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Annex. Some present practices concerning anatomical criteria for right ventricu-
lar hypertrophy and for emphysema .................................. 614
Chronic Cor Pulmonale is reprinted herewith, ing allocated to the residual category "434.4
with the kind permission of the World Health Unspecified disease of heart." Moreover, ac-
Organization. cording to the existing rules the classification
As background material, a limited list of stated by the physician on the death certificate
references has been selected, and is appended would be related to the underlying cause of
at the end of the report itself. Most of these death and not to the resulting pulmonary
references have been taken from the prelim- heart disease. One therefore has to turn for
inary survey of Professor Denolin and Dr. indications of the frequency of cor pulmonale
Fletcher, which formed the working paper for to the information derived from autopsies and
the conference; the remainder being standard hospital admissions. Here there are large dif-
references which were used or referred to in ferences in its reported prevalence. In au-
the conference discussions. It should be em- topsy series there is, for example, a range of
phasized that there is no bibliography at- from 0.9% of all cardiac autopsies in Massa-
tached to the original WHO report; the intent chusetts to 54% in Arizona, a favourite resort
of the latter being to present without annota- for subjects with respiratory diseases. So far
tion or reference the combined opinions of the as hospital admissions are concerned, high fig-
Committee. ures for the incidence of cor pulmonale among
Introduction hospital admissions for heart failure ranging
The attention of the Director-General of the from 16% to 38% have been reported from
World Health Organization has recently been places such as Belgrade, Delhi, Prague and
drawn to the fact that although the lung dis- Sheffield. In most reported series more than
eases causing pulmonary heart disease are 50% of the cases are attributed to chronic
being studied extensively in many parts of bronchitis, asthma or emphysema, which con-
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
596 COR PULMONALE
stitute an ill-defined group of diseases of un- diseases which may be the cause of this syna-
certain etiology. A large number of other drome.
diseases are implicated in various proportions. (3) To describe in broad terms the patho-
From the above information, fragmentary physiology of cor pulmonale and to establish
though it is, it is fully apparent that chronic criteria for diagnosis.
cor pulmonale is of clinical significance. It is If these objectives are attained even in part,
furthermore evident that for certain areas of it is believed that the report will provide a
the world's population it has now been recog- language with which physicians throughout
nized to be numerically an important cause the world can communicate with one another
of chronic disease and death and therefore a and compare clinical experience and researeh
mnatter of serious concern to public health. findings.
That this has remained so long unrecognized It is well known that many contributions
is due probably to a number of causes. For of great importance in the pathophysiology of
many years the diagnosis was not made: the cor pulmonale have been made in recent years.
condition was obscured in the accompanying It is not so well known, and insufficiently em-
pulmonary manifestations on the one hand, or phasized, that contributions of equal impor-
else it was identified on the other hand as tance have been made in the description of
some other form of heart disease. It is only the clinical picture and the natural history of
recently that physiological relationships be- the major forms of this syndrome. It may be
tween chronic pulmonary disease and cor pul- noted that the physiological derangements and
monale have been worked out by the clinical the clinical findings have also been correlated.
physiologists, and still more recently that ade- A clinical-physiological study of this kind
quate methods of diagnosis have been estab- permits a recognition of cor pulmonale in life
lished. Physiologists are only now in the that is useful. It is not always possible to
process of simplifying these principles and predict from the history, clinical manifesta-
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methods of diagnosis so that the physician can tions and diagnostic findings, the amount of
add them to his clinical analysis. Further- right heart hypertrophy in any given case of
more, there has been no agreement among chronic pulmonary disease, but one can deter-
either physiologists, pathologists or clinicians mine with a fair degree of probability whether
as to terminology, and great difficulty there- the patient has or does not have this hyper-
fore has arisen in communicating findings of trophy, or is likely to develop it at some fu-
mutual interest and importance. ture time. Such clinical recognition is usually
The wide disparities in the reported inci- sufficient for management of the case.
dence of the disease in different areas may With these considerations in mind, attention
simply reflect these inconsistencies in the diag- is given in this report to the natural history
nostic terminology and conventions. If, on the and clinical course of the major diseases caus-
other hand, these reports do indicate real var- ing chronic cor pulmonale and to the mani-
iations in disease experience, they may give festations of this condition itself. There is no
important clues to those differences in local question but that further study along these
environment or ways of life which may under- lines is needed, or that the quantitative deter-
lie the geographical distribution of the disease. mination of right ventricular hypertrophy by
This brief statement will be perhaps a suffi- pathologists requires more study and stand-
cient indication of the need for some unifying ardization of methods.
statement on chronic cor pulmonale. There is another aspect of cor pulmonale
The objectives of this report are as follows: in which, by the combined efforts of physiolo-
(1) To define chronic cor pulmonale in gists and clinicians, great progress has been
terms useful for further discussion. achieved, and that is in treatment. In fact,
(2) To provide a tentative classification of skilful and rational therapy, with new meth-
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
CLINICAL PROGRESS 597
ods and new apparatus, has changed what was chronic cor pulmonale should include all these
once a relentlessly fatal state into one that conditions, since in all of them the right side
can be strikingly relieved. The course, though of the heart is affected by primary or second-
marked by severe exacerbations but also by ary vascular changes in the lung. The simi-
remissions, often gives the patient a useful larity in the vascular changes in the lung and
life in these intervals. The general principles in the clinical picture of some cases of mitral
of therapy are therefore briefly presented in stenosis or congenital heart disease with left-
the report. to-right shunt and with those belonging to
Also, it must still be recognized that chronic group (2) was stressed. Nevertheless, it was
cor pulmonale is a serious, protracted, ulti- agreed that the third group should be ex-
mately fatal human experience, occupying eluded in order to conform with current car-
frequently a large segment of the sufferer's diological practice.
