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sustainability

Article
Experimental Investigation and Numerical
Simulation of CO2–Brine–Rock Interactions during
CO2 Sequestration in a Deep Saline Aquifer
Bo Liu 1, *, Fangyuan Zhao 2 , Jinpeng Xu 1 and Yueming Qi 1
1 School of Resources and Geosciences, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China;
xu_jinpeng@126.com (J.X.); ym_qi@126.com (Y.Q.)
2 BMILP Science and Technology Development Co., Ltd., Beijing 100054, China; fangyuan_zhao@126.com
* Correspondence: boliu@cumt.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-0516-8359-1019

Received: 19 November 2018; Accepted: 31 December 2018; Published: 9 January 2019 

Abstract: CO2 mineralization is a long-term and secure solution for geological CO2 storage that
primarily depends on the CO2 –brine–rock interaction during CO2 sequestration in subsurface
formations. In this study, lab experiments were conducted to investigate the CO2 –brine–rock
interaction over short timescales, and numerical simulations were performed to reveal dynamic
interactions and equilibrium interactions by applying TOUGHREACT and PHREEQC, respectively.
In the experiments, the main ions of HCO3 − and Ca2+ were detected in the solution, and calcite
dissolution and dawsonite precipitation were observed from SEM images. The simulation results
showed that the CO2 dissolution and the solution pH were affected by the temperatures, pressures,
types of solutions, and solution concentrations and were further influenced by mineral dissolution
and precipitation. The results of the equilibrium simulation showed that the dissolved minerals were
albite, anhydrite, calcite, Ca-montmorillonite, illite, K-feldspar, and chlorite, and the precipitated
minerals were dolomite, kaolinite, and quartz, which led to HCO3 − , K+ , and Na+ being the main ions
in solutions. The results of the dynamic simulation showed that calcite and dolomite dissolved in
the early period, while other minerals began to dissolve or precipitate after 100 years. The dissolved
minerals were mainly albite, kaolinite, K-feldspar, and chlorite, and precipitated minerals were
Ca-montmorillonite, illite, and quartz. Anhydrite and pyrite did not change during the simulation
period, and the main ions were HCO3 − , Na+ , Ca2+ , and Mg2+ in the simulation period. This study
provides an effective approach for analyzing the CO2 –brine–rock interaction at different stages during
CO2 storage, and the results are helpful for understanding the CO2 mineralization processes in deep
saline aquifers.

Keywords: experiment; simulation; CO2 –brine–rock interaction; CO2 sequestration; saline aquifer

1. Introduction
The overuse of fossil fuels in industrial production and human life has caused a continuous and
dramatic increase of greenhouse gas emissions. Controlling greenhouse gas emissions and protecting
the global climate is currently a major issue [1]. The role of CO2 as a greenhouse gas and its potential
effect on the global climate has been well-documented [2–4]. Of a variety of CO2 emission reduction
methods, CO2 sequestration in geologic formations is undoubtedly the most realistic and effective
disposal approach. The three primary candidate formation types suggested for geologic sequestration
are oil and gas reservoirs, coalbeds, and deep saline formations, which all contain aqueous phases [5–7].
Compared to other types of geologic media, sequestration of CO2 in deep saline aquifers is considered
to have the largest potential capacity because of the large pore volumes in sedimentary basins, the

Sustainability 2019, 11, 317; doi:10.3390/su11020317 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability


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high density and solubility of CO2 in deep saline aquifers at high pressures, and the widespread global
distribution of deep saline aquifers [8–12].
There are four primary mechanisms by which CO2 can be trapped in a porous medium: structural
trapping, residual trapping, dissolution trapping, and mineral trapping [9,13,14]. Structural and
residual trapping is also called physical trapping and occurs solely upon the injection of CO2 , while
mineral and solubility trapping refers to geochemical trapping and usually occurs over a longer time
period after the CO2 is injected [15]. Due to the formation of solid immobile carbonates, mineral
trapping is the safest and most permanent means of CO2 geological storage, and continues on after
solubility trapping because it depends on CO2 dissolution in brine [16]. The process of solubility and
mineral trapping essentially involves the interaction among the CO2 , brine, and rock.
In recent years, researchers have conducted several studies on the CO2 –brine–rock interaction
during CO2 geological storage, including lab experiments and numerical simulations. Much of
this research has focused on changes in the composition of formation waters, mineral dissolution
and precipitation, and modification of the formation porosity and permeability [1,16–26], which are
extremely important to CO2 storage safely, effectively and for a long time [27–29]. Chemical reactions
that are initiated by CO2 dissolution in formation water after CO2 injected into a reservoir result in the
modified fluid having a lower pH and higher HCO3 [30]. The aqueous solubility of CO2 is temperature-,
pressure-, and ionic strength-dependent and is generally lower at elevated temperature and salinity
and greater at elevated pressure [31–33]. The acid formed by CO2 dissolution will react with minerals,
leading to the dissolution or precipitation of minerals and the change of ion concentrations in the
water [34–36]. The reactions among CO2 , brine, and rock are many and varied, depending on the
chemical composition of the fluid and the mineralogy of the rock [37]. Cui et al. [38] conducted a
CO2 –brine–rock interaction experiment using sandstone and carbonate and reached the conclusion
that for sandstone, the presence of CO2 can lead to the dissolution of ankerite and clay minerals
and the precipitation of plagioclase, which can result in the increase of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in formation
water; for carbonates, CO2 can induce the dissolution of dolomite and the precipitation of ankerite and
calcite. Gysi and Stefansson [39] observed that the dissolution of basaltic glass in CO2 -rich waters was
incongruent with the overall water composition and secondary mineralogy, depending on reaction
progress and pH.
However, lab experiments of the CO2 –brine–rock interaction only last several months or years at
most, and in reality the geochemical reactions occur over a geologic time scales. Therefore, geochemical
modeling has been performed to assess long-term effects of CO2 –brine–rock interaction during CO2
geological sequestration. PHREEQC is a general geochemical software program that can be applied to
most hydrogeochemical environments [40]. Steel et al. [16] performed geochemical modeling to get
an indication of how close the experiments were to reaching equilibrium using PHREEQC. Davila et
al. [41] calculated the saturation indexes of the injected solutions with PHREEQC. TOUGHREACT is a
numerical simulation program for chemically reactive non-isothermal flows of multiphase fluids in
porous and fractured media that has been widely used to study CO2 disposal in deep formations [42].
Zhang et al. [14] established a reactive geochemical transport model to identify the multiphase
processes, geochemical changes and mineral alteration, and CO2 trapping mechanisms after CO2
injection by applying TOUGHREACT. Tian et al. [43] focused on mineral alterations induced by the
invasion of CO2 , feedback on medium properties such as porosity, and the self-sealing efficiency of the
caprock through TOUGHREACT. In addition, there are some other numerical tools for studying the
CO2 –brine–rock interaction during CO2 storage in subsurface formations [20,44,45].
Though previous scholars have done a lot of research on the CO2 –brine–rock interaction and
CO2 mineralizing during CO2 geological storage, simultaneous conduction of lab experiments and
numerical simulations, especially for comparing the results by different simulation methods, need to
be further studied. To further identity the interaction among CO2 , water, and rock at different
stages, we designed lab experiments to reveal the interaction over short times in a high-temperature
and high-pressure reactor, and we subsequently performed numerical simulations with two types
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software to comparatively analyze the balanced and dynamic interactions. These are also the
of innovative
software to comparatively
aspects analyze the balanced and dynamic interactions. These are also the
of this paper.
innovative aspects of this paper.
2. Experimental Set-Up
2. Experimental Set-Up
2.1. Experimental Materials
2.1. Experimental Materials
The rock samples used for experiments were taken from the upper layer of the Shahejie
The rock which
Formation, samples is used for at
located experiments
a depth ofwere
2780 taken
m in from the upper
a sandstone layeraquifer
saline of the Shahejie Formation,
in the Dongying
which is located at a depth of 2780 m in a sandstone saline aquifer in the Dongying Depression,
Depression, China. More detailed information on the sandstone can be found in Liu et al. [28]. The China.
More
photodetailed
of the information on the sandstone
sandstone handsample cansection
and thin be found in Liu
image et al.
under [28].
150x The photo of
magnification the
are sandstone
shown in
handsample and thin section image under 150x magnification are shown in Figure
Figure 1. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was conducted to determine the sandstone mineralogy 1. X-ray diffraction
(XRD)
usinganalysis wasMPD
X’Pert Pro conducted
modelto(D/MAX
determine theinsandstone
2500) Research mineralogy using X’Pert
Institute of Petroleum Pro MPD and
Exploration model
(D/MAX 2500) in
Development, Research
China. Institute
The main of Petroleum
mineral compositionsExploration and of
and contents Development,
the sandstoneChina. The main
are shown in
mineral
Table 1. compositions and contents of the sandstone are shown in Table 1.

