Department of Education

Region VI—Western Visayas

Schools Division of Iloilo
Buga National High School Earth &life science
Supreme Student Government
Buga, Leon, Iloilo ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang Theory explains that the universe was once very small and very hot, and then it expanded over
time until it reaches its peak (which maybe perceived as a massive explosion for some) around 13.7 billion years ago
(considered the age of the universe)
The Big Bang model also asserts that seconds after the explosion, the surroundings were at a high
temperature at about 10 billion degrees Fahrenheit (5.5 billion Celsius) with aggregates of fundamental particles such
as neutrons, electrons, and protons.
As the universe cooled in the later phase, these particles either combined with each other or decayed.
Some scientists believe we live in a cosmos that goes through regular cycles of inflation and deflation, and
that we just happen to be living in one of these phases. Although the big bang theory is famous, it's also widely
misunderstood.
A common misperception about the theory is that it describes the origin of the universe. That's not quite
right. The big bang is an attempt to explain how the universe developed from a very tiny, dense state into what it is
today.
It doesn't attempt to explain what initiated the creation of the universe, or what came before the big bang or
even what lies outside the universe.
Big Bang theory successfully explains the cosmic microwave background radiation and the origin of the light
elements.
This universal expansion was predicted from general relativity by Alexander Friedmann in 1922 and Georges
Lemaître in 1927, well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the
Big Bang theory as developed by Friedmann, Lemaître, Robertson, and Walker.

Steady State Theory

These theory states that the universe always expanding in a constants average density. Because of these
states matter is continuously created to form celestial bodies such as stars and galaxies.
The steady-state theory is a view that the universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant average
density, matter being continuously created to form new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old ones become
unobservable as a consequence of their increasing distance and velocity of recession.
This theory claims that the universe has no beginning or end and even though it is expanding, its appearance
remains the same over time.
Scientist who proposed the steady state theory:
Sir James Jeans (1877-1946) in 1920 Fred Hoyle(1915-2001) Hermann Bondi (1919-2005)

Cosmic Inflation Theory

The discovery of gravitational waves in the echo of the Big Bang lends support to the inflation model of
cosmology.
The Inflation Theory proposes a period of extremely rapid (exponential) expansion of the universe during its first few
moments.
It was developed around 1980 to explain several puzzles with the standard Big Bang theory, in which the
universe expands relatively gradually throughout its history.
In the inflationary model, the extremely rapid expansion of the very early universe flattens out any large-scale
inhomogeneities in temperature and density, quickly creating a large cosmos out of a much smaller one that was
previously causally connected.
The inflation model was proposed by Alan Guth in 1980 as one way to explain two problems in cosmology –
the horizon problem and the flatness problem.
The cosmic inflation was accepted because it answers questions

Nebular Hypothesis
It presupposes that around 4.6 billion years ago, a star systems was formed from a rotating gas of cloud or
Nebula or extremely hot gas.
When the gas cooled, the nebula began to shrink, and as it became smaller, it rotated faster, forming a disclike
shape. As the nebula continued to shrink, these rings condensed into various densities of planets and their satellites.
Then the remaining part of the nebula which had the most mass, formed the SUN.
The object switches to become a “true star” and it is then able to make its own heat and light.
The life of the star then depends on its mass.
A sufficiently dense, and hot, core region will trigger nuclear fusion, thus creating a main-sequence star.
 This hypothesis was developed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century. It was the
model used to explain the formation and evolution of the solar system.
The Plan1etesimal and Tidal Theories
Thes20.e theories were developed by Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton during the early 20th century,
and James Jeans and Harold Jeffreys in 1918, respectively.
In both theories, a star supposedly passed close to the sun. The gravitational pull of the passing star raised
tides found on the surface of the sun. Some of this erupted matter was detached and plunged into elliptical orbits
around the sun. Some of the smaller masses quickly cooled to become solid bodies called planetesimals.
Others grew in size because of collision with passing objects in space, eventually forming larger clumps and
gathering more and more matter.
These theories are also backed up by old meteorite found on earth, chemically dating back 4.56 billion years – the
time approximated to be the formation of the solar system.

The Solar System

The Solar System consists of the Sun and the astronomical objects bound to it by gravity. Of the many objects that
orbit the Sun, most of the mass is contained within eight relatively solitary planets whose orbits are almost circular
and lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic plane.

