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Q.1 Write a note on the managerial roles and skills.

Answer. Following are the Managerial roles and skills:

Organized Activities: Management is a process of organized


activities. Groups of people cannot be involved in the performance of
activities without organized activities. Management comes into
existence where a group of people are involved in achieving a common
objective. The organized activities may take a variety of forms ranging
from a tightly structured organization to a loosely-knit organization.

Existence of Objectives: The existence of objectives is a basic


criterion of every human organization. The organizational objectives
are the desired state of affairs which an organization attempts to
realize. This realization of objectives is sought through the coordinated
efforts of the people constituting an organization.

Decision-making: Management process involves decision making at


all levels. Decision-making describes the process by which a course of
action is selected as the way to deal with a specific problem. If there is
only one alternative, the question of decision making does not arise.
The quality of alternatives which a manger selects determines the
organization’s performance, and the future of the organization.

Relationship among resources: The essence of management is


integration of various organizational resources. Resources include
money, machine, materials, and people. Management is concerned
with the proper utilization of human resources which, in turn, utilize
other resources.

Working with and through people: Management involves working


with people and getting organizational objectives achieved through
them. Working through people is interpreted in terms of assigning
activities to subordinates.

Q.2 Discuss the methods of shaping behavior in detail.


ANSWER: Shaping Behavior
When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals’ behaviour by directing their learning
in graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior. There are four methods of Shaping Behavior.
They are as follows:
1. Positive reinforcement – This is the process of getting something pleasant as a consequence
of a desired behavior, to strengthen the same behavior. For example, one get a commission, if
he/she achieves sales target.
For example,
i) Bonuses paid at the end of a successful business year are an example of positive
reinforcement.
ii) Employees will work hard for a raise or a promotion.
iii) Salesmen will increase their efforts to get rewards and bonuses.
iv) Students will study to get good grades, and
v) In these examples, the rises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades, are positive
reinforces.
2. Negative reinforcement – This is the process of having a reward taken away as a
consequence of a undesired behavior. For example, scholarship is withdrawn from the student
who has not done well on the examination. Just as people engage in behaviours in order to get
positive reinforces, they also engage in behaviours to avoid or escape unpleasant conditions.
Terminating an unpleasant stimulus in order to strengthen or increase the probability of a
response is called negative reinforcement.
3. Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable
behavior. This is the process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a behavior.
According to B. F. Skinner, punishment is still the most common technique of behaviour control
in today’s life. When a child misbehaves, he is spanked. If a person does not behave as the
society or law wants him to do, he is punished by arrest and jail.
Example: Loss of pay for coming late to office. Punishment can be accomplished either by
adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant stimulus. The added unpleasant stimulus
might take the form of criticism, a scolding, a disapproving look, a fine, or a prison sentence.
The removal of a pleasant stimulus might consist of withholding affection and attention,
suspending a driver’s license, or taking away a privilege such as watching television.
Accordingly, in situations where punishment is desirable as a means of behaviour modification,
certain guidelines would make it more effective thus minimizing its dysfunctional consequences.
a) Praise in public; punish in private.
b) Apply punishment before the undesirable behaviour has been strongly
reinforced. Thus, the punishment should immediately follow the undesirable
behaviour.
c) The punishment should focus on the behaviour and not on the person.
4. Extinction – An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour is extension – the attempt to
weaken behaviour by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is
equivalent to ignoring the behaviour. The rationale for using extinction is that a behaviour not
followed by any consequence is weakened. However, some patience and time may be needed
for it to be effective.
This type of reinforcement is applied to reduce undesirable behaviour, especially when such
behaviours were previously rewarded. This means that if rewards were removed from
behaviours that were previously reinforced, then such behaviours would become less frequent
and eventually die out. For example, if a student in the class is highly mischievous and disturbs
the class, he is probably asking for attention. If .the attention is given to him, he will continue to
exhibit that behaviour.
Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They strengthen a response and
increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend
to decrease its subsequent frequency
Q.3 Explain the classification of personality types given by Myers -Briggs.
Answer:The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The MBTI classifies human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies), base on their
psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into 16 possible combinations. In
MBTI, Individuals are classified as (McCrae and Costa, 1989) :
a. Extroverted or introverted (E or I).
b. Sensing or intuitive (S or N).
c. Thinking or feeling (T or F).
d. Perceiving or judging (P or J).
• These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types. For example:
a. INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas
and purposes. They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often
stubborn.
b. ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head
for business or mechanics. They like to organize and run activities.
c. The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and
attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging
problems but may neglect routine assignments

The factors affecting personality development are illustrated below:

1. Heredity

The relationship of heredity with personality is a well-accepted


fact. Traits like physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament,
energy level, intelligence, reflexes, etc. are generally referred to
describe the influence of heredity in developing personality. The
heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an
individual‘s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located
in the chromosomes. Robbins (2003) has argued that the three
different streams of research lend some credibility to the argument
that heredity plays an important part in determining an individual's
personality. The first looks at the genetic underpinnings of human
behavior and temperament among young children. The second
addresses the study of twins who were separated at birth and the
third examines the consistency in job satisfaction over time and
across situations.

