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Document Name: SMACNA AIR: Energy Recovery Equipment and
Systems, Air-to-Air
Official Incorporator:
THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL REGISTER
WASHINGTON, D.C.
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ENI AND
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I. Sheet Metal
and Air Conditioning
AIR-IO-AIR
I Contractors National Association , Inc_
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:-ti%ENERGY
: tb~· ENT
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Sheet Metal
and Ai r Conditioning ..
AIR-YO-AIR
Cant rae Iors National Assoclalton , Inc.
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ENERGY RECOVERY EQUlrMENT AND SYSTEMS
AIR-TO -AIR
ClSMACNA 1978
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All rights reserved
SHEET METAL AND AIR CONDITIONING CONTRACTORS'
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION, INC.
8224 Old Courthouse Rd.
Tysons Corner
Vienna , Virginia 22180
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Pri nted in the U.S.A.
FIRST EDITION -JULY, 1978
SECOND PRINTIN G -J UNE, 1979
CONTRACTORS
SMACNA Energy Recovery Committee
G. E. Daniel, Chairman
MANUFACTURERS
Aaymond Barnum
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Daniel & Jones Sheet Metal
Pinellas Park, Florida
Harrison Radiator Division
of General Motors Corporation I
••,
Lockport , New York
William Barnhizer
Kenneth R. Bush
The Waldinger Corporation
T rane Company
Des Moines, Iowa
LaCrosse, Wisconsin
James A. McVean
F-M Sheet Metal Fabricators
Dr. Nicholas H. DesChamps
DesChamps Laboratories, Inc.
Eas! Hanover, New Jersey
Kon Dravnieks
Energy Recovery Company
Germantown , Wisconsin
,
Fort Worth, Texas
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Lester W. Lang
Lackland Sheet Metal Company
SI. Louis, Missouri
Owen L. Riddell
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SMACNA , Inc . Barber-Colman Company
Vienna, Virgi nia Huntsville, Alabama
OTHER CONTRIBUTORS
ASHRAE Technical Committee 5.5- William E. Rice Derald G. Welles
Air- to-Air Energy Recovery University Mechanical & Engineering Modine Heati ng Recovery, Inc.
Justin H . Smith . Chairman
John A. Sharp
Contractors
John J. McGuinness
Lewis G. Harriman III .'I
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Dow Chemical U.S.A. Cargocaire Engineering Corporation
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FOREWORD
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I Industry generally lacks knowledge about energy re-
covery systems. Energy prices have increased tre-
mendously since the oil embargo of 1973. Some
panies that have provided information and proprie-
tary data used in this manual. Until data and informa-
tion is available from research and test programs
I. manual Will not necessarily be acceptable it, when examined and tested. is found 10 have other features which impairlhe resul t
contemplated by these requirements. The Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association assumes no
responsibility and accepts no liability for the application of the principles or techniques contained in this manual.
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REFERENCES .'
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Text material forthis manual has been obtained from catalogs, handbooks , and engineering manuals publ ished by
the following organizations:
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1. Allied Air Products Co. , Inc.
2. American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
Newberg, Oregon
New York , New York •
3. American Society of Heating , Refrigeration and
Air-Conditioni ng Engineers. Inc. (ASHRAE) New York, New York
•
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4. Barber-Colman Company Huntsville. Alabama
5. Cargocaire Engineering Corporation Amesbury, Massachusetts
6. Carrier Corporation Syracuse, New York
7. DesChamps Laboratories. Inc.
B. Dow Chemical U.S.A.
East Hanover, New Jersey
Midland. Michigan
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9. Energy Recovery Company Germantown. Wisconsin
10. Harri son Radiator Division of
General Motors Corporation Lockport, New York
11 . Heating/Pi ping/Air-Conditioning Magazine
12. Kalhabar Systems. Midland Ross Corporation
13. Mobil Oil Company
Stamford. Connecticut
New Brunswick, New Jersey
New York. New York ••
14. Modine Heating Recovery , Inc.
15. Monsanto
Racine . Wisconsin
SI. Louis , Missouri
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16. Nationa l Environmental Salancing Bureau (NESS) Vienna, Virginia
17. O-Dot Corporation Dallas. Texas
18. Sheet Metal and Air Conditionmg Contractors'
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National Association (SMACNA) Vienna. Virginia
19. Shell Oil Company Houston. Texas
20. The Trane Company LaCrosse, Wisconsin
21. U.S. Department of Commerce-National
Bureau of Standards Washington , D.C.
