UNIT I-DATA COMMUNICATION

PART A

1. What is meant by half duplex?

Each Station can both transmit and receive but not at the same time. When
one device is sending the other can only receive and vice versa.

Direction of data at time 1

Station Station

Direction of data at time 2

In a half duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over

by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.

2. List down the Network Criteria Parameters?

Performance

Reliability

Security

3. List the advantages of star topology?

1. Less expensive than mesh topology
2. Easy to install and reconfigure due to only one link and one I/O part to
connect it to any number of others.
3. Robustness
4. Easy fault identification and fault isolation.
4.which OSI layers are network supportive and which are user
supportive layers?

Sol: The physical layer, data link and network layers network support layers
and session, presentation, application layers are user support layer.
Transport layer links network support and user support layers.

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 5. Write the advantages of Optical fiber over twisted pair and coaxial
cable.

Sol. Noise resistance of optical fiber is very high.

Without requiring regeneration optical signal can run for many miles-less
signal attenuation.

Bandwidth is very high.

6. what is peer to peer process?

Sol. Between machines layer-x on one machine can communicate with

layer-x of another machine. The process on each machine that communicate
at a given layer are called peer to peer process.

7.What is modem and give its various standards.

The word modem is a composite word that refers to the two functional entities that make up the device
signal modulator and a signal demodulator.A modulator creates a bandpass analog signal from binary d
and a demodulator recovers the binary data from the modulated signal.

Its standards are v.32,v.32bis,v.34,v.70,v.90

8.Discuss about the voltage levels of RS-232 standard.

The RS-232 standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels. V
signals are plus or minus 3 to 15 volts. The range near zero volts is not a valid RS-232 level; logic on
defined as a negative voltage, the signal condition is called marking, and has the functional significance
OFF. Logic zero is positive, the signal condition is spacing, and has the function ON.

9.Give some serial interfaces similar to RS-232.

• RS-422 (a high-speed system similar to RS-232 but with differential signaling)

• RS-423 (a high-speed system similar to RS-422 but with unbalanced
signaling)
• RS-449 (a functional and mechanical interface that used RS-422 and RS-
423 signals - it never caught on like RS-232 and was withdrawn by the
EIA)
• RS-485 (a descendant of RS-422 that can be used as a bus in multidrop
configurations)
• MIL-STD-188 (a system like RS-232 but with better impedance and rise
time control)
• EIA-530 (a high-speed system using RS-422 or RS-423 electrical properties
in an EIA-232 pinout configuration, thus combining the best of both;
supersedes RS-449)

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 Unit - II
Part – A

1.What do you mean by piggy backing?

The technique of sending messages along with acknowledgement is termed

as

Piggy backing

2.What are the types of frames available in High level Data Link
Control?

 Information Frames (I-Frames)

 Supervisory Frames (S-Frames)
 Unnumbered Frames(U-Frames)

3.List Out the Common Transfer modes that can be used in different

Configurations.

 Normal Response Mode (NRM)

 Asynchronous balanced Mode(ABM)

4 What does IEEE 10 Base 5 standard signify?

 It is Ethernet standard.
 The number 10 signifies the data rate of 10 Mbps and the number 5
signifies the maximum cable length of 500 meters.
 The word Base specifies a digital signal with Manchester ecoding.
5 What is CSMA/CD?
 CSMA/CD is the access method used in an Ethernet.
 It stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection.
 Collision: Whenever multiple users have unregulated access to a
single line, there is a danger of signals overlapping and destroying
each other. Such overlaps, which turn the signals into unusable noise,
are called collisions.

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  In CSMA/CD the station wishing to transmit first listens to make certain
the link is free, then transmits its data, then listens again. During the
data transmission, the station checks the line for the extremely high
voltages that indicate a collision.
 If a collision is detected, the station quits the current transmission and
waits a predetermined amount of time for the line to clear, then sends its
data again.

6 What is token ring?

 Token ring is a LAN protocol standardized by IEEE and numbered as
IEEE 802.4.
 In a token ring network, the nodes are connected into a ring by point-
to-point links.
 It supports data rate of 4 & 16 Mbps.
 Each station in the network transmits during its turn and sends only
one frame during each turn.
 The mechanism that coordinates this rotation is called Token
passing.
 A token is a simple placeholder frame that is passed from station to
station around the ring. A station may send data only when it has
possession of the token.
7 Differentiate 1000base SX and 100 Base FX.

S.N Feature 1000 Base SX 100 Base FX.

o

1 Type Gigabit Ethernet Fast Ethernet

2 Data rate 1 Gbps I00 Mbps.

3 Medium Optical fiber Optical fiber

4 Signal Short-wave laser Laser

5 Max. Distance 550m 2000m

6 Encoding 4B/5B 8B/10B

8 Why is there no AC field in the 802.3 frame?

 Access control (AC) field in token ring frame specify the priority level to
each station, so that each station sends data during its turn.
 But CSMA/CD access method does not specify priority level for any
station. So there is no AC field in the 802.3 frame.
Q9. Explain the concept of redundancy in error detection.