(a) a part of original sandrock (b) thin section image magnified 150 times

Mineral boundary
Mineral grain

Figure
Figure 1. Photo
1. Photo of sandstone
of the the sandstone handsample
handsample and thinandsection
thin section image observed
image observed bymicroscope.
by electron electron
microscope.
Table 1. Mineral compositions and contents of the rock sample used in the experiments and simulations.
Table 1. Mineral compositions and contents of the rock sample used in the experiments and
Mineral
simulations.
Chemical Formulae Mass Fraction (%) 1 Amount (mol) 2
Quartz SiO2 35.3 0.588
Mineral
Calcite Chemical CaCO Formulae Mass Fraction
13.3 (%)
1 Amount0.133(mol) 2
3
Quartz
K-feldspar SiO32 O8
KAlSi 35.3
7.0 0.588
0.025
Albite
Calcite NaAlSi
CaCO33 8 O 6.6
13.3 0.025
0.133
Dolomite
K-feldspar CaMg(CO
KAlSi3O83 2 ) 15.3
7.0 0.083
0.025
Pyrite
Albite FeS
NaAlSi3O8 2 1.3
6.6 0.011
0.025
Anhydrite CaSO4 1.0 0.007
Dolomite CaMg(CO 3)2 15.3 0.083
Ca-Montmorillonite Ca0.165 Al2.33 Si3.67 O10 (OH)2 1.9 0.005
Pyrite
Kaolinite Al2 SiFeS 2 1.3 0.011
2 O5 (OH)4 9.3 0.036
Anhydrite
Chlorite Mg5 AlCaSO 2 Si3 O104 (OH)
8 1.0
0.8 0.007
0.001
Ca-Montmorillonite
Illite Ca
K0.6 Mg
0.165 Al0.25 Si3.67
2.33Al 2.3O 3.5(OH)
Si10 O10 (OH)
2 2 1.9
8.2 0.005
0.021
Where theKaolinite
captions noted with ‘1 ’ and ‘Al 2Si2O
2 ’ refer to5(OH)
the mineral
4 amount used in 9.3 0.036
dynamic simulations and in equilibrium
simulations, respectively. The values
Chlorite Mgof5mass
Al2Sifraction were
3O10(OH) 8 analyzed by XRD 0.8and values of amount0.001
were calculated
from mass fraction, molecular weight and a total mass of 100 g.
Illite K0.6Mg0.25Al2.3Si3.5O10(OH)2 8.2 0.021
Where the captions noted with ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ refer to the mineral amount used in dynamic simulations
1 2
2.2. Experimental Procedure
and in equilibrium simulations, respectively. The values of mass fraction were analyzed by XRD and
values
The of amount were
experiments werecalculated from mass
conducted in afraction,
static molecular weight and aand
high temperature totalhigh
mass of 100 g.
pressure reactor.
A schematic diagram of the test system is shown in Figure 2. The sandstone sample was cut into slices
of 20 mm × 10 mm × 3 mm, and the slices were washed with deionized water and dried at 105 ◦ C for
48 h. Then, every slice was weighed (with average mass of 1.80 g) before the experiment and loaded
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2.2. Experimental Procedure