2. Environment

Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational


factors. The environmental factors influence personality of an
individual since they provide the basis of certain experiences
which determine the individual‘s view about life, both positive and
negative.

3. Culture

Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed on


from generation to generation and create consistencies over time.
Every culture expects and trains its members to behave in the ways
that are acceptable to the group. People from different cultural
groups have different attitudes towards independence, aggression,
competition, cooperation, artistic talent, etc. However, on the
basis of culture, an
individual‘s personality cannot be always assessed, since
individuals within the same culture (but from different family and
sub-cultural background) have been seen to differ in their
behavior. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the
range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and
the values and personality characteristics that will be reinforced
and hence learned." Culture requires both conformity and
acceptance from its members.

4. Family

One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person


is the immediate family. Families influence the behavior of a
person especially in the early stages of life. The nature of such
influence will depend upon the socio-economic level of the family,
family size, race, religion, parent's educational level and geographic
location. The parents play an especially important part in the
identification process, which is important to the person's early
development.

According to Mischel, the process can be examined from three


different perspectives.

i. Identification can be viewed as the similarity of behaviour including


feelings and attitudes between child and model. Parents being the
first model.

ii. Identification can be looked at as the child's motives or desires to


be like the model.
iii. It can be viewed as the process through which the child
actually takes on the attributes of the model. From all three
perspectives, the identification process is fundamental to the
understanding of personality development.

5. Situation

Situational factors also play a crucial role in determining the


personality of a person. Every individual goes through different
type of experiences and events in his/her life. Some of the
events and experiences, which an individual goes through in his/her
life, can serve as important determinants of his/her personality. A
trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can sometime change
the structure of his/her own personality.

6. Social Factors

There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons,


groups and especially organizations, which greatly influence an individual's
personality. This is commonly called the socialization process. Socialization
involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously wide
range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are
ultimately synthesized and absorbed. Socialization starts with the initial
contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of
the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or
friends, then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the
work group - play influential roles.

Q.4 What are the factors influencing perception?


Answer: Factors Influencing Perception
Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves
both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to
these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about
properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival.
Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows
us to act within our environment.
A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception.
These factors can reside:
i) In the perceiver.
ii) In the object or target being perceived or
iii) In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.
1. Characteristics of the Perceiver: Several characteristics of the perceiver
can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to
interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced
by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major
characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are:
a) Attitudes: The perceiver’s attitudes affect perception. For example,
suppose Mr. X is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his
organization – a position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers,
most of whom are male. Mr X may feel that women are not capable of
holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will doubtless affect his
perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.
b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive
someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are
depressed. In addition, we remember information that is consistent with our
mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state.
When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of others. When
in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably.
c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert
a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational
context, a boss who is insecure perceives a subordinate’s efforts to do an
outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity can
be translated into the perception that others are out to "get my job",
regardless of the intention of the subordinates.
d) Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the
perceivers’ self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to
notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative self-
concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person.
Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of
others.
e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our
interests. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one
person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive. For
example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for
coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than
he did last week. If you are preoccupied with a personal problem, you may
find it hard to be attentive in class.
f) Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual’s pattern of thinking,
also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical
traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to
focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions. Cognitive complexity
allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather
than attending to just a few traits.
g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you
will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study
conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific
characteristics of the perceiver reveal
• Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.
• One’s own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in
others.
• People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable
aspects of other people.
• Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.
These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in
the environmental situation.
Characteristics of the Target: Characteristics in the target that is being
observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance plays a big role
in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals
are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals.
Motion, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see
it.The perceiver will notice the target’s physical features like height, weight,
estimated age, race and gender. Perceivers tend to notice physical
appearance characteristics that contrast with the norm, that are intense, or
that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colours our entire
impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more
favourably and attractive candidates are awarded higher starting salaries.
Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We
listen to the topics they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and
make judgements based on this input. Non-verbal communication conveys a
great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye
contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in an attempt
to form an impression of the target .As a result of physical or time proximity,
we often put together objects or events that are unrelated.
For example, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If
two employees of a department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their
departures were related when in fact, they might be totally unrelated.
People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be
grouped together. The greater the similarity, the greater the probability we
will tend to perceive them as a group.
Characteristics of the Situation: The situation in which the interaction
between the perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the
perceiver’s impression of the target. E.g. meeting a manager in his or her
office affects your impression in a certain way that may contrast with the
impression you would have formed, had you met the manager in a
restaurant. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception.
Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In these
situations, we assume that ±ie individual’s behaviour can be accounted for
by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual’s disposition. This
is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you may
encounter an automobile salesperson who has a warm and personable
manner, asks you about your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely
interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume that this behaviour reflects
the salesperson’s personality? You probably cannot, because of the influence
of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car, and in this particular
situation, he probably treats all customers in this manner.