Formation of Planets
Four Smaller Inner Planets
The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, also called the terrestrial planets, are primarily
composed of rock and metal.
The Four Outer Planets
The four outer planets, the Gas giants or Jovian planets, are substantially more massive than the terrestrials. And are
made up of gasses
The two largest, Jupiter and Saturn, are composed mainly of hydrogen and helium; the two outermost
planets, Uranus and Neptune, are composed largely of ices, such as water, ammonia, and methane, and are often
referred to separately as “ice giants”.
Pluto
Pluto was once considered the outermost planet in the solar system. In 2006, it was observed to belong to a different
region, the Kuiper belt, which is found at the outer region of the solar system and is mostly composed of frozen
volatiles (or gases), comets or asteroids. Hence, pluto was reclassified by the international Astronomical Union as a
dwarf planet instead of being the ninth planet of the solar system.

The expansion of the universe is accelerating

In 1998, two independent projects, the Supernova Cosmology Projects and the High-Z Supernova Search
Team had observed this phenomenon. Using advanced telescopes, they discovered the difference that occurred in
the measured distance of Milky way and nearby galaxies and the expansion was faster since last few years.

NASA Voyager 1
NASA Voyager 1 was launched in 1977 and has been in space travelling for 39 years now and has left the
Solar System last 2012. This is the first space craft that have reached the farthest realms of space.

The earth
Shape of the Earth
Earth’s present shape is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid. Earth got its present shape specifically
because of its gravity and rotation. As in other planets, gravity pulls the mass closer to the center or its core. Earth’s
core is the center of gravity.
This gravitational force within makes planet contract and form a sphere like shape. However, since Earth is
also rotating, the sphere is distorted by centrifugal force. Hence, as Earth continues to spin, the angular momentum
is at its maximum at the equator, making this area slightly bulging outward compared to other areas of the sphere.
History of the Earth
Based on the theory of the nebular hypothesis, Earth, just like the other planets that flung out of the solar
nebula, started out as an immensely hot gaseous mass.
During its formative period, Earth was said to be bombarded by meteorites, comets and other planetary
bodies. Thus, most of its parts were molten due to collision, leading to extreme volcanic activities.
Some scientists even speculate that a large collision could have caused its present tilt. The primitive
volcanoes would continuously and randomly erupt.
At the same time, flying planetary debris and other masses would smash onto Earth.
These events continued while Earth was spinning. In the end, all these occurrences would contribute to the present
shape of the planet.
Continuous outgassing of volcanoes gradually formed the primordial atmosphere which was devoid of
oxygen and made up mostly of toxic gases.
It was believed later on that the formation of the very first inhabitants of Earth led to the production of oxygen and
other gases that comprise the present atmosphere.

Earth’s Internal Structure

The interior structure of the earth is composed of different layers, each with unique features.
As a review, there are three main layers: crust, mantle, and core. These different layers vary in density, mineral
composition, temperature, and thickness.
The theoretical formation of the earth and the layered structure of its interior are supported by indirect evidence
from the measurements of…
 1. Vibrations in the earth 3. The earth’s gravity
2. The earth’s magnetic field 4. The earth’s heat flow.
A vibration that moves through any part of the earth is called seismic waves. Seismology is the branch of
Geophysics that studies these waves and uses them as probes to “see” the earth’s surface and determine its
internal structure.
As a basic concept, there are two types of waves traveling through Earth: the p-waves, which travel fast through
both solids and liquids, and the s-waves, which travel slower than p-waves and can travel only through solids.

According to Chemical composition:

Crust – upper layer of the lithosphere and mostly solid rock. It has two distinct regions a) continental
crust – composed of silica – alumina rich rock called sial – commonly occurs as granite; b) oceanic crust –
consists of silica-magnesia rich material called sima – typically basalt.
Moho was named after a seismologist from Yugoslavia, AndrijaMohorovicic – discovered the borderline in 1909.
the Moho divides the crust from the underlying mantle and was accepted to have resulted from a change in
composition and not on its structure.
Mantle – the next layer after the crust. It contains most of the Earth’s mass. It is about 2,800 kilometers
thick, the upper portion is composed of silicates of metallic compounds while the lower portion is rich in
aluminum and magnesium. The temperature (about 3700oC) and pressure ( about 1.37 million atmospheres) are
high on like putty – which explains the movement of crustal plates on earth.
Core – innermost part of the Earth – about 3,500 km thick. It has two layers – the outer core and the
inner core. The outer core is made up of very hot metals namely iron and nickel. Due to high pressure in this
layer, the said materials vibrate instead of flowing like a liquid.