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22. Vari-Cool Product Division of H. &C. Metal
Products Santa Rosa , California
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Numbers in parentheses used in the text, figures . and tables refer to the numbers preceding the above
organizations.
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TABLE OF
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• CONTENTS
I SMACNA ENERGY RECOVERY COMMIITEE
FOREWORD
ii
iii
I REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENTS "
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I I ENERGY RECOVERY
A. PROCESS TO PROCESS
B. PROCESS TO COMFORT
1.1
12
C. COMFORT TO COMFORT 1.2
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I II FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY TRANSFER
A. " HEAT " ENERGY
\. Thermodynamics
2.1
2.1
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2. Heat Transfer 2.1
3. Parallel & Coun\erllow Transfer 2.2
I B. PSYCHROMETRICS
1 Intr oduction
2 Properties of Air
2.3
2 .3
2.3
3 Air-vapor Relationship 2 .5
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I III USE OF THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
A. THE PSYCHROMETRIC CH ART
1 Basic Grid, Humidity Ratio (Spec ific Humidity)
3.1
3.1
2. Enthalpy (Total Heal) 3. 1
3. Dry Bulb Tempera ture 3.1
I 4
5
Saturation Line, Dew Pain! & WeI Bulb
SpeCific Volume
3.1
3.2
6 Relative Humidity 3.2
I 7.
8.
Wet Bulb Temperatu r-e
PloUlng Condi\ions
B. CONDITION CHANGES ON THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
3.3
3 .3
3.4
1 Sensible Changes 3.4
I 2.
3.
4.
Latent Changes
Combination Changes
Airstream Mixtures
3 .4
3.5
3.7
5. Related Tables and Equations 3.7
I C. OTHER CHARTS 3.7
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TABLE Of CONTlNTS
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C. EFFECTIVENESS
Total Heat Devices
2. SenSible Heat De'Jlces
4.2
4.3
4.3 .',
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3. Summary 4 .4
D. DEVICE CONFIGURATION 4 .4
1 Counterllow (An-to·air) 4.4
4.4
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2_ Parallel Flow (Alf-io-air)
3. Cross-Uow (An-la-air) 4.5
4 Closed Pipe Loop (Atr-to-lIU1d-to-alr) 4.5
INTRODUCTION TO EQUIPMENT
V A. TR ANS FER EQUIPMENT IN GENERAL 5.1
B. TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
1.
2.
Rotary Wileel
Fixed Plate
5.2
5 .2
5.2
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3. Multiple Tower 5.3
4 Fmned Tube Exchangers
C. CHARACTERISTICS
5.3
SA
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1 Energy Trans ter Process
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2 Temperature Ranges
3 Transler Efficiencies SA
4 Orientation 5.5
D. RATINGS 5.5
1 Amencan Society of Heating. RefngeratlOn and Air-ConditiOning Engineers (ASHRAE) 5.6
2. Alr-Condltlonmg and Retngerahon Institute (ARt) 5 .7
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ROTARY WHEEL EXCHANGERS
VI A. DESCRIPTION
1 Temperature Range
6 .1
6.1
2. ConstructIOn 6 .1
B. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 6 .2
1 The Transter Process 6.2
2_ Cross Conlamlnahon 6.3
C. PERFORMANCE
1 Pressure Drops
6.3
6.3
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2 Effectiveness 6A
D. APPLICATION
1 Filters
2 Condensation & Freeze-up
6A
6.5
6 .5
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E. CAPACITY CONTROLS
F. MAINTENANCE
6.6
6.7 I
VII
FIXED PLATE EXCHANGERS
A. DESCRIPTION 7 .1
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1 Temperalwe Range 7 .1
2 ConSllllCllon
B. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
1 The Transfer Process
7 .1
7.2
7.2
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2. Cross Contamination 7.2
C. PERFORMANCE 7.3
1 Pressure Drops 7.3
2, EUec llveness 7.3
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I TABLE Of CONTENTS
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• D. APPLICATION
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VIII THERMOSlrHON ( HEAT rlrE) EXCHANGERS
A. DESCRIPTION 6.1
I I. Temperature Range
2. Coostrucllon
B. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
6.1
6.2
6.2
1, The Transfer Process 6.2
I 2. Cross Contamination
C. PERFORMANCE
6.3
6.3
1 Pressure Drops 6.3
I 2. EUecllveness
D. APPLI CATION
1 Filters
6.3
6.'