The experiments were conducted in a static high temperature and high pressure reactor. A
Sustainability diagram
schematic 2019, 11, 317of the test system is shown in Figure 2. The sandstone sample was cut into slices 4 of 18
of 20 mm × 10 mm × 3 mm, and the slices were washed with deionized water and dried at 105 °C for
48 h. Then, every slice was weighed (with average mass of 1.80 g) before the experiment and loaded
into the
into the reactor
reactor container.
container. NaClNaCl solutions
solutions with
with different
different concentrations
concentrations of of 0.02,
0.02, 0.1,
0.1, and
and 0.5
0.5 mol/L
mol/L
were prepared to represent brackish water, saltwater, and brine in different
were prepared to represent brackish water, saltwater, and brine in different reservoirs, respectively.reservoirs, respectively.
The
The reaction
reactionsolutions
solutionswere werepurged
purgedwithwithpure
pure N2Ngas forfor
2 gas 10 10
minutes
minutesto remove
to remove atmospheric
atmospheric oxygen and
oxygen
were then stored in the brine tank for use. In every experiment, 25 mL of
and were then stored in the brine tank for use. In every experiment, 25 mL of NaCl solution or NaCl solution or deionized
water was pumped
deionized water was intopumped
the reactor
intocontainer through
the reactor a liquid
container metering
through pump,metering
a liquid with a solid–liquid
pump, with ratioa
of 1:14 by weight,
solid–liquid ratio which
of 1:14could providewhich
by weight, sufficient liquid
could to react
provide with sandrock
sufficient liquid slices.
to reactCOwith
2 was injected
sandrock
by a gas
slices. COmetering pumpbythrough
2 was injected the CO2pump
a gas metering cylinder to thethe
through reactor container.to The
CO2 cylinder temperature
the reactor was
container.
maintained ◦
at 50 wasC bymaintained
water bath at heating
The temperature 50 °C throughout
by water bath the heating
experiments, and pressure
throughout was controlled
the experiments, and
at 2, 5, 8, and 10 MPa by adjusting the CO injection amount. During the
pressure was controlled at 2, 5, 8, and 10 MPa by adjusting the CO2 injection amount. During the
2 experiment, temperature,
and pressuretemperature,
experiment, were monitored and with a thermometer
pressure were monitored and pressure gauge. After experiment,
with a thermometer and pressurereaction
gauge.
solutions
After and rock slices
experiment, reactionwere sampledand
solutions for rock
further analysis
slices weretosampled
evaluateforthefurther
influence of the to
analysis experiment
evaluate
time,
the NaCl solution
influence of the concentration,
experiment time, andNaCl
experiment
solution pressure on the CO
concentration, 2 –brine–rock
and experimentinteraction.
pressure on A the
set
of experiments was conducted, and the parameters of the specific batch
CO2–brine–rock interaction. A set of experiments was conducted, and the parameters of the specificexperiments are shown in
Table
batch 2.experiments are shown in Table 2.

Figure 2. 2. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram ofof the
the CO22–brine–rock
–brine–rock interaction
interaction test system, with numbers
test system, numbers
corresponding to the following parts. (1) CO22 cylinder, (2) gas metering
cylinder, (2) gas metering pump, (3) gas valve, (4) brine
tank, (5)
(5) liquid
liquidmetering
meteringpump,
pump,(6)(6)
liquid valve,
liquid (7) (7)
valve, reactor container,
reactor (8) gauge,
container, (9) thermometer,
(8) gauge, and
(9) thermometer,
(10)
and outlet.
(10) outlet.

Table 2. Parameters for the batch experiments on the CO –brine–rock interaction.


Table 2. Parameters for the batch experiments on the CO22–brine–rock interaction.
ExperimentTime
Experiment Time(h)
(h) NaCl
NaClSolution
SolutionConcentration
Concentration (mol/L)
(mol/L) Experiment Pressure
Experiment Pressure(MPa)
(MPa)
1212 0
0** 22
2424 0.02
0.02 55
72 * 0.1 8*
72144
* 0.1
0.5 108 *
144 0.5 10
When the value of one factor changed, the values of the other two factors were constant and equal to the values
When the with
designated valuea “*”.
of one factor changed, the values of the other two factors were constant and equal to
the values designated with a “*”.
2.3. Analytical Methods
2.3. Analytical Methods
Concentrations of major cations (including K+ , Na+ , Ca2+ , and Mg2+ ) and anions (mainly

HCOConcentrations 2− of major cations (including K+, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) and anions (mainly HCO3−
3 and SO4 ) in the aqueous samples were determined with inductively coupled plasma
and
massSO 42−) in the (ICP–MS)
spectrometry aqueous samples were determined(IC),
and ion chromatography with inductively
respectively. coupled
Before plasma nitric
the analysis, mass
spectrometry
acid was added (ICP–MS) andthe
to stabilize ion chromatography
ions in the solutions.(IC), respectively. Before the analysis, nitric acid
was added to stabilize the ions in
After each experiment, the remainingthe solutions.
sandstone sample was retrieved, rinsed repeatedly with
distilled water, dried at 50 C for 24 h, andsandstone
After each experiment, ◦the remaining weighed.sample was retrieved,
The surface morphologyrinsed
of repeatedly
the sample with
was
distilled
analyzedwater,
with adried at 50 °C for 24 h, and
TESCANVEGAII-LSH weighed.
tungsten filamentThe scanning
surface morphology of the sample
electron microscope (SEM) was
at
analyzed with a TESCANVEGAII-LSH tungsten filament scanning electron
20kV in the Education Ministry Key Laboratory of Marine Reservoir Evolution and Hydrocarbonmicroscope (SEM) at
Accumulation Mechanism, China University of Geosciences (Beijing).
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20kV in the Education Ministry Key Laboratory of Marine Reservoir Evolution and Hydrocarbon
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Accumulation 11, 317 China University of Geosciences (Beijing). 5 of 18

2.4. Experimental Results


2.4. Experimental Results
2.4.1.
2.4.1.Effect
Effectof
ofExperiment
ExperimentTime
Time on
on CO
CO22–Brine–Rock
–Brine–RockInteraction
Interaction
The
The changes
changes ofof KK++,, Na
Na+,, Mg
+
Mg2+, ,Ca
2+ 2+, and HCO3− concentrations in the solutions at different
Ca2+ , and HCO3 − concentrations in the solutions at different
experiment times during the CO 2–brine–rock interaction are shown in Figure 3. Low concentrations
experiment times during the CO2 –brine–rock interaction are shown in Figure 3. Low concentrations of
of
K+K, Na
+, Na+, and Mg2+ were detected in the solution, which are possibly derived from small amounts of
+ , and Mg2+ were detected in the solution, which are possibly derived from small amounts of
K-feldspar, albite, and
K-feldspar, albite, anddolomite
dolomitedissolved
dissolvedinin thethe sandstone.
sandstone. Comparatively,
Comparatively, the the concentrations
concentrations of Caof
2+
Ca 2+ and HCO3− were large and significantly increased with experiment time, and they may have

and HCO3 were large and significantly increased with experiment time, and they may have been
been generated
generated from
from the largetheamount
large of amount
calcite of calcite dissolution
dissolution from theSince
from the sandstone. sandstone. Since the
the concentrations
concentrations
of the main ions of clearly
the main ions clearly
changed changed at time
at the experiment the experiment
of 72 h, the time of 72 experiments
following h, the following
were
experiments were
conducted for 72 h. conducted for 72 h.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Changes
Changesofof main
main ion
ion concentrations
concentrations with
with experiment
experiment time
time during
during the
the CO
CO22–brine–rock
–brine–rock
interaction,
interaction, with an initial NaCl concentration of 0 mol/L; experiment pressure ofof 88 MPa
with an initial NaCl concentration of 0 mol/L; experiment pressure MPa and
and
temperature
temperatureof of50 ◦
50°C.C.