Q.5 Mr. Solanki is the VP- HR of a leading Financial services company. He is having
a meeting with Ms. Ramani leading HR consultant. Mr. Solanki is concerned about
creating an environment that helps in increasing the job satisfaction amongst
employees. Assume that you are Ms. Ramani, the HR consultant. What suggestions
you will give to Mr. Solanki, for creating an environment that increases job
satisfaction

Answer: Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, e.g. the quality of
one's relationship with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in
which they work, degree of fulfillment in their work, etc.. Numerous research results
show that there are many factors affecting the job satisfaction. There are particular
demographic traits (age, education level, tenure, position, marital status, years in
service, and hours worked per week) of employees that significantly affect their job
satisfaction.

Satisfying factors motivate workers while dissatisfying ones prevent. Motivating


factors are achievement, recognition, the job conducted, responsibility, promotion
and the factors related to the job itself for personal development. Motivating factors
in the working environment result in the job satisfaction of the person while
protective ones dissatisfy him/her.

Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's sense of satisfaction with
the maintenance of the classified needs. These are: physiological needs (eating,
drinking, resting, etc.), security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to
love (good relations with the environment, friendship, fellowship, to love and to be
loved), need to self-esteem (self-confidence, recognition, adoration, to be given
importance, status, etc.) need of self-actualization (maximization of the
latent[potential] power and capacity, development of abilities, etc.) .

Insufficient education, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack of
communications, lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction negatively. It has
been asserted that participating in the management, having the decision making
power, independence on the job and the unit where the individual works, have
positive impact upon the job satisfaction. The job itself (the work conducted), and
achievement and recognition at work result in satisfaction while the management
policy, relations with the managers and colleagues result in dissatisfaction. Factors
related to the job itself such as using talents, creativity, responsibility, recognition
have influence on the job satisfaction.

Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies conducted in five
different countries prove that the elder workers are more satisfied. Kose has also
found a meaningful relation between the age and job satisfaction.
There is a strong connection between feeling secure and saying one is satisfied with
a job. People who state their job is secure have a much larger probability of
reporting themselves happy with their work.

Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an influence on job


satisfaction. Besides, Wahba has found out that male librarians give more
importance to personal development and free decision making in their jobs than the
female librarians, and the female librarians are more dissatisfied than the male
librarians.

Job satisfaction and devotion to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they
have great impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors affecting
performance are economical, technical, socio-political, cultural and demographical
ones .

However, most efforts to improve performance seem to center on improving the


conditions surrounding the work. These are worthwhile efforts, but they usually
result only in short-term improvements in attitudes and productivity, and the
situation often returns quickly to normal .

There is no strong acceptance among researchers, consultants, etc., that increased


job satisfaction produces improve job performance -- in fact, improved job
satisfaction can sometimes decrease job performance. For example, you could let
workers sometime sit around all day and do nothing. That may make them more
satisfied with their "work" in the short run, but their performance certainly doesn't
improve. The individual's willingness to get a result, his/her endeavour and
expectation of maintaining the result will push him/her to show the highest
performance.

Job satisfaction varies a lot. (Researches suggests, the higher the prestige of the
job, the greater the job satisfaction). But, many workers are satisfied in even the
least prestigious jobs. They simply like what they do. Most workers like their work if
they have little supervision. The least satisfied workers are those in service
occupations and managers that work for others. Ethnic and religious orientation is
associated to work attitudes, and job satisfaction is related to education.

The difference between the results that the individual desire and those s/he
maintained will affect his/her satisfaction . There is a consistent relationship
between the professional status and the job satisfaction. High levels of job
satisfaction are observed in those professions which are deemed of good standing
in the society.