life. As a sociological entity, every case has Definitions of chronic cor pulmonale have
its etiological and aggravating environmental been put forward by many authors in clinical,
factors and its many economic implications. functional or morbid anatomical terms. A
The whole of this category of disease, in areas clinical definition is considered unsatisfactory,
where it is prevalent, thus constitutes a serious since the chief clinical manifestation is heart
problem in public health and preventive med- failure, which may be long delayed. A fune-
icine. This aspect of ehronic cor pulmonale tional definition in terms of pulmonary hyper-
will be reviewed briefly in this report. tension or raised pulmonary vascular resist-
Finally, the report contaiiis suggestions for ance provides an unsatisfactory basis. This is
future research and recommendations. because vascular resistance is difficult to meas-
2. Definition and Classification of Chronic ure and is variable, and hypertension may be
Cor Pulmonale evanescent, may only occur on exercise, and
There are a large number of diseases in may decline in the terminal phase of the dis-
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which alterations in the pulmonary circula- ease. The Committee therefore prefers a defi-
tion impose an increased load on the right nition based upon morbid anatomy, for this
ventricle which may result in hvpertrophy provides the only characteristic common to
and ultimately failure. These diseases fall into all patients at all stages of the disease.
three broad groups according to their primary Chronic cor pulmonale is defined as:
impact on the lungs: "Iypertrophy of the right ventricle result-
(1) Diseases that primarily affect the ven- ing from diseases affecting the function and/
tilatory and respiratory function of the lungs. or the structure of the lung, except when these
(2) Diseases that act directly on the pul- pulmonary alterations are the result of dis-
monary vessels. eases that primarily affect the left side of the
(3) Primary cardiac diseases. heart or of congenital heart disease."
These three main groups of conditions are The diseases that may cause chronic pulmo-
usually quite distinct in their clinical mani- nary heart disease are listed in Table 1, classi-
festations. In group (1) the symptomatology fied into broad etiological groups.
is domin ated by the causative lung disease, If mortality statistics are to provide infor-
and failure of pulmonary function precedes mation on chronic cor pulmonale it is neces-
cardiac involvement. In group (2) the symp- sary that it should receive an identifying
tomatology is diverse, and when cardiac fail- number in the next revision of the detailed
ure supervenes pulmonary function is not list of the International Classification of Dis-
usually seriously disturbed. In group (3) the eases and that provision should be made for
clinical picture is initially determined by the indicating its etiology. This could be done in
primary cardiovascular disease. Some mem- two ways:
bers of the Committee thought that the term (a) By providing a new three-digit title for
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
598 COR PULMONALE
Table 1 Table 2
Classification of Chronic Cor Pulmonale According Suggested List of Main Causes of Chronic Cor Pul-
to Causative Diseases monale for International Classification of Diseases
1. Diseases primarily affecting air passages of the 0. Chronic bronchitis with or without emphysema
lung and the alveoli 1. Generalized obstructive lung disease (without men-
1.1 Chronic bronchitis with generalized airways tion of emphysema) or asthma
obstruction with or without emphysema* 2. Emphysema without mention of bronchitis
1.2 Bronchial asthma* 3. Pneumoconiosis and other occupational diseases
1.3 Emphysema without bronchitis or asthma* of the lung
1.4 Pulmonary fibrosis, with or without emphy-
sema, due to: 4. Parasitic diseases affecting the lung
(a) Tuberculosis* 5. Other diseases of the lung or pleura
(b) Pneumoconiosis* 6. Chest deformities, congenital or acquired
(c) Bronchiectasis*
(d) Other pulmonary infections 7. Thrombo-embolic diseases
(e) Radiation 8. Other diseases of blood or blood vessels
(f) Muco-viscidosis* 9. Unspecified cause
1.5 Pulmonary granulomata and infiltrations
(a) Sarcoidosis*
(b) Chronic diffuse interstitial fibrosis*
(c) Berylliosis* cor pulmonale and providing further fourth-
(d) Eosinophilic granuloma or histiocytosis*
(e) Malignant infiltration digit sub-divisions under this title according
(f) Seleroderma to etiology. A suggested list of fourth-digit
(g) Disseminated lupus erythematosus
(h) Dermatomyositis sub-divisions, suitable for this provision, is
(i) Alveolar microlithiasis given in Table 2.
1.6 Pulmonary resection*
1.7 Congenital cystic disease of the lungs (b) By providing two fourth-digit sub-divi-
1.8 High-altitude hypoxia sions, " with cor pulmonale" and "without
2. Diseases primarily affecting the movements of the cor pulmonale" under those existing etio-
thoracic cage
2.1 Kyphoscoliosis and other thoracic deformities* logical categories which are of sufficient im-
2.2 Thoracoplasty* portance to warrant such subdivision. These
2.3 Pleural fibrosis*
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2.4 Chronic neuromuscular weakness e.g., categories are marked with an asterisk in
poliomyelitis Table 1.