2.4.2.Effect
2.4.2. Effectof
ofExperimental
ExperimentalPressure
Pressure on
on CO
CO22–Brine–Rock
–Brine–RockInteraction
Interaction
The changes
changes of + + 2+ 2+ HCO −− , and SO2−2− concentrations in the solutions with
The of KK+,, Na
Na+,, Ca
Ca2+,, Mg
Mg2+,, HCO 33 , and SO4 4 concentrations in the solutions with
different experimental
different experimental pressures
pressuresduring
duringthetheCO
CO 2 –brine–rock
2–brine–rockinteraction
interactionare shown
are shownin in
Figure 4. With
Figure the
4. With
increased pressure, the concentrations of Na + and Mg2++ increased 2+ slightly, while the concentrations of
the increased pressure, the concentrations of Na and Mg increased slightly, while the
HCO − and Ca2+ increased significantly, and the concentrations of K + and SO 2− did not change with
concentrations
3 of HCO3 and Ca increased significantly, and the concentrations
− 2+ 4 of K and SO4 did
+ 2−

increasing
not change pressure.
with increasing pressure.
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Figure 4. Changes of main ion concentrations with different experimental pressures during the
Figure 4.
Figure Changes of
4. Changes of main
main ion
ion concentrations
concentrations with
with different
different experimental pressures during
experimental pressures during the
the
CO2–brine–rock interaction with an initial NaCl concentration of 0 mol/L; experiment temperature
CO2–brine–rock
CO –brine–rock interaction
interaction with
withan
aninitial
initialNaCl
NaClconcentration
concentrationofof
0 mol/L; experiment
0 mol/L; temperature
experiment of
temperature
of ◦50 °C and time of 72 h.
50 50
of C°C
and time
and of of
time 72 72
h. h.

2.4.3. Effect
2.4.3. Effect of
of NaCl
NaCl Concentration
Concentration on on CO
CO2–Brine–Rock Interaction
2.4.3. Effect of NaCl Concentration on CO22–Brine–Rock Interaction
The changes
The changesofofKK + ,+,Na+ ,+,Ca
Na Ca2+2+,,Mg HCO3−−,, and
Mg2+2+,, HCO and SO42−2−concentrations
concentrationsin in the
the solutions with with
The changes of K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO33−, and SO442− concentrations in the solutions with
differentNaCl
different NaClconcentrations
concentrationsduring duringthe theCO CO2 –fluid–rock
–fluid–rock
2 interaction
interaction areare shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5. 5.
When Whenthe
different NaCl concentrations during the CO 2–fluid–rock interaction are shown in Figure 5. When
the concentration of NaCl increased in the solution, the
concentration of NaCl increased in the solution, the concentrations of + , Caconcentrations of K++, Ca2+2+
, , Mg , HCO3 − ,
Mg 2+, 2+
HCO 3 −, and
the concentration
2 − of NaCl increased in the solution, the concentrations + of K , Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3−, and
SO4 SOincreased
and 2−
4 slightly.
increased However,
slightly. However, the theconcentration
concentration of ofNa
Na decreased
+
decreasedsignificantly
significantly withwith the the
SO42− increased slightly. However, the concentration of Na+ decreased significantly with the
increasing NaCl
increasing NaCl concentration,
concentration, which indicates indicates that somesome secondary
secondary mineral
mineral containing
containing Na Na was was
increasing NaCl concentration, which indicates that some secondary mineral containing Na was
forming due
forming due toto the
the CO
CO2–brine–rock interaction.
interaction.
forming due to the CO22–brine–rock interaction.

Figure
Figure 5. Changes of
5. Changes of main
main ion
ion concentrations
concentrations with
with different
different NaCl
NaCl concentrations
concentrations during
during the
the
Figure
CO 5. Changes
–brine–rock of main
interaction ionanconcentrations
with experiment with different
pressure of 8 MPa, NaCl concentrations
temperature of 50 during
◦ C, and timethe
of
CO22–brine–rock interaction with an experiment pressure of 8 MPa, temperature of 50 °C, and time
CO
72 2–brine–rock interaction with an experiment pressure of 8 MPa, temperature of 50 °C, and time
h.
of 72 h.
of 72 h.
2.4.4. Effect of CO2 –Brine–Rock Interaction on Rock Minerals
2.4.4. Effect of CO2–Brine–Rock Interaction on Rock Minerals
2.4.4.To
Effect of CO
further 2–Brine–Rock Interaction on Rock Minerals
investigate the changes in the mineral morphology during the CO2 –brine–rock
To further investigate the changes in the mineral morphology during the CO2–brine–rock
interaction, the surfaces
To further of thin
investigate the sandstone
changes inslices
the were observed
mineral using an
morphology SEM the
during before
COand after the
2–brine–rock
interaction, the surfaces of thin sandstone slices were observed using an SEM before and after the
interaction, the surfaces of thin sandstone slices were observed using an SEM before and after the
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reaction (Figure2019,
6). 11,
Thex FOR PEER showed
results REVIEW that the calcite minerals exhibited a nice crystalline form 7 of 17before
the CO2 –brine–rock interaction (Figure 6a,b), and the crystal surface was smooth and clean. However,
reaction (Figure 6). The results showed that the calcite minerals exhibited a nice crystalline form
the calcite was intensely dissolved during the CO2 –brine–rock
before the CO2–brine–rock interaction (Figure 6a,b),
interaction. As the experiment pressure
and the crystal surface was smooth and clean.
increased, the calcite corrosion strength also increased. As shown,
However, the calcite was intensely dissolved during the CO2–brine–rock at the pressure of 2 MPa,
interaction. Asthethecalcite
dissolution was not clear (Figure 6c), while at pressures of 5 MPa and 8 MPa,
experiment pressure increased, the calcite corrosion strength also increased. As shown, at the the mineral surface
became looseofand
pressure porous
2 MPa, due todissolution
the calcite the further wasdissolution of calcite
not clear (Figure (Figure
6c), while 6d,e), and
at pressures of at the pressure
5 MPa and
of 108MPa,
MPa, thethemineral
original morphology
surface of the
became loose andcalcite
porouswas
dueunrecognizable, leavingofsome
to the further dissolution calciteholes
(Figureon the
6d,e), and at the pressure of 10 MPa, the original morphology of the calcite was unrecognizable,
surface of sandstone (Figure 6f). The precipitation of new minerals was also observed after the reaction.
Someleaving
white someslenderholes on the surface
minerals of sandstone
were found on the(Figure
surface6f).
ofThe
the precipitation of new minerals
sandstone (Figure was were
6g–i). They
also observed after the reaction. Some white slender minerals were found on the surface of the +
likely dawsonite, which formed by mineral recrystallization, resulting in the large decrease of Na in
sandstone (Figure 6g–i). They were likely dawsonite, which formed by mineral recrystallization,
solution after the experiment.
resulting in the large decrease of Na in solution after the experiment.
+

