid fusion defects with this ~ap
size.
Run the pro~ram a~ain (Y/N) ?N

PHD Thesis MIG/MAG Welding

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CRANFIELD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF IND~STRIAL SCIENCE

WELDING C-Mn STEELS USING THE PULSED CURRENT

MIG WELDING PROCESS

Supervisor R.L. Apps

The initial stage of the work covered the determination of pulse

Successful full penetration closed butt root welds were produced in

Modelling considerations showed that H-V position narrow gap welding

LIST OF TABLES (xii)

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS (xiii)

2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF MIG WELDING 4

2.1.1 Pulsed Current and Synergic MIG Welding 5

2.2.1 Computer Controlled Power Supplies 12

2.3 SHIELDING GASES 12

2.4 METAL TRANSFER IN MIG WELDING 14

2.4.1 Metal Transfer in Pulse Current MIG Welding 16

2.5 FUSION BEHAVIOUR 17

2.5.1 Gas Shielded Welding 18

2.6 TRANSMISSION PIPELINE WELDING 22

2.6.1 Semi-Automatic Arc Welding 23

3. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 70

3.1.1 Power Supplies 70

4.1 METAL TRANSFER AND ARC STABILITY 88

4.2 COMPARISON OF WIRE TYPE/DIAMETER/SHIELDING GAS 90

4.3 BEAD-ON-PLATE FUSION CHARACTERISTICS 90

4.4 ALL POSITIONAL ROOT WELDING 91

4.5 COMPLETE PIPE JOINT WELDING 92

4.6 NARROW GAP WELDING 92

4.6.1 Shielding Gas 93

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 100

5.1 METAL TRANSFER AND WIRE DEPOSITION 100

5.2 9EAD-ON-PLATE FUSION BEHAVIOUR 104

5.2.1 ~o~parison of Wire Type/Diameter/Shielding Gas 104

5.3.1 Flat Position Root Welding 116

5.4 NARROW GAP WELDING 127

5.4.1 Torch Designs 128

5.5 GENERAL DISCUSSION 139

7. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK 215

APPENDIX A: Calculation of pulse parameters for controlled

APPENDIX 8: Profile of a weld bead deposited in the

APPENDIX C: Computer program for the selection of welding

2.1 Three types of synergic control programmes. 45

2.2 Arc voltage control by wirefeed trimming. 46

2.3 The principle of the self adjusting arc using a flat

2.4 Arc voltage control by current modulation. 48

2.5 A block diagram of a series regulator type transistor power

2.6 A block diagram of a secondary switching type transistor

2.7 A block diagram of an inverter type transistor power

2.S A flow chart of power supply microcomputer control. 52

2.9 Wire burnoff data for .ild steel in Ar5%CO z '

2.10 Illustration of metal transfer modes. 54

2.11 Illustration of the usable ranges of pulsed MIG welding

2.12 Generalised representation of fusion characteristics

2.13 Some of the reported joint preparations for narrow gap

2.14 A comparison of conventional and narrow gap joint volumes. 58

2.15 The two basic approaches to narrow gap welding. 59

2.16 A chart showing how the range of conditions which produce

2.17 Some of the reported techniques for arc oscillation in

2.1S Multiple wire narrow gap MIG welding techniques. 62

2.19 The 'Twist Arc' narrow gap MIG welding technique. 63

2.20 A typical narrow gap welding torch design. 64

2.21 The principle of fluidic control for weld bead shape. 65

2.22 The minimum gas flow rate in relation to plate thickness

2.23 The 'VERTNAP' narrow gap MIG welding technique. 67