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Ans. Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, that is extra bits are added to
the data unit at the sending end, for detecting transmission errors at the receiving
end. The redundant bits are used to check the accuracy of a data unit. The
redundant bits are added in various ways giving rise to four different methods.

(i) Vertical redundancy checks (VRC) or Parity checks

(ii) Longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC)
(iii) Cyclical redundancy checks (CRC)
(iv) Checksum

Q10. What is single bit error? And how it differs from a burst error?

Ans. Single bit error: When a single bit in a data unit is changed in the process of
transmission, it is called single bit error. Single bit error can happen in parallel
transmission.

Burst error: When two or more bits in a data unit are changed in the process of
transmission, it is called burst error. Burst error can happen in a serial transmission.

Q11. What is Hamming Code?

Ans. Hamming code is an error correcting code, which uses redundant bits.
Hamming code can be applied to data units of any length, and uses the relationship
2r ≥ m + r + 1 to calculate the redundant bits (r), where m = number of data bits.
Hamming code can correct single bit error in the process of transmission, a
Hamming code can also be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths, but
the redundant bits required to make these corrections is much higher than that
required for single bit errors.

Q12. What is Bluetooth? Give the performance characteristics of a typical

Bluetooth device.

Ans. Bluetooth is a low cost, low power, short range, wireless communication
technology. The performance characteristics of a Bluetooth device is as follows,

(i) Operating Frequency = 2.4GHz

(ii) Transmission power = 1mW
(iii) Data rate = 720Kbps
(iv) Range = 10meters
(v) Number of devices = 8
(vi) Connectivity = Spread Spectrum

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 UNIT III- NETWORK LAYER

PART – A
1. What is the fundamental difference between circuit switching and
packet switching?
In circuit switching, a physical link is dedicated between a source and a
destination. In this case, data can be sent as a stream of bits without the need for
packetizing. In packet switching, data are transmitted in discrete units of potentially
variable-length blocks called packets.

2. Why does the internet use a connectionless network service?

The reason for using a connectionless network service in the Internet is that ,
it is made of so many heterogeneous networks that is almost impossible to create a
connection from the source to the destination without knowing the nature of the
networks in advance.

3. What is an IP address? Name the five current IP address classes.

Which are used for unicast and multicast communication?

IP (Internet Protocol) address:

An IP address is a 32-bit address.

• device used by routers, to select best path from source to destination,

across networks and internetworks
• network layer address, consisting of NETWORK portion, and HOST
portion
• logical address,assigned in software by network administrator
• part of a hierarchical ‘numbering scheme’ - unique, for reliable routing
• may be assigned to a host pc, or router port
IP address classes:

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 • Class A
• Class B
• Class C
• Class D
• Class E
Address A,B,C are for unicast communication from one source to one
destination. Address in class D are for multicast communication from one source to
a group of destination.

4. What is the network address?

ANS->

The network address is an address that defines the network itself; it cannot
be assigned to a host.

Netid Hostid

Specific All 0s

5. What is subnetting? What is purpose of subnetting?

In subnetting ,a network is divided into several smaller

subnetworks with each subnetwork having its own subnetwork address.

The purpose of subnetting is reducing broadcast domain, improve network

efficiency.

The IP address are designed with two levels of hierarchy .( Netid

&Hostid).However ,in many cases these two levels of hierarchy are not enough.Ex:
the organization has two level hierarchical addressing but cannot have more than
one physical network. Note that the default mask means that all addresses have 16
common bits. The remaining bits define the different addresses on the network.
Note also that the network address is the first address in the block; the hostid part
is all 0s in the network address. With this scheme, the organization is limited to two
levels of hieraachy.The hosts cannot be organized into groups; all of the hosts are
at the same level. The organization has one network with many hosts. One solution
to this problem is subnetting,the further division of a network into smaller networks
called subnetworks.Adding subnetwork creates an intermediate level of hierarchy in
the IP addressing system. Now we have three levels :site,subnet,host.

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6. Given an IP address of 193.215.45.198 and a subnet mask of
255.255.255.240
What is the network number?
What is the broadcast address?
How many hosts addresses?

Network number: Find 240 under the mask column.

That row has 4 bits in the mask.
There are 16 sub-networks (256/16).
193.215.45.0
193.215.45.16
193.215.45.32
193.215.45.48
to
193.215.45.192
193.215.45.208
193.215.45.224
193.215.45.240

The network number is 193.215.45.192 (198 is between 192 and 208).

Broadcast address: The next network number minus 1

193.215.45.208 – 1 = 193.215.45.207

Number of host addresses: 24 – 2 = 14

7. What does routing mean?

Routing is a key feature of the Internet because it enables messages to pass from one computer to
another and eventually reach the target machine. Each intermediary computer performs routing
by passing along the message to the next computer.