(g) (h) (i)


Figure 6. SEM
Figure images
6. SEM of sandstone
images of sandstonesamples
samples in
in the experimentsbefore
the experiments before andand after
after the the
CO2CO 2 –brine–rock
–brine–rock
interactions.
interactions. (a,b)
(a,b) Clean
Clean andsmooth
and smooth surface
surface of
of calcites
calcitesbefore
beforethetheinteraction,
interaction,(c) unclear mineral
(c) unclear mineral
surface
surface afterafter the interaction
the interaction at pressure
at the the pressure
of 2ofMPa,
2 MPa,
(d,e)(d,e) loose
loose andand porous
porous mineral
mineral surfaceasas
surface calcite
calcite
further further dissolution
dissolution at the of
at the pressure pressure
5 and of 5 and(f)
8 MPa, 8 MPa,
holes(f)left
holes leftmost
after aftercalcite
most calcite dissolution,
dissolution, and (g–i)
whiteand (g–i) white slender minerals formed on the surface of the sandstone after the interaction.
slender minerals formed on the surface of the sandstone after the interaction.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 317 8 of 18

3. Simulation Evaluation

3.1. Balanced Simulation by PHREEQC


The PHREEQC interactive model (Version 2.5, USGS, Reston, Virginia, VI, USA, 2001) was used
to analyze the balanced interactions among CO2 , brine, and rock under different conditions (including
different types of solutions, NaCl concentrations, temperatures, and pressures). In the simulation,
the amount of minerals input was listed in Table 1, and the amount of water or solution input was
1.4 L, considering a solid–liquid ratio of 1:14 by weigh similar to the experiment. The results of
mineral dissolution or precipitation are shown in Figure 7. Overall, crystals of albite, anhydrite, calcite,
Ca-montmorillonite, illite, K-feldspar, and chlorite dissolved; crystals of dolomite, kaolinite, and quartz
precipitated; and pyrite changed little for its limited amount. The entire input of albite (25 mmol),
Ca-montmorillonite (5 mmol), chlorite (1 mmol), and illite (21 mmol) dissolved, and the dissolution
amount did not change with different NaCl solution concentrations, types of solutions, temperatures
and pressures. Seven millimolar anhydrite fully dissolved in pure water and NaCl solutions, but the
dissolution amount was reduced in CaCl2 and MgCl2 solutions. Only 4.37 mmol of the calcite input
dissolved in pure water and NaCl solutions, and the dissolution amount did not change with the NaCl
concentrations, temperatures, and pressures; however, the dissolution amount increased significantly
(up to 36.6 mmol) in the MgCl2 solution. In contrast, 18.8 mmol of calcite precipitated in the CaCl2
solution. In pure water, the amount of K-feldspar dissolution was clearly affected by temperature and
pressure, as it decreased with increasing temperature and increased with increasing pressure. In NaCl
solutions, the amount of K-feldspar dissolution increased slightly with increasing concentrations of
the NaCl solutions. In CaCl2 and MgCl2 solutions, the amount of K-feldspar dissolution increased
compared with the same concentration of the NaCl solution. In pure water, the precipitation amount
of kaolinite and quartz were clearly affected by temperature and pressure, decreasing with increasing
temperature and increasing with increasing pressure. In addition, the precipitation amount of kaolinite
and quartz slightly increased with the increasing concentration of the NaCl solutions, and significantly
increased in the CaCl2 and MgCl2 solutions. The precipitation amount of dolomite did not change with
different temperatures or pressures in pure water or in NaCl and CaCl2 solutions, but significantly
increased in the MgCl2 solution.
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(a) T=50℃, P=8MPa (b) T=50℃, P=8MPa

(c) P=8MPa, NaCl=0mol/L (d) T=50℃, NaCl=0mol/L

Figure7.7.Mineral
Figure Mineraldissolution/precipitation underdifferent
dissolution/precipitation under differentconditions
conditions simulated
simulated by by PHREEQC.
PHREEQC.

The
Thechanges
changes in in
thethe
amount
amount of CO dissolution
of 2 CO and the
2 dissolution andpH thewith
pH different temperature,
with different pressure,
temperature,
and types and
pressure, and concentrations of solutions
types and concentrations are shown
of solutions areinshown
Figurein8.Figure
The 8.COThe
2 dissolution
CO2 dissolutionamount
amount decreased
decreased from 0.89from mol/L0.89inmol/L in puretowater
pure water to 0.53 in
0.53 mol/L mol/L
a 2.0inmol/L
a 2.0 mol/L
NaCl NaCl solution,
solution, and theandpH
the pH
varied varied from
slightly slightly from
6.08 with6.08 with
pure pure to
water water
6.14toin6.14
the in
2.0the 2.0 mol/L
mol/L NaClNaCl solution
solution ◦
at 50
at 50 C,°C, 8
8 MPa.
MPa.
The CO2The CO2 dissolution
dissolution amountamount was 0.53–0.89
was 0.53–0.89 mol/L, mol/L,
and theand
pH the
waspH at 50 ◦ C,at850
was 6.08–6.14
6.08–6.14 °C, with
Mpa, 8 Mpa,NaCl
with NaCl concentrations
concentrations ranging fromranging from 0–2.0
0–2.0 mol/L mol/L
(Figure 8a). (Figure
The CO8a). The CO2 dissolution amount was
2 dissolution amount was 0.70 mol/L in
0.70 mol/L in the NaCl solution of 1 mol/L, which was
the NaCl solution of 1 mol/L, which was smaller than 0.80 mol/L in the smaller than 0.80CaCl
mol/Landin the
MgClCaCl 2 and
2 2 solutions,
MgCl 2 solutions, and the pH was 6.11 in a 1 mol/L NaCl solution, which was larger than 4.96 in the
and the pH was 6.11 in a 1 mol/L NaCl solution, which was larger than 4.96 in the CaCl2 solution
CaCl
and 2 solution and 4.99 in the MgCl2 solution (Figure 8b). The CO2 dissolution amount increased
4.99 in the MgCl2 solution (Figure 8b). The CO2 dissolution amount increased from 0.26 mol/L
from 0.26 mol/L at 2 MPa to 1.08 mol/L at 10 MPa, and the pH decreased from 6.08 at 2 MPa to 6.49
at 2 MPa to 1.08 mol/L at 10 MPa, and the pH decreased from 6.08 at 2 MPa to 6.49 at 10 MPa in
at 10 MPa in pure water at 50 °C (Figure 8c). The CO2 dissolution amount enhanced from 0.64 mol/L
pure water at 50 ◦ C (Figure 8c). The CO2 dissolution amount enhanced from 0.64 mol/L at 30 ◦ C to
at 30 °C to 1.34 mol/L at 90 °C, and the pH changed from 6.05 at 30 °C to 6.20 at 90 °C in pure water
1.34 mol/L at 90 ◦ C, and the pH changed from 6.05 at 30 ◦ C to 6.20 at 90 ◦ C in pure water at 8 MPa
at 8 MPa (Figure 8d).
(Figure 8d).
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17