2.5 Obesity with alveolar hypoventilation
2.6 Idiopathic alveolar hypoventilation Provision (b) appears preferable since it
3. Diseases primarily affecting the pulmonary vascu- would conform better with present practice
lature
3.1 Primary affections of the arterial wall of codification and would permit a more pre-
(a) Primary pulmonary hypertension cise identification of the association of cor
(b) Polyarteritis nodosa*
(c) Other arteritis pulmonale with the disorders that may be
3.2 Thrombotic disorders complicated by it.
(a) Primary pulmonary thrombosis*
(b) Sickle cell anemia* 3. Physiological Derangements in Chronic
3.3 Embolism
(a) Embolism from thrombosis outside the Cor Pulmonale
lungs* The physiological disturbances in this group
(b) Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis) *
(c) Malignant embolism of diseases comprise those related to the re-
(d) Other embolism spiratory function (gaseous exchange) and
3.4 Pressure on main pulmonary arteries and
veins by mediastinal tumours, aneurysm, gran- those connected with the haemodynamics of
uloma or fibrosis. the pulmonary circulation. Though individual
Conditions marked * are those which might re- diseases can be classified broadly according to
ceive two fourth-digit sub-divisions "with" and the predominant physiological disturbances, it
"'without'" chronic cor pulmonale in the next re-
visioin of the International Classification of Diseases. must be recognized that these frequently over-
Syphilitic arteritis, rheumatic arteritis (without rheu- lap and are present to a variable extent at
inatic heart disease), primary pulmonary haemo- different stages of the diseases.
siderosis and nlakylostomiasis do not seem to the 3.1 Disturbances in the Respiratiry Function
Committee to be sufficiently well documented causes
of chronic cor pulmonale to merit inclusion in the list The alterations in respiratory function
of causes despite their occurrence in the literature. which can be recognized are four in number:
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
CLINICAL PROGRESS 599
niinished peripheral vascular shadows are cordial leads Vi to V4 or in leads II and III
common radiological findings in pulmonary may also occur, but may be transitory. A com-
hypertension. In this respect they may indi- bination of one or more of these alterations
cate indirectly the existence of right ventric- in the P or T waves or the QRS complex, to-
ular hypertrophy. gether with those mentioned in relation to
4.1.3 Electrocardiographic findings right ventricular hypertrophy, reinforces the
It must be appreciated that there may be indication of cardiac disease.
no alterations in the electrocardiogram in 4.1.4 Haemodynamic findings
eases of chronic cor pulmonale in spite of the The most accurate method of defining the
presence at autopsy of right ventricular hy- altered state of the pulmonary circulation in
pertrophy. There are, however, many observed cor pulmonale is that of cardiac catheteriza-
deviations from the normal electrocardiogram. tion which permits measurement of blood flow
some of which are related to changes in the and pressures. Although the demonstration
position of the heart and others of temporary of pulmonary hypertension does not neces-
phases of illness. Amongst all these deviations sarily imply right ventricular hypertrophy,
the changes usually accepted as those indica- its presence implies strain upon the right ven-
tive of right ventricular hypertrophy appear triele, and persistent hypertension will cer-
and remain in a proportion of cases and there- tainly cause hypertrophy. Catheterization is
fore constitute important criteria in life. needed, however, for diagnostic purposes in
The presence of a qR pattern with delayed only very few patients. When performed, both
R wave in VI (onset of intrinsicoid deflection cardiac output and pressure measurements
more than 0.03 second) is not commonly seen should be made and it is important that the
in cor pulmonale, but, if present, may by itself patient should be in a steady state. The tech-
be considered to be highly suggestive of right nique requires standardization, and catheteri-
ventricular hypertrophy. It is often better zation should be performed only by well-
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observed in V3R and V4R which should thus trained and well-equipped observers.
be recorded in patients in whom right ven- The following are regarded as the upper
tricular hypertrophy is suspected. In the ab- limits of normal values with the reference
sence of a qR pattern a combination of at point* 10 cm. above the level of the back in
least two of the following changes must be the supine position:
present for these alterations to be indicative
of right ventricular hypertrophy: Systolic Diastolic Mean
mm. Hg mm. Hg mm. Hg
(1) Alteration in the ratio R/S in the left
chest leads with R/S less than 1 in V5. Right atrium 6
Right ventricle 25 6
(2) Predominant S wave in standard lead I. Pulmonary artery 25 19 15
(3) Presence of an incomplete right bundle Pulmonary arteriolar
branch block with QRS less than 0.12 second. wedge pressure 9
The significance of a P pulmonale in which The total pulmonary resistance lies between 150 and
the P wave in lead II is 2.5 mm. or more in 300 dynes sec. cm.-'
height, though considered to be suggestive of
hypertrophy of the right atrium and seen in Pulmonary hypertension is usually consid-
some patients with cor pulmonale, cannot be ered to be present when the mean pressure in
regarded as diagnostic of cardiac involvement. the pulmonary artery exceeds 25 mm. Hg at
Right axis deviation of an extreme degree rest. In many instances of cor pulmonale
(110° or more) accompanies extreme rotation this value will not be exceeded at rest. The
of the cardiac axis and so may be found in *A more customary reference point 5 cm below
association with right ventricular hyper- the sternal angle is also used with approximately the
trophy. Inversion of the T wave in the pre- same normal values. This is not recommended.
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
602 COR PULMONALE
effects of exercise on the pulmonary artery impossible to correlate anatomical emphysema
pressure, though considerable in the presence -which may occur in a variety of forms-
of cor pulmonale, will depend on the amount with any single characteristic clinical, radio-
of work and on the stage of disease. Actual logical or functional syndrome.
values for the normal mean pressures on A definition of emphysema in anatomical
exercise are not quoted because of lack of terms is therefore proposed as follows:
standardization of available figures. Emphysema is a condition of the lung char-
acterized by increase beyond the normal in
The clinical, radiological, electrocardio- the size of air spaces distal to the terminal
graphic and haemodynamic findings should be bronchiole, with destructive changes in their
considered together, since the diagnosis of walls.