6.5
2 Condensation & Freeze-up 6.5
I E. CAPACITY CONTROLS
F. MAINTENANCE
6.6
6.7
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IX RUN -AROUND COIL EXCHANGERS (COIL HEAT RECOVERY LOOr)
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• A. DESCRIPTION
1 Temperature Range
2 Construction
B. PRIN CIPLES OF OPERATION
1 The Transfer Process
2. Cross Contamination
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.2
9.2
C. PERFORMANCE 9.2
1 Pressure Drops 9.2
I 2. Effectiveness
D. APPLICATION
1. Fillers
9.2
9.2
9 .3
2 Condensation & Freeze-up
I E. CAPACITY CONTROLS
F. MAINTENANCE
9.3
9.3
9.3
G. THERMAL TRANSFER FLUIDS
I 1 Types
2 Freeze PrOtection
9.'
9.'
9.4
3, Burst Protection 9.4
I 4. COIIOSIOl1 Protection
5. Thermal Transfer Effic iency
6. Fillid life & Maintenance
9.4
9.5
9.5
7 FlUid SpeClhcatlons Versus DeSign Cond+1lons 9 .5
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I. X MULTIrLE TOWER EXCHANGERS
A. DE SCRIPTION
1 Temperature Range
10 .1
10.1
2 ConSlructlon 10.1
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TAlll Of CONTENTS
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B. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
1. The Transfer Process
2. Cross Contamination
3. Bacferia Removal
C. PERFORMANCE
10.1
10.1
10.2
10.2
10.2
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1. Pressure Orops 10.2
2 Effectiveness 10.3
D. APPLICATION
1. Fillers
10.3
10.3
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2 Condensation & Freeze-up 10.3
E. CAPACITY CONTROL
F. MAINTENANCE
10.3
10.4
10.5
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G. TH ERMAL TRANFER FLU IDS
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XI DRY AIR COOLER EXCHANGERS
A. DESCRIPTION
1 Temperature Range
11 .1
11.1
11 .1
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2. ConstruCllon
B. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
f. The Transfer Process
11 .2
11.2
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2. Cross Contamlnahon 11.3
C. PERFORMANCE
1 Pressure DlOps
2. Effectiveness
11.3
11 .3
11.4
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D. APPLICATION
1 Filters
2 CondensBhQrl & Freeze-up
11 .4
11 .4
11.4
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E. CAPACITY CONTROLS 11.4
F. MAINTENANCE 11.4
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XII THERMAL TRANSFER FLUIDS
A. HEAT TRANSFER MEDIA EVALU ATION
1 TOXICity & Environmental Ecology
12.1
12.1
12.1 I
2. COHoslvenesS 10 Malellals 01 Conslr uchon
3. Flammability 122
B. THERMAL STABILITY AND CHEMICAL STRUCTURE 12.3
C. EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND OPERATING CONDITIONS
1 Fired or Electrrcal Healer DeSign
12.3
12.3
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2. Heafer ilnd