(a)T=50℃, P=8MPa (b)T=50℃, P=8MPa

(c)T=50℃, with pure water (d)P=8MPa, with pure water

Figure
Figure 8. Change of
8. Change of CO (aq) and
CO22(aq) and pH
pH in
in solutions
solutions in
in different
different conditions
conditions simulated
simulated by
by PHREEQC.
PHREEQC.

After the interaction among CO2 , sandstone and water (or solution), the concentration of ions in
After the interaction among CO2, sandstone and water (or solution), the concentration of ions
the liquid phase with different temperatures, pressures, and types and concentrations of solutions are
in the liquid phase with different temperatures, pressures, and types and concentrations of
shown in Figure 9. The concentrations of HCO3 − , K+ , and Na−+ changed significantly in the solution
solutions are shown in Figure 9. The concentrations of HCO3 , K+, and Na+ changed significantly in
throughout the simulation by PHREEQC. Pressure and temperature mainly affected the concentrations
the solution throughout the simulation by PHREEQC. Pressure and temperature mainly affected
of HCO3 − and K+ . The concentration of HCO3 − and K+ increased with increasing pressure and clearly
the concentrations of HCO3− and K+. The concentration of HCO3− and K+ increased with increasing
decreased with increasing temperature. The concentration of NaCl slightly affected the concentrations
pressure and clearly decreased with increasing temperature. The concentration of NaCl slightly
of HCO3 − , K+ , Na+ , and Cl− . With −increasing NaCl concentrations, the concentration of K+ and
affected

the concentrations

of HCO3 , K+, +Na+, and Cl−. With increasing NaCl concentrations, the
Cl increased, HCO+ 3 decreased, and Na decreased at first and then increased later. The types of
concentration of K and Cl− increased, HCO3− decreased, and Na+ decreased at first and then
solutions mainly affected the concentrations of Ca2+ , Mg2+ , and HCO3 − . In the CaCl and MgCl
increased later. The types of solutions
2+
mainly
2+
affected the concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+2, and HCO3−2.
solutions, the concentration of Ca and Mg in solution after the reaction was smaller than in the
In the CaCl2 and MgCl2 solutions, the concentration of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in solution after the reaction
initial solution. The concentration of HCO3 − in the NaCl solution was larger than in the CaCl2 and
was smaller than in the initial solution. The concentration of HCO3− in the NaCl solution was larger
MgCl2 solution.
than in the CaCl2 and MgCl2 solution.
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(a)T=50℃, P=8MPa (b)T=50℃, P=8MPa

(c)T=50℃, with pure water (d)P=8MPa, with pure water

Figure 9. Change of ion concentration under different conditions simulated by PHREEQC.


Figure 9. Change of ion concentration under different conditions simulated by PHREEQC.
3.2. Dynamic Simulation by TOUGHREACT
3.2. Dynamic Simulation by TOUGHREACT
TOUGHREACT (ECO2 N module) was used to analyze the dynamic interaction among CO2 ,
TOUGHREACT (ECO2N module) was used to analyze the dynamic interaction among CO2,
sandstone and pure water at a pressure of 8 MPa and temperature of 50 ◦ C. As shown in Figure 10,
sandstone and pure water at a pressure of 8 MPa and temperature of 50 °C. As shown in Figure 10,
calcite dissolved at the beginning, and the amount of calcite dissolution decreased gradually before
calcite dissolved at the beginning, and the amount of calcite dissolution decreased gradually before
0.1 year, then stayed nearly constant, and finally increased after 1000 years. Dolomite dissolved
0.1 year, then stayed nearly constant, and finally increased after 1000 years. Dolomite dissolved
gradually after the CO2 –brine–rock interaction, and the amount of dolomite dissolution remained
gradually after the CO2–brine–rock interaction, and the amount of dolomite dissolution remained
constant after 0.1 year. Other minerals began to dissolve or precipitate after 100 years. The dissolved
constant after 0.1 year. Other minerals began to dissolve or precipitate after 100 years. The
minerals
dissolved were mainly
minerals were albite, kaolinite,
mainly K-feldspar,
albite, kaolinite, and chlorite.
K-feldspar, The The
and chlorite. precipitated minerals
precipitated mineralswere
Ca-montmorillonite,
were Ca-montmorillonite, illite, and quartz. The content of anhydrite and pyrite did not change the
illite, and quartz. The content of anhydrite and pyrite did not change during
simulation
during theperiod.
simulation period.
The CO
The CO 2 2dissolution
dissolution amounts and pH
amounts and pHofofthe
thesolutions
solutionsduring
during thethe simulation
simulation period
period areare shown
shown
ininFigure
Figure11.11.TheTheCO CO22 dissolution amount was
dissolution amount was approximately
approximately1.05 1.05mol/L
mol/L in in
thethe early
early simulation
simulation
period
periodandandslightly
slightlydecreasing
decreasing after 1000
1000 years.
years.The
ThepHpHdecreased
decreased from
from 7 to
7 to 4.94.9 immediately
immediately at the
at the
beginning
beginningofofthe thesimulation,
simulation,followed
followedbybya agradual
gradualpHpHincrease
increasetoto5 5atatapproximately
approximately0.1 0.1year,
year,and
andthen
it then it changed
changed little100
little until until 100 after
years, years,which
after the
whichpHthe pH increased
increased again and again wasand
upwas upattothe
to 5.4 5.4end
at the
of the
end of
10,000 the simulation
year 10,000 year period.
simulation period.
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2019,11,
11,xxFOR
FORPEER
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12 of
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17

Figure
Figure 10. 10.
Figure 10. Changes
Changes
Changes of
of mineral
of mineral abundance
abundance
mineral in
in volume
abundance volume
in fraction fraction
volumewith with
with time
time simulated
fraction timebysimulated
TOUGHREACT.
simulated by
by
(a)TOUGHREACT. (a) Time in log10 scale for analyzing the early data and (b) time in linear
TOUGHREACT. (a) Time in log10 scale for analyzing the early data and (b) time in linear scale forthe
Time in log10 scale for analyzing the early data and (b) time in linear scale for scale
analyzingfor
analyzing
later data. the
analyzing thelater
laterdata.
data.