8. What is the function of a router?

A router is a device that extracts the destination of a packet it receives, selects the best path to
that destination, and forwards data packets to the next device along this path. A router is a device
that forwards data packets along networks.

9. What are the planes on which a router operates?

Routers operate in two different planes

• Control Plane, in which the router learns the outgoing interface that is most
appropriate for forwarding specific packets to specific destinations,

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 • Forwarding Plane, which is responsible for the actual process of sending a
packet received on a logical interface to an outbound logical interface.

10. Write a note on Distance vector routing.

A distance-vector routing protocol requires that a router informs its neighbors of topology
changes periodically and, in some cases, when a change is detected in the topology of a
network. As the name suggests the DV protocol is based on calculating the direction and
distance to any link in a network. The cost of reaching a destination is performed by using
mathematical calculations such as the metrics of the route

11. Write a note on link state routing.

. The link-state protocol is performed by every switching node in the network (i.e. nodes which
are prepared to forward packets; in the Internet, these are called routers). The basic concept of
link-state routing is that every node receives a map of the connectivity of the network, in the
form of a graph showing which nodes are connected to which other nodes.

Unit 4 – Transport Layer

PART A

1.What is congestion control?

Congestion control refers to the techniques and mechanisms that can be either prevents
congestion, before it happens, or remove congestion, after it has happened. It is broadly
classified as open loop congestion control (prevention) and closed loop congestion control
(removal).
2.what are the techniques to improve QoS?

The techniques to improve QoS are scheduling, traffic shaping, admission

control and resource reservation.

3.What is leaky bucket?

In networking a technique called leaky bucket that can smooth out bursty
traffic. Bursty chunks are stored in a bucket and sent out in an average rate. The
input rate can vary but the output rate remains constant. And also it may drop the
packets if the bucket is full.

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4.How can we implement a flow-based model over a connectionless
protocol?

It should be a signaling protocol to run over IP that provides the signaling

mechanism for making a reservation. This protocol is called Resource Reservation
Protocol (RSVP). It is needed for application programming in integrated services
model.

5.What are integrated services and what are the problems associated with
it?

Integrated services also termed, as IntServ is a flow based QoS model

designed for IP. The problems associated with it are scalability and service type
limitation.

6.What is jitter?

Jitter is a variation in delay for packets belonging to the same flow. For eg., if
4 packets depart at time 0,1,2,3 and arrive at 20,21,22,23 , all have the same
delay, 20 units of time.If 4 packets arrive at 21,23,21,28 they ll have different
delays 21,22,19,24.

7.How the connection established in TCP?

The connection establishment in TCP is called Threeway handshaking. In this,

first the client send the request to make a connection with the server, then the
server acknowledges if it is ready for the connection along with its request, then the
client acknowledge the server request.

8.What is the use of UDP?

UDP is suitable for a process that requires simple request-response

communication with flow and error control. UDP is suitable for multicasting and also
for management processes like SNMP. And also for route updating protocols such as
RIP.

9.What are TCP services?

The TCP services are Process-Process communication, stream delivery

services, sending & receiving buffers, segments, full duplex communications,
connection oriented service and reliable service

10.Define multiplexing and demultiplexing.

At the sender side, there may be several processes that need to send
packets. However, there is one transport layer protocol, at any time, this is a many
to one relationship is multiplexing. At the receiver side the relationship is one to
many and this is demultiplexing.

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 UNIT V - The Application Layer

Part A

1.What is DNS?

Ans: The DNS converts te Domain names into IP numbers

2.Discuss the 3 main divisions of DNS

Ans:

1.Generic domains

2.Country domains

3.Inverse domains

3.Define SMTP

Ans: The protocol that supports email on the internet is called SMTP.It is a part of TCP/IP
Protocol suite.

4.What are the services provided by the User Agent?

Ans:

1.Composing messages

2.Reading messages

3.Replying messages

4.Forwarding messages

5.Handling mailboxes

5.What are the properties of Http?

Ans:

1.Global uniform Resource identifier

2.Request /response message

3.Statelessness

4.Resource metadata

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6.What is statelessness of Http protocol?

Ans: Maintaining state across request and response connections significantly increases the initial
interactions in a connection since the identity of each party needs to be established and any saved
state must be retrieved. Http is therefore stateless protocol to ensure that the Internet is scalable
since state is not contained in the Http request/response pairs by default.

7.What is a hypertext?

Ans: A set of documents in which a given document can contain text as well as embedded
reference to other documents.

8. What are the categories of Web Documents?

Ans:

1.Static documents

2.Dynamic documents

3.Active documents

9.What is the purpose of FTP?

Ans: To download and upload files from and to the server

10.Define cryptography

Ans: Cryptography is the science and art of transforming messages to make them secure and
immune to attack.

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