right ventricular hypertrophy becomes in- 4.2.3 Definition of chronic bronchitis
creasingly probable with increase in the num- Although it would be desirable to define
ber and severity of abnormalities demon- chronic bronchitis in anatomical terms, the
strated. It is not possible at present to state Committee do not consider this possible at
any simple definitive criteria which would present. A definition in clinical terms is there-
command general acceptance. fore proposed as follows:
4.2 Definition and Diagnosis of Pulmonary Diseases Chronic bronchitis is a chronic or recurrent
With Special Reference to Chronic Bronchitis and
Emphysema
increase above the normal in the volume of
bronchial mucous secretion, sufficient to cause
4.2.1 Introduction expectoration when this is not due to localized
In most of the diseases listed in Table 1, broncho-pulmonary disease. The words chronic
section 1, the diagnosis is made by established or recurrent may be further defined as present
nethods which need no elaboration, but some on most days during at least three months in
comment is necessary on the definition and
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persistent airways obstruction also have some of the seventh rib anteriorly with a movement
degree of reversible obstruction or asthma. of 2 cm. or less between full inspiration anid
The term "generalized airways obstruction" expiration.
is accurately descriptive and its use in diag- (c) An increase in the retrosternal space
nosis would encourage the conscious consid- seen in a lateral radiograph.
eration of the degree to which it is reversible, (d) A decrease of peripheral vascular shad-
or irreversible, and when irreversible, the ows. Selective angiography can demonstrate
separation of those cases with evidence of these changes more precisely.
destructive emphysema from those without 4.2.6 Functional diagnosis
such evidence. The main disturbanees of respiratory func-
4.2.5 Clinical diagnosis tion that may lead to cor pulmonale are listed
Symptoms in section 3. They can be diagnosed by three
The main symptoms of this group of dis- main groups of tests:
eases are productive cough, exertional dysp- (a) tests of ventilatory function and lung
noea of abnormal sev\erity, and wheezing. A volume determination;
history of previous lung diseases is also of (b) tests of alveolar-capillary gas exchange;
interest, since it may be of etiological impor- (c) measurement of arterial blood gases.
tanee. When primary lung disease is of sufficient
Physical signs severity to cause cor pulmonale, it is exceed-
The physical signs of these diseases when ingly rare (if it ever occurs) for one aspect
they are severe enough to cause chronic cor only of pulmonary function to be impaired,
pulmonale do not at present enable any dis- so that a full pulmonary function study is al-
tinction to be made between reversible and ways desirable. A complete and detailed ac-
persistent airways obstruction or between pa- count of all the techniques that are available
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tients with and without emphysema as de- for such studies is not presented, for these
fined. may be found in various textbooks and re-
Severe airways obstruction is evidenced by views. Only the simpler investigations that
laboured breathing with use of accessory mus- may be regarded as the minimum necessary to
cles, an expanded chest with limited respira- identify the relevant disorders of pulmonary
tory excursion, hyper-resonance, wheezing function are mentioned.
expiration and often faint breath sounds. In The effects of exercise on the blood gases
the presence of hypoxaemia and hypereapnia
and on respiratory function are of great in-
terest, and they are of special value in the
there may be a characteristic jerky tremor and
diagnosis of suspected alveolar-capillary block.
mental confusion. Cyanosis is prominent
The technique requires careful standardiza-
chiefly in cases with polycythaemia. tion. Such tests are, however, not essential in
Radiological diagnosis the investigation of respiratory function in
Although anatomical emphysema of at least cases of cor pulmonale.
moderate severity may be present without any (a) Tests of ventilatory futnction and meas-
radiological abnormality, there are a number urement of lung volume
of radiological signs which strongly suggest Various simple methods are available for
its presence. These are: estimating impairment of ventilatory func-
(a) Localized transradiancy with wide tion. The most widely used method, and one
spacing of pulmonary vessels or with hairlines that is both valid and, if correctly performed,
indicating the walls of bullae. Generalized relatively free from subject and observer vari-
transradiancy is a sign of emphysema only if ation, is to measure the maximum volume of
technique is scrupulously standardized. air that the subject can exhale after a full
(b) A flat diaphragm lying below the level inspiration (i) forcibly during the first second
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
604 COR PULMONALE
of expiration (FEV1.0) * and (ii) to full ex- normal limits. In practice, oxygen saturation
piration (VC) .t (derived from oxygen content and capacity)
The value of FEV1.0 gives an indirect esti- is used to estimate the degree of hypoxaemia.
mate of maximum ventilatory capacity, while Determination of PO2 presents technical
the FEV1.0 expressed as a percentage of VC difficulties. The development of oxygen elee-
indicates whether impairment, if present, is trodes permitting continuous recording of PO2
predominantly obstructive or restrictive. may, in the future, provide great advantages
A spirometric tracing of minute volume, with considerable simplification.
forced expiratory and inspiratory vital ca- Oxygen saturation is still best determined
pacities, and of maximum voluntary ventila- by the manometric method of Vail Slyke and
tion can provide additional valuable informa- Neill. The recent and more convenient method
tion. of spectrophotometry can only be recom-
There is a wide variety of methods by which mended for well-trained observers. Oximetry
the obstructive and restrictive components of gives only a rough value for the oxygen sat-
ventilatory impairment can be much more uration.
accurately estimated than by spirometry, but Carbon dioxide
most of these require relatively elaborate Hypereapnia and hypocapnia are defined
equipment and are not essential for the diag- respectively as increase and decrease in arte-
nosis and assessment of impairment sufficient rial carbon dioxide tension (pCO2) beyond
to cause chronic cor pulmonale. normal limlits. pCO2 can be obtained by di-
Measurement of the total lung volume, of rect measurement or by calculation from pH
the functional residual capacity and of the and CO2 content of the blood.