Figure
Figure 11.11.
Figure 11. Changes
Changesinin
Changes the
inthe CO
theCO
CO 2 dissolution
dissolution amount
2 2dissolution amount and
amount andpH
and pHin
pH inthe
in thesolution
the solutionwith
solution with
withtime,
time, as
time, simulated
asas
simulated
simulated
by
by TOUGHREACT.
TOUGHREACT.
by TOUGHREACT.
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The primary
The primary ionsions in
in the
the solution
solution after
after the
the interaction
interaction among
among CO CO2,, sandstone
sandstone andand brine
brine were
were
2
HCO −, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, SO42−, and K+ (as shown in Figure 12). The concentration of HCO3− was 1.13
3− + 2+ 2+ 2 − +
HCO3 , Na , Mg , Ca , SO4 , and K (as shown in Figure 12). The concentration of HCO3 was −
mol/L
1.13 at the
mol/L atbeginning
the beginning of the
of simulation
the simulation increasing gradually
increasing after
gradually 1000
after years.
1000 The
years. concentration
The concentration of
Na + was low before 100 years and increased up to 0.22 mol/L. The concentration of Mg2+ increased
+
of Na was low before 100 years and increased up to 0.22 mol/L. The concentration of Mg increased 2+
from0.05
from 0.05mol/L
mol/Ltoto0.029
0.029 mol/L
mol/L before
before 0.30.3 years,
years, thenthen remained
remained unchanged
unchanged until
until 100 100 and
years, years, and
finally
finally decreased
decreased in the
in the late late of
period period of the simulation.
the simulation. The concentration
The concentration of Ca2+ofdecreased
Ca decreased
2+
from afrom
higha
high concentration of 0.03 mol/L in the initial simulation to the concentration of 0.01893
concentration of 0.03 mol/L in the initial simulation to the concentration of 0.01893 mol/L at 0.3 years, mol/L at 0.3
years, and then it decreased slightly from 1 year to 100 years, and finally decreased
and then it decreased slightly from 1 year to 100 years, and finally decreased quickly to a low quickly to a low
concentrationof
concentration of0.0492
0.0492mol/L
mol/L at at10000
10000years.
years.TheTheconcentration
concentrationofofSOSO24−2− was
was always
always0.00184
0.00184mol/L
mol/L
4
during the simulation period. K + was nearly absent before 10 years, and the concentration of K+
during the simulation period. K was nearly absent before 10 years, and the concentration of K+
+
graduallyincreased
gradually increasedtoto 0.00267
0.00267 mol/L
mol/L at 2000
at 2000 years
years and and
thenthen decreased
decreased to 0.00109
to 0.00109 mol/Lmol/L at years.
at 10,000 10000
years. The concentrations of Fe 2+ and Cl− were very low throughout the simulation period.
2+ −
The concentrations of Fe and Cl were very low throughout the simulation period.

Figure 12. Changes


Figure 12. Changes ofof ion
ion concentration
concentration in
in the
the solution
solution due
due to
to the
the interaction
interaction among
among CO
CO22,, sandrock,
sandrock,
and brine with time, as simulated by TOUGHREACT.
and brine with time, as simulated by TOUGHREACT.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
4.1. CO2 Dissolution and pH
4.1. CO2 Dissolution and pH
The dissolution of CO2 in solution was affected by temperature, pressure, the type of solution,
and theThesolution
dissolution of COCO
salinity. 2 in solution was affected by temperature, pressure, the type of solution,
2 dissolution increased with the rise in pressure and decreased with
and the solution salinity. CO
increasing temperature and solute 2 dissolution increased with the rise in pressure and decreased with
concentration. There is a negative correlation between the solution
increasing
pH and the temperature
CO2 dissolution andinsolute concentration.
general. There is ina the
When CO2 dissolved negative correlation
solution, between
carbonic acid the
formed,
solution pH and the CO 2 dissolution in general. When CO2 dissolved in the solution, carbonic acid
as shown in Formula (1). Then, the carbonic acid in the solution was further decomposed into hydrogen
formed,
and as shown
bicarbonate, as in Formula
shown (1). Then,
in Formula (2). the carbonic
Therefore, theacid
more inCO
the2 dissolved
solution was further
in the decomposed
solution, the more
into hydrogen
hydrogen and bicarbonate,
ions formed, leading toastheshown in Formula
decrease (2). Therefore,
of the solution pH: the more CO2 dissolved in the
solution, the more hydrogen ions formed, leading to the decrease of the solution pH:
CO2 (aq)+H2 O
H2 CO3 (1)
CO2 ( aq) +H2O  H2CO3 (1)
H2HCO
CO
+
3
HH ++ HCO−3−
+HCO (2)
2 3 3 (2)
4.2. Minerals Dissolution and Precipitation
4.2. Minerals Dissolution and Precipitation
The dissolution and precipitation of minerals was mainly affected by the CO2 dissolution and
TheAsdissolution
the pH. discussed and precipitation
above, of minerals
the CO2 dissolution was mainly
amount affected
was large by pH
and the the was
CO2 low
dissolution and
under high
the pH. As discussed above, the CO2 dissolution amount was large and the pH was low under high
pressure and low temperature conditions, which could promote the interaction between solution and
pressure
rock. and low
As shown temperature
in Figure conditions,
7, the amount which could
of K-feldspar promoteand
dissolution thethe
interaction
amount ofbetween solution
precipitation of
and rock. As shown in Figure 7, the amount of K-feldspar dissolution and the amount of
Sustainability 2019, 11, 317 14 of 18