According to Physical Characteristics:

Lithosphere – or “rock sphere” is a cold, outer rigid shell of the earth’s structure. It consists of the crust
and the upper mantle – is broken into large pieces called plates – a broad segment of the lithosphere that floats
on the underlying asthenosphere and moves independently from their plates.
Asthenosphere – or “weak sphere” – is a zone directly under the lithosphere is believed to have a plastic
behavior because of its ability to flow, the one responsible for the movement of crustal plates. Rocks here are
exposed to high temperature and pressure – this high temperature level makes them flow and eventually
display that plastic behavior at the same time maintain their solid state. The movement of tectonic plates on the
asthenosphere causes seismic activities like volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
Mesosphere – region between the asthenosphere and the core – mantle boundary. High pressure on
this area compensates high temperature effects – resulting to a stronger and firmer layer.
The Gutenburg discontinuity serves as a transitional boundary between the lower mantle and the outer
core. It was named after its discovery by Beno Gutenburg in 1913.
This boundary does not remain constant because of changes in heat flow.
Core – innermost layer. The circulation of the liquid outer core leads to the production of the earth’s
magnetic field that is probably due to heat loss and the earth’s rotation.
There also exists a transitional boundary between the inner core and the outer core. The Lehman
discontinuity was discovered in 1929 when a large earthquake occurred in New Zealand.

Earth’s Water
Water on earth moves continually through a cycle of evaporation or transpiration (evapotranspiration),
precipitation, and run off, usually reaching the sea. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute to the
precipitation.
Distribution of Earth’s Water

All the waters found on Earth are natural but not everything is considered safe for drinking. In fact, only
less than 3% of the world’s waters is considered potable.
 The waters on earth are divided into two groups: Surface water and Groundwater.
Surface water and groundwater differ in the types and amount of minerals found in them.
Distribution of Earth’s Water

Surface water may be either marine water or freshwater.

Marine water has higher salt content and is found in larger bodies of water such as oceans, seas, bays,
and gulf. Freshwater are those in lakes, rivers, springs, and falls which, because of the lower salt content, is the
best source of drinking water for all organisms. It accounts for about 2% of the world’s water.

Fresh Water
In general, more than 2/3 of the rain eventually returns to the atmosphere, the remaining amount
either flows down the hill across the surface of the land toward a lower place and soaks into the ground.
The term “sweet water” has been used to describe fresh water in contrast to salt water.
Groundwater
It is the water found beneath Earth’s surface where there are spaces in the soil or fractures in rocks.
The underground layer of water-bearing rocks is called an aquifer.it acts as a reservoir for groundwater and may
contain large amounts of minerals such as Mg, Ca, etc.
If groundwater is used for drinking, distillation may be required to avoid health problems.
Groundwater
It should be noted that there is a limit to the amount of minerals that can be tolerated by the body. If
intake exceeds the tolerable amounts, certain health problems may be encountered such as kidney strain which
may lead to the formation of kidney stones.
The bottled mineral water that we drink is actually processed, and it contains the right amount of minerals
tolerated and needed by our bodies.
The Hydrological Cycle
Water circulates everywhere on Earth. This circulation is made possible by the interaction of energy and
matter that allows the transformation of water from one phase to another, allowing it to circulate and travel to
different regions of Earth.
Because of the water cycle, water is and different life processes are maintained.

The Water Cycle

Water moves through the hydrosphere in a cycle.

Liquid water found on the surface of the Earth is converted to vapour when temperature increases. Gaseous
water is then collected in clouds and then falls to earth in the form of rain, hail, sleet, or snow depending on
temperature changes. Liquid water goes back to rivers, lakes, and ocean or seeps through rocks and soil to reach
the water table.
Groundwater finds its way back into the oceans through slopes and cracks.
In some regions where temperature is below 0oC, solid water is found in glaciers. In this places, solid water may
not melt anymore but transforms into gaseous form through sublimation.
The Importance of Water
Water is essential for life.
Cells consist of anywhere between 70 and 95% water. All living organisms require water to carry out their
normal metabolic processes, and most will die in environments containing too little moisture.
Water has no net charge, but the charge it does carry is unevenly distributed. Its electron arrangements and
bond angles make its oxygen “end” a bit negative and its hydrogen “end” a bit positive.
It has temperature-stabilizing effects, internal cohesion, and a capacity to dissolve many substances.
These properties of water influence the structure and functioning of organisms.

Uses of Fresh water

Uses of fresh water can be categorized as consumptive and non-consumptive (sometimes called renewable).
Agricultural Recreation
Industrial Environmental
Household

The Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere

The atmosphere is composed of various layers which differ in thickness, temperature, and density.
These layers protect Earth from many external threats in space, such as planetary debris, impact from celestial
bodies, and radiation.
Nitrogen is the most abundant (78%), followed by Oxygen (21%) , then Argon (1%) whose molecules
are well mixed and nearly constant everywhere near the earth’s surface