residual volume may assist in the differentia- In the absence of any cause of metabolic
tion of the obstructive and restrictive type of alkalosis, the CO2 content of the plasma pro-
impairment and in the diagnosis of the sever- vides a useful suggestion that there may be
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ically equal fall of PO2 and rise of pCO2 in 4.3.1 Hyperventilation in gross pulmonary fi-
the alveoli and hence in the arterial blood, brosis or granulomatosis (see Table 1,
but owing to the different slopes of the disso- sections 1.4, 1.5.
ciation curves of oxygen and carbon dioxide, The natural history of patients in this
while the change in arterial carbon dioxide group consists of the gradual development of
content is relatively large in relation to the progressive disabling dyspnoea with alveolar
change in pCO2, the change in arterial oxygen hyperventilation. The patient progresses stead-
content is relatively small. Thus, generalized ily towards a state of severe failure of pul-
alveolar hypoventilation produces hypercap- monary function. Functional changes arise
nia with relatively large reduction of oxygen from the restriction of pulmonary ventilation
tensions but only slight decrease in oxygen with little or no increase in the functional
saturation of the arterial blood. In profound residual capacity. In the early stages the oxy-
hypoventilation desaturation is also severe. gen saturation of the arterial blood is reduced
(c) Alveolar-capillary block only on exercise and the blood carbon dioxide
Alveolar oxygen exchange may be impaired tension is normal or even reduced. (Hypoxae-
if there is thickening of the alveolar walls or mia with normocapnia or hypocapnia: section
if the area of contact between alveolar gases 4.2.7 (c). The signs of right ventricular hyper-
and pulmonary capillary blood is reduced; trophy are recognized relatively easily and
but the exchange of carbon dioxide, which is pulmonary hypertension, if moderate at rest,
thirty times more diffusible than oxygen is severe on exercise. Cardiac failure, if it
through liquids, remains normal or may be ensues, is shown by venous congestion, hepato-
increased by the hyperventilation. On exer- megaly and oedema, and it responds relatively
cise, the more rapid passage of blood through poorly to treatment. Cyanosis is now clini-
the lung exacerbates the hypoxaemia. Thus, cally obvious with hypoxaemia at rest, but
alveolar-capillary block produces hypoxaemia, the arterial CO2 tension is still normal. Many
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increased or only manifest upon exercise, patients die without prior development of
often with hypocapnia. heart failure.
(d) Breathing of low oxygen tensions 4.3.2 Emphysema with hyperventilation (see
This, in practice, only occurs at high alti- Table 1, section 1.3.
tudes. It results in hypoxaemia with hypocap- Patients in this group have progressively
nia from increased alveolar ventilation. inereasing dyspnoea, with or without chronic
4.3 The Clinical Picture of Chronic Cor Pulmonale cough. Ventilatory capacity is diminished
Secondary to Pulmonary Diseases with obstruction to expiration and increase
Hitherto this report has been concerned in the functional residual capacity. There is
with the definition of the causative diseases usually ample radiological evidence of emphy-
and the description of the signs found in the sema. Hyperventilation is persistent, arterial
various disorders without reference to indi- oxygen saturation is normal or slightly di-
vidual patients. The recognition of chronic minished, and the arterial C09 tension is
cor pulmonale during life depends, however, slightly below normal. These cases continue
very largely on an appreciation of the evolu- in this way for many years, sometimes devel-
tion of the clinical picture which, though oping extreme ventilatory insufficiency yet
complex, may be described in three typical with an unchanging pattern of blood gases.
forms. These are exemplified (1) by gross fi- Pulmonary arterial pressure is only slightly
brosis or granulomatosis of the lung; (2) by increased. Only with the onset of a severe
emphysema associated with hyperventilation; acute respiratory infection may the clinical
(3) by chronic bronchitis and emphysema, picture suddenly change. Hypoxaemia now
associated with the state of alveolar hypoven- becomes severe, pCO2 increases, and the pa-
tilation. tient may rapidly develop right heart strain
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
606 COR PULMONAIE
and enlargement with cardiac failure. WVith by the appearance of the signs of congestive
adequate treatment of the pulmonary condi- cardiac failure. may be ushered in suddenly
tion the patient usually recovers promptly, by an acute respiratory infection leading to
evidence of cardiac involvement recedes, and severe hypoxaemia and hypercapnia. Occa-
there is a return to the former state. There sionally, however, the onset of oedema is in-
may be numerous exacerbations of this kind. sidious and unexplained. In any event, pa-
On the other hand, many patients in this tients with cardiac failure may later pursue
group never develop cardiac complications. an intermittent and recurrent course with
The experiences of different members of the good response to treatment, or else one of
Committee suggest a considerable variation of persistent venous congestion relatively unre-
the incidenee of this form of emphysema rela- sponsive to therapy. The changes in ventila-
tive to that of the bronchitis-emphysema tory function are similar to those found at an
group with alveolar hypoventilation described earlier stage of illness, but the elevation of the
below. pCO9 is more profouiid. The electrocardio-
4.3.3 Alveolar hypoventilation group (see Ta- gram, however, becomes increasingly abnormal
ble 1, sections 1.1. 1.2 and 2. with some reversible and some irreversible
The natural historv may be seen by refer- alterations (see section 4.1). Changes in
ence to a typical case of the bronchitis-emphy- the pulmonary circulation are present, and
sema group. There is a long phase of illness pulmonary blood pressure is increased par-
whose chief features are the symptoms of the ticularly during cardiac failure, when also
pulmonary disease and during which evi- hvpoxaemia and hypereapnia are most pro-
dences of cardiac involvement are absent. found. The heart undergoes dilatation which
Cough and expectoration may be the only may be temporary but later is persistent and
symptoms in the early stages, and these are considerable.