The workers usually compare their working conditions with the conditions of the
society, under the variable of social conditions. If the social conditions are worse
than the individual's working conditions, then this will result in satisfaction of the
individual, as the workers deem themselves relatively in good position.
No meaningful relationship between the job satisfaction and age, professional
experience, education level, level of wage, sex and professional group was found.
On the contrary, professional experience has been claimed to increase job
satisfaction.

Q.6 Given below is the HR policy glimpse of the “VARK-LEARNING” a learning


and training solutions company
1. It offers cash rewards for staff members
2. It promotes the culture of employee referral and encourages people to refer
people they know may be their friends, ex. Colleagues batch mates, relatives.
3. What all needs do it takes care off according to maslow’s need hierarchy
4. It recognizes good performances and give fancy titles and jackets to the people
who perform well and also felicitates them in the Annual Day of the company.
What all aspects does it takes care of according to the Maslow’s Need Hierarchy ?

Answer:

Maslow is a humanistic psychologist. Humanists do not believe that human beings


are pushed and pulled by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and reinforcements
(behaviorism) or of unconscious instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis). Humanists
focus upon potentials. They believe that humans strive for an upper level of
capabilities. Humans seek the frontiers of creativity, the highest reaches of
consciousness and wisdom. This has been labeled "fully functioning person",
"healthy personality", or as Maslow calls this level, "self-actualizing person."

Maslow has set up a hierarchic theory of needs. All of his basic needs are
instinctoid, equivalent of instincts in animals. Humans start with a very weak
disposition that is then fashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is
right, people will grow straight and beautiful, actualizing the potentials they have
inherited. If the environment is not "right" (and mostly it is not) they will not grow
tall and straight and beautiful.

Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs,
higher levels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, esthetic
appreciation and purely spiritual needs. In the levels of the five basic needs, the
person does not feel the second need until the demands of the first have been
satisfied, nor the third until the second has been satisfied, and so on. Maslow's basic
needs are as follows:
Physiological Needs

These are biological needs. They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a
relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a
person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the
person's search for satisfaction.

Safety Needs

When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts
and behaviors, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little
awareness of their security needs except in times of emergency or periods of
disorganization in the social structure (such as widespread rioting). Children often
display the signs of insecurity and the need to be safe.

Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness

When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next
class of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge. Maslow states that
people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both
giving and receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging.

Needs for Esteem

When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can
become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a
person gets from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level
of self-respect, and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person
feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are
frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless.

Needs for Self-Actualization

When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for
self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person's need
to be and do that which the person was "born to do." "A musician must make music,
an artist must paint, and a poet must write." These needs make themselves felt in
signs of restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, lacking something, in short,
restless. If a person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted, or lacking self-esteem,
it is very easy to know what the person is restless about. It is not always clear what
a person wants when there is a need for self-actualization.

The hierarchic theory is often represented as a pyramid, with the larger, lower
levels representing the lower needs, and the upper point representing the need for
self-actualization. Maslow believes that the only reason that people would not move
well in direction of self-actualization is because of hindrances placed in their way by
society. He states that education is one of these hindrances. He recommends ways
education can switch from its usual person-stunting tactics to person-growing
approaches. Maslow states that educators should respond to the potential an
individual has for growing into a self-actualizing person of his/her own kind. Ten
points that educators should address are listed:

1. We should teach people to be authentic, to be aware of their inner selves and to


hear their inner-feeling voices.

2. We should teach people to transcend their cultural conditioning and become


world citizens.

3. We should help people discover their vocation in life, their calling, fate or destiny.
This is especially focused on finding the right career and the right mate.

4. We should teach people that life is precious, that there is joy to be experienced in
life, and if people are open to seeing the good and joyous in all kinds of situations, it
makes life worth living.

5. We must accept the person as he or she is and help the person learn their inner
nature. From real knowledge of aptitudes and limitations we can know what to build
upon, what potentials are really there.

6. We must see that the person's basic needs are satisfied. This includes safety,
belongingness, and esteem needs.

7. We should refreshen consciousness, teaching the person to appreciate beauty


and the other good things in nature and in living.

8. We should teach people that controls are good, and complete abandon is bad. It
takes control to improve the quality of life in all areas.

9. We should teach people to transcend the trifling problems and grapple with the
serious problems in life. These include the problems of injustice, of pain, suffering,
and death.

10. We must teach people to be good choosers. They must be given practice in
making good choices.

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