Troposphere is the layer considered as the densest among the other layers.
Because temperature drops with altitude, warm air in the surface of Earth rises readily.
Air molecules travel up and then back down causing the formation of clouds and eventually rain from the
moisture in the air.
These variations give rise to weather.
Most jets and planes would fly slightly above the troposphere to avoid turbulent weather.
Prior to reaching the next layer above the troposphere is a thin buffer zone called tropopause. It differs from the
troposphere in that it is characterized by a relatively constant temperature.
Layers of the Atmosphere
Stratosphere is the layer with a strong, steady horizontal winds which is advantageous to long-distance
flights. At its upper region is the ozone layer which contains a high concentration of ozone.
The ozone layer plays an important role in absorbing the UV radiation from the sun. Without this layer, most life
forms would have perished.
 In the past decades, the ozone layer has been observed to be thinning. It was determined that certain
sprays and chemicals used in modern appliances use ozone –depleting substances (ODS) that directly destroy
the ozone molecules in the ozone layer. ODS are invisible and odorless; hence, they were not immediately
recognized to be depleting the ozone layer.
Now that these substances have been identified, ODS are banned all over the world.
Examples of materials that contain ODS are some types of hair sprays, insulating foams, refrigerants, and
solvents.
Another thin buffer zone exists before the next layer above the stratosphere, the stratopause.

Mesosphere is above stratosphere. The temperature here reaches a minimum of -900C and is
considered to be the coldest layer.
It is may be the coldest because the heat from the sun has been decreased by the absorption of thermosphere
and the radiative emission of carbon dioxide in this layer.
Carbon dioxide is known as a greenhouse gas in the troposphere because it absorbs infrared radiation
which makes it hot. However, this is not the case in the mesosphere. Carbon dioxide tends to cool the layer by
radiating heat into space.
The mesosphere is important in protecting Earth from planetary debris.
This is where most of the space rocks, such as meteors, break down into smaller pieces such that by the
time they reach Earth, they are already in very small pieces.
The thin buffer zone above the mesosphere is called the mesopause. This zone is actually the coldest region of
the atmosphere.
Thermosphere is the hottest layer because of its absorption of highly energetic solar heat.
Depending on solar activity, the temperature in this layer can rise higher, even reaching beyond 1000oC. This
extreme heat cause the atmospheric particles to become electrically charged, making it possible for radio waves
to bounce off and be received beyond the horizon.
Layers of the Atmosphere
The lower part of the thermosphere is the ionosphere where particles of oxygen and nitrogen are
electrically charged by the solar wind.
There exists a thermopause above the thermosphere that also serves as a buffer zone which separates the
thermosphere from space.
As the excited ions of the oxygen and nitrogen go back to their neutral state, they release photons (light
energy) which cause the spectacular display of colorful lights in the sky, called aurora.
The solar wind influences the rate of the intensity of aurora. Hence, during an intense solar storm, more
visible colourful lights can be seen in the sky.
The aurora may be visible in high latitudes on earth. If witnessed in the northern regions such as the Arctic and
Northern Canada, it is called aurora borealis or northern lights. If seen in the southern regions such as
Antarctica and Southern Australia, it is called aurora australis or southern lights.
The Biosphere
The biosphere makes up all the living components on Earth.
It is the subsystem that comprises all living things, including those which have not yet been identified.
In fact, there are more life-forms unknown to humans than those that have been identified.
Life exists in all the subsystems of the Earth – on land, in water, and in air.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
The Origin of the Biosphere
The Theory of the Primordial Soup
It states that life began from nonliving matter such as simple organic compounds.
It was believed that the primitive Earth contained chemicals such as methane, water, ammonia, and hydrogen
gas that accumulate in a “soup” at certain areas viable for energy transformation.
Over time, the first known creatures to have inhabited Earth were the single-celled bacteria and archaeans.
Deep-sea Vent Theory
This theory presupposes that life began not on the surface of Earth but deep down in the sea in areas known as
marine hydrothermal vents.
Hydrothermal vents release boiling hot fluids mixed with toxic chemicals and heavy metals. Hydrogen sulphide is
the main compound spewed out from cracks or fissures on the ocean floor.
Certain bacteria or primitive microbes grow around the vent.
Panspermia
This hypothesis proposes that life on Earth actually began somewhere in the universe.
Life-forms could have been carried by meteorites, asteroids, or comets as they made cosmic impact on Earth.
The types of organisms believed to be present during that time could survive the effects of space and were
dormant for a long period of time because they were trapped in planetary debris.
The System of the Biosphere
The biosphere is where certain organisms function to consume a different set of organisms to allow energy
transfer from one group to another and to allow certain materials to recycle.
Most plants are capable of making their own food through photosynthesis and certain animals consume them.
All these processes allow energy to be transferred and nutrients to be reabsorbed and released into the soil,
ocean, and air.
The System of the Biosphere
Energy is transferred from one organism to another in a food chain.
A food web is composed of several interconnected food chains that involve more organisms. The more
organisms participate in this line of energy transfer, less energy could be obtained by the last consumer.
The energy pyramid demonstrates how energy diminishes as one organism is eaten by another.
The Energy Pyramid