Tricuspid incompetence may be a feature,
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may be considered to be reactions to changes in the pulmonary area with a pulmonary sys-
in the pulmonary circulation, due to extra- tolic ejection click suggests pulmonary hyper-
pulmonary factors. It seems that the pulmo- tension. Occasionally harsh systolic and dias-
nary vessels have the property of reacting to tolic murmurs are heard over the pulmonary
alterations in the blood pressure, the blood- area. Hypoxaemia occurs only in the late
flow and the chemical composition of the blood. stages of evolution of the disease.
In many instances a reaction of the pulmo- 4.4.2.3 Radiological findings
nary vascular bed similar to that mentioned Dilatation of the pulmonary conus, the pul-
above results from disease of the left side of monary artery and its branches will be seen,
the heart or from congenital heart disease. and in advanced eases they may reach a size
4.4.2 Clinical picture larger than that met with in other types. En-
The general picture of severe pulmonary largement of the right ventricle is seen. The
hypertension, such as is seen in cor pulmonale lungs show a clear periphery with prominent
due to schistosomiasis, will be first described, hilar shadows. Selective angiography may be
and this is followed by special comments on of value in these cases; it shows the dilated
other examples. tortuous arteries ending abruptly.
4.4.2.1 Symptomatology and physical signs 4.4.2.4 Electrocardiographic findings
. The disease is generally symptomless for The ECG may be normal in the early stages,
several months or years. Syncope and oppres- especially in schistosomiasis; later on, evi-
sive dyspnoea on exertion occur later on when dences of right ventricular hypertrophy ap-
the right ventricle fails to increase its output pear. In advanced cases the ECG changes are
on effort owing to the increased vascular re- extreme.
sistance. Sudden and temporary loss of vision 4.4.2.5 Physiological changes
and loss of consciousness may follow severe The pulmonary artery pressure at rest and
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
608 COR PULMONATIE
the cardiac output are within normal limits (c) Primar y pulmonary hypertension
in early stages of the disease, but the pulmo- This is considered to be an example of a
nary artery pressure increases on exercise. In primary lesion of the pulmonary arterial wall.
advanced cases there is a diminution in car- The existence of this disease is still denied by
diac output and the pressure in the pulmonary some authorities, but a few cases have been
artery attains very high levels even durinog recognized which have pursued a rapid clin-
rest. ical course with characteristic physiological
It is a feature of patients in the pulmonary findings, yet in which at autopsy almost no
schistosomniasis group that pulmonary func- anatomical changes are found. This suggests
tion is not necessarily disturbed. Secondary that at least in some cases a physiological in-
alterations of the air passages may, however, crease in vascular resistance precedes anatom-
occur as a result of inflamniatory changes, ical changes. Clinically the disease is more
and then impairment of ventilation appears. often seen in young women than in men, and
Certain additional features deserve inention pursues a course that follows closely the gemi-
in regard to particular diseases: eral description already given above. Only
(a) Thrombo-embolism of the pulmonary minor alteration occurs in the respiratory
arteries function. Some pathologists believe that this
This usually originates in peripheral venous condition is not a primary disease but is due
thrombosis. The clinical course is variable, to multiple embolism.
somie cases developing within a few days or (d) Pulmo nary vascular lesions occurring
weeks, (acute cor pulmonale) whereas chronic in situ, secondary to generalized sys-
cases with recurrent thromboembolism pro- temic diseases
gress gradually for years. The symptomatol- In such diseases as polyarteritis or systemie
ogy also varies, and depends largely upon the lupus erythematosus, involvement of the pul-
monary vascular bed may be such as to cause
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In patients with excessive sputum, postural group of pulmonary disorders in which mul-
drainage may be of great value. In severely tiple factors are to be discerned, sueh as
ill patients with ineffective cough it may be chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma and
necessary to aspirate sputum by a tracheal bronchiectasis. The uncertainty of the factors,
catheter. When this is necessary it is usually personal or environmental, which determine
advisable to perform a tracheostomy. the development of these disorders limits the
(d) Oxygen therapy, respiratory stimulants immediate prospect for effective prevention.
and assisted respiration. Oxygen should be ad- On the other hand, recent studies in several
ininistered to all hypoxaemic cases of general- fields of medicine have suggested the relevance
ized obstructive lung disease. In some patients, of various aspects of the working or living
relief of hypoxaemia decreases the ventilation environment and of certain personal charac-
and hypereapnia increases to dangerous lev- teristics and habits.
els, thus producing mental confusion and even Mortality analyses have emphasized the
coma. When this happens ventilation may be gross excess in mortality from these disorders
increased by large doses of respiratory stimu- in men in middle life compared with women
lants. of the same age; and morbidity surveys of
When these drugs fail, tracheostomy fol- people of both sexes doing the same job sug-
lowed by artificial ventilation by means of gest that this male excess is not due to any
positive pressure or tank respirators should difference in occupational exposure or effort.
be instituted and continued until the patient Indeed, more detailed studies of personal hab-
is once more able to maintain adequate ven- its and respiratory disability indicate that
tilation without assistance. this sex disparity may be largely explained
(e) Sedatives. Morphine and other respira- by differences in cigarette consumption. Pros-
tory depressants should never be prescribed pective studies of men divided according to
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
610 COR PULMONALE
their smoking habits have confirmed that to antecedent bronehiolitis. On the other hand,
heavy smoking is associated with a high death a proportion of patients with emphysema ap-
rate from these chronic lung disorders. pear to develop this disease without any pre-
The large differences in death rates between vious bronchial infection. However this may
different parts of the same country cannot be be, there is good reason to suspect that sueh
attributed to differences in smioking habits, infection plays a major role in the patho-
although some of the international disparities genesis and evolution of this disease in many
may be thus explained. The urban-rural gra- patients.
dient in mortalitv and morbidity, the concen- Although, as already noted, there is some
tration of high rates in iiidustrial areas, and evidenee that many patients developing
the time relationships between fog and exacer- chronic bronehitis show a predisposition to
bations of chronice bronchitis have stronglv repeated respiratory illness early in life, little
suggested the part played by air pollution in is known of the factors determining individual
the initiation or aggravation of these diseases. suseeptibility to such respiratory diseases.