kaolinite and quartz was large under high pressure and low temperature conditions. At the same time,
the pH was larger and the amount of K-feldspar, kaolinite, and quartz dissolution or precipitation
in the NaCl solution was smaller than in MgCl2 and CaCl2 solutions. In addition, the pH decreased
slightly with increasing NaCl concentrations and the amount of K-feldspar, kaolinite, and quartz
dissolution or precipitation increased to a small extent.
The results of the dynamic simulation showed that calcite and dolomite dissolution occurred only
at the beginning of the simulation. The quick dissolution of calcite can be confirmed with the SEM
images of the sandstone, which show that calcite dissolved after the interaction of CO2 , water, and rock
for 72 h, leaving some holes in the rock surface. However, the dissolution and precipitation of other
minerals occurred hundreds of years after the CO2 –water–rock interaction (as shown in Figure 10a),
which was indicated by the dynamic simulations and could not be observed in a short-time lab
experiment. As shown in Figure 10b, the reaction rate of each mineral dissolution or precipitation
kept at a constant after 4000 years. The dissolution rate of annual change in volume fraction for each
mineral from high to low was albite of 4.02 × 10−7 , kaolinite of 1.73 × 10−7 , K-feldspar of 1.34 × 10−7 ,
chlorite of 8.68 × 10−8 , and calcite 4.23 × 10−8 , and the precipitation rate of annual change in volume
fraction for each mineral from high to low was Ca-Montmorillonite of 3.50 × 10−7 , illite of 2.95 × 10−7 ,
and quartz of 5.84 × 10−8 .
The simulation results of PHREEQC and TOUGHREACT both showed that albite, anhydrite,
calcite, K-feldspar, and chlorite dissolved, while quartz precipitated and pyrite changed little.
However, there were also some differences in the simulation results between PHREEQC and
TOUGHREACT. Ca-Montmorillonite and illite dissolved in the PHREEQC results, but precipitated
in TOUGHREACT results. Additionally, dolomite and kaolinite precipitated in PHREEQC but
dissolved in TOUGHREACT. The differences in the simulation results between PHREEQC and
TOUGHREACT can be explained by the fact that the results of PHREEQC reflect the final equilibrium
of the CO2 –brine–rock interaction and the results of TOUGHREACT show the dynamic processes of
the interaction. In addition, PHREEQC has the limitations of not considering complex ion exchange
models and uncertainties in thermodynamic constants, and thus simplifies the assumptions [46,47].
These limitations may be another reason caused the differences.

4.3. Main Ions in Solution


In this experiment, Ca2+ and HCO3 − were the main ions after the interaction of CO2 , brine,
and rock. Ca2+ was formed due to the dissolution of calcium-bearing minerals (as shown in Formula
(3)). As discussed above, while calcite dissolution occurred quickly and was observed in SEM images,
the dissolution of other minerals should take a long time. HCO3 − mainly came from two reactions:
one was the decomposition of H2 CO3 (as shown in Formula (2)), and the other was the combination of
H− and CO3 2− coming from the dissolution of calcite (Formula (3)):

CaCO3 +H−
Ca2+ +HCO3− (3)

With increased time of interaction among the CO2 , water, and rock, the concentration of other ions
in solution changed due to the dissolution or precipitation of minerals. K+ and Na+ were produced
from the dissolution of K-feldspar and albite after hundreds of years of the interaction of CO2 , water
and rock simulated by TOUGHREACT. The concentrations of K+ and Na+ reached relatively large
values when the CO2 –brine–rock interaction was balanced, as simulated by PHREEQC. Mg2+ was
detected in the experiment, and the concentration of Mg2+ increased in the early period simulated by
TOUGHREACT, which may have come from the dissolution of dolomite. However, the concentration
of Mg2+ decreased in the late period simulated by TOUGHREACT, which indicates that the rate of Mg2+
consumption due to Ca-montmorillonite precipitation was larger than the rate of Mg2+ generation
because of dolomite dissolution. This is consistent with the results of PHREEQC, which showed that
Sustainability 2019, 11, 317 15 of 18

there was no Mg2+ in the solution, indicating that the precipitation of dolomite consumed all of the
Mg2+ coming from the dissolution of Ca-montmorillonite.

5. Conclusions
This paper provides a method to study the hydrogeochemical reactions among CO2 , formation
water, and a sandstone reservoir at various stages during the geological storage of CO2 . The lab
experiment directly investigated the characteristics of CO2 –brine–rock interaction over a short
time. TOUGHREACT predicted the interaction processes at different times over a long period, and
PHREEQC forecasted the interaction of CO2 –brine–rock in the final equilibrium state. The conclusions
of this paper can be summarized as follows.
The changes of ion concentrations were clear due to the CO2 –brine–rock interaction in
the experiment after 72 h. The concentrations of HCO3 − and Ca2+ increased significantly.
The concentration of HCO3 − in solution was mainly increased in two ways: (i) the decomposition
of carbonic acid that was formed by CO2 dissolution, and (ii) the dissolution of calcite, which was
further shown in the SEM images of the lithic sandstone after the experiment. The increase in Ca2+
concentration was mainly caused by calcite dissolution. Moreover, the precipitation of dawsonite
possibly led to the large decrease in Na+ . Because of the limited run time of the experiment, the change
in concentration of other ions and the dissolution or precipitation of other minerals was not observed.
The amount of CO2 dissolution and the solution pH was affected by the temperatures, pressures,
types of solution, and the solution concentrations in the models, which further influenced mineral
dissolution and precipitation. The simulation results of PHREEQC and TOUGHREACT both showed
that albite, anhydrite, calcite, K-feldspar, and chlorite dissolved, while quartz precipitated and pyrite
changed little. Ca-montmorillonite and illite precipitated, and dolomite and kaolinite dissolved in the
simulation period simulated by TOUGHREACT; however, Ca-montmorillonite and illite dissolved
and dolomite and kaolinite precipitated in the final equilibrium interaction simulated by PHREEQC.
In the simulation period, HCO3 − , Na+ , Ca2+ , and Mg2+ were the primary ions in solution because of
the CO2 dissolution and mineral dissolution and precipitation during the CO2 –brine–rock interaction.
It would be helpful to further understand the CO2 mineralization process to securely store CO2 in
deep saline aquifers.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.L.; Formal Analysis, B.L. and J.X.; Investigation, F.Z., J.X., and Y.Q.;
Methodology, B.L. and J.X.; Resources, F.Z.; Software, B.L.; Validation, F.Z.; Visualization, Y.Q.; Writing—Original
Draft, B.L.; Writing—Review & Editing, Y.Q.
Funding: This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(No. 2014QNB49) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41702257).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to
publish the results.

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