Other urban circumstances such as the in- The studies reported above were conducted
creased exposure to infection in crowded comii- mainly in industrialized countries in temper-
munities may be important, but there is little ate climates. Although within these countries
firm evidence on this point. there is some evidenee of an association be-
Onie of the most striking features of the tween falling temiperature and respiratory
distribution of chronic bronchitis in the disorder, climatic factors cannot explain the
United Kingdom is the miarked social class major regional and international differences
gradient for the death rate, which among un- reported in the frequency of the serious formes
skilled workers is five times the rate prevailing of these diseases. Further, the relationships
in the professional and manaaerial classes. found, for exaniple, between urban conditions
This gradient also appears among the wives and chronic bronchitis mortality, may not be
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of the men, divided according to their hus- identical in different climate conditions. It
bands' occupation. The high death rate among seems likely, however, that the evidenee of
the less skilled workers and their wives is thus suech relationships already accumnulated allows
probably due more to some factor in the do- certain generally applicable preventive meas-
mestic environment which they share than to ures to be proposed.
anyv specific occupational risk to which the 6.1.1 Cigarette snmoking
inan alone is exposed. The nature of these The associationi noted between cigarette
donmestic or social factors in unknown, al- smnoking and bronchitis makes even more
though infection, made m-ore frequent by over- urgent the nieed for a campaigni to control the
crowding and niore serious by inadequate care modern pandemie of cigarette smoking. Since
or low standards of home heatingy and venti- there is reasoni to believe that the risks of
lation, mnay be important. malignant, inflammatory or degenerative pul-
Studies of the natural history of chronic monary disease are less in pipe and cigar
bronchitis have suggested that repeated re- smokers, efforts to discourage cigarette smok-
spiratory infections, beginning quite early in ing or to substitute these alterniative methods
life, are a feature in the developmenit of per- of smoking would be worthwhile. Health edu-
sistent generalized obstructive lunog disease. cation may be most usefully concentrated,
Support for this concept comes fromn the dein- however, on dissuading children and adoles-
onstration in field eniquiries of a significant cents fromn taking up smoking.
relationship between recurrent infections and 6.1.2 Atmospheric conditions
impairment of ventilatory capacity, and froimi Programmes for the study and control of
the observations of pathologists who attribute all forms of air pollution are to be strongly
the common cenitrilobular form-l of enlphysema encouraged, and in areas where industrializa-
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
CLINICAL PROGRESS 6,11
tion is proceeding the avoidance of air pollu- sized. Prolonged rest is indicated whenever
tion by careful siting of factories and disposal the cardiac condition deteriorates in patients
of their effluents is of prime importance to the with pulmonary disease. In earlier stages of
public health. While evidence ineriminating the disease adoption of a job that does not
air pollution has been produced, the compo- involve heavy exertion may be of prophylaetie
nents responsible for the aggravation of value. It is important, however, to remember
chronic respiratory disease have not been that complete inactivity is to be deprecated.
clearly identified. Until more is known about 6.2.2 Anticoagldants
this subject it cannot be assumed that the These drugs have a wide range of useful-
cleaning of air by the removal of particulate ness, not only in pulmonary embolism but also
matter is the only public health action re- in other forms of pulmonary hyperteiision and
quired. in particular those due to primary vascular
6.1.3 Infection diseases which are frequently accompanied by
Experience of the effect of repeated infec- secondary thrombosis. They are indicated
tions on the progress of this disease suggests when there is evidence of peripheral venlous
that all measures designed to prevent respira- thrombosis.
tory infections and their complications should 6.2.3 Venesection
be considered. Modern methods of domestic In patients with a raised haematocrit and
heating and ventilation will reduce the risks increased blood volume, velnesection may be
presented either by chilling or by cross infee- of value.
tion due to overcrowding in the only warm
room in the home. 7. Suggestions for Research, and
Recommendations
6.1.4 Working conditions Without attemiptingf to formulate detailed
In general, the same comments apply to the
proposals for particular research projects, the
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collection of data on habits such as smoking concerning the normal limits by sex and age
and on respiratory symptoms will allow the of the relevant variables.
confirmation of general relationships between It is necessary to establish the relative sig-
them which are common to all countries and nificance of the various electrocardiographic
the discovery of any modifying effects of the abnormalities by correlating their presence
local environment. More epidemiological re- with haemodynamic and pathological investi-
search is also needed on the effects of differ- gations in larger series than those already
ent types of air pollution in countries or areas studied. This might permit the application of
where different forms of fuel and of power statistical methods to determine their relative
production are used. The study of the minor discriminatory value.
respiratory illnesses in contrasting types of It is also important to establish the validity
home environment in different countries of the radiological signs of right ventricular
should be encouraged. hypertrophy and of emphysema.
In all such comparative studies the need The exact techniques of measurement of
for the standardization of diagnostic proce- right ventricular hypertrophy and of emphy-
dures and measures-for example, of air pol- sema by anatomical means are not yet gen-
lution, or home, school and work environment erally agreed. Their precision should be in-
is self-evident. It is in this context that creased, perhaps by the standardization of
WHO could be most helpful by eirculating procedures along the lines of those referred
descriptions of standard methods, arranging to in the Annex.
for the exchange of observers in field survey New physical and biochemical methods for
work, and in general providing co-ordinating the study of pulmonary and vascular pathol-
maehinery. ogy are being developed. Their use should be
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
CLINICAL PROGRESS 613
appreciating cardio-respiratory relationships tributed not only by written reports but also
may be built up. by appropriate use of standard illustrations,
(b) Pathologists radiographs and films.
Pathologists should receive training in the Where standardized techniques exist they
technique and significance of pulmonary func- should be brought to the attention of all those
tion tests, and clinical investigators should who might use them. For instance, a stand-
devote more effort to ensuring that proper ardized questionnaire of symptoms of chronic
pathological studies are carried out on respiratory diseases, in particular bronchitis,
autopsy on patients who have been studied as has been developed for epidemiological study
completely as possible in life. Correlated by a committee of the British Medical Re-
clinico-pathological studies should not be con- search Council and has been successfully used
fined to fatal or even to advanced cases; infor- in at least five different countries. WHO
mation is needed concerning the earlier stages might help with the dissemination of such
of the diseases in which irreversible patho- information.
logical changes develop in the pulmonary ar- 7.3.4 Postgraduate education
terioles and in the architecture of the lung. Postgraduate education of surgeons, physi-
(c) Epidemiologists cians and pathologists in the use of modern
The Committee was informed of a proposal techniques of cardio-pulmonary function and
to organize a training course for epidemiolo- in the diagnosis and management of patients
gists in cardiovascular diseases and recom- with cardio-pulmonary diseases is undoubt-
mends that training in respiratory epidemio- edly needed. This is necessary if sufferers
logical techniques should be included in these from these diseases are to receive prompt
courses. Clinical investigators should be en- benefit of recent advances of knowledge.
Circulation, Volume XXVII, April 1963
614 COR PULMONALE
7.3.5 The Committee believes that WHO as an the septum and weighed individually. The
international organization with world criterion for right ventricular hypertrophy
health as its concern is particitlarly well based on this technique "is when the free
placed: wall of the right ventricle weighs 80 grams
(a) to encourage, sponsor and co-ordinate or more. In isolated right ventricular hyper-
those aspects of research for which an inter- ratio
left ventricle + septum
national approach is neceded, e.g., field sur- right ventricle
veys where comparative studies in different is always less than 2 :1. If left ventricular
parts of the world are essential; hypertrophy is also present the ratio may be
(b) to pronmote the use of conmparable no- within normal limits or even raised."
menclatutre, classification and diagnostic crite- 2. Emphysema
ria and methodology in general; There is no recognized standard procedure
(c) to convene meetings of an international for the recognition and estimation of emphy-
nature; sema in the lungs at autopsy. It is important
(d) to encourage training in research re- to realize that emphysema can be diagnosed
quirements. and classified consistently only on prepara-
tions from lungs distended anid fixed before
ANNEX
Some Present Practices Concerning Anatomical they are cut. The type of emphysema requires
Criteria for Right Ventricular Hypertrophy careful description, and the classification put
and for Emphysema forward by a British group of investigators4
1. Right ventricular hypertrophy is useful in that it distinguishes between
The diagnosis of right ventricular hyper- simple dilatation and destructiye changes.
trophy at autopsy is often based upon a sim- Changes selectively affecting the respiratory
ple measurement of the thickness of the right bronchioles (centrilobular emphysema), those
affecting the whole acinus (panacinar emphv-
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New York, Grune & Stratton, 1959. Bronchitis, Emphysema and Cor Pulmonale.
FERRIS, B. G.: Studies of pulmonary function. New Bristol, Wright & Sons, Ltd., 1957.
England J. Med. 262: 557 and 610, 1960. STUTART-HARRIS, C. H., PLATTS, MA. M., AND HAMMOND,
FISHMAN, A. P.: Respiratory gases in the regulation J. D. S.: A study of cor pulmonale in patients
of the pulmonary circulation. Physiol. Rev. 41: with chronie bronchitis. Quart. J. Med. 29:
214, 1961. 559, 1960.
FLETCHER, C. M.: The significance of respiratory TAQUINI, A. C.: El Corazon Pulmonar. Liberia "'El
symptoms in diagnosis of chronie bronchitis Ateneo'' Editorial, Buenos Aires, 1954.
in a working population. Brit. M. J. 2: 257, WALZER, I., AND FROST, T. T.: Cor pulmonale: A
1959. consideration of clinical ancd autopsy findings.
FLETCHER, C. M.: Chronic bronchitis, its prevalenee, Dis. Chest. 26: 192, 1954.
nature and pathogenesis. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. WHITE, P. D., AND JONES, T. D.: Heart disease and
8: 483, 1959. disorders in New England. Am. Heart J. 3:
GAENSLER, E. A.: Clinical pulmonary physiology. 302, 1928.
New England J. Med. 252: 177, 221, and WIDIMSK.T, J., DEJDAR, R., VALACH, A., FEJFAR, Z.,
264, 1955. BERGMANN, K., VYSLOUZIL, Z., AND LUKES, M.:
GOUGH, J., AND WENTWORTH, J. E.: The use of thin ECG ehanges and their diagnostic significance
section of entire organs in morbid anatomical in cor pulmonale. Casop. lek. eesk. 98: 649,
studies. J. Roy. Mier. Soc. 69: 231, 1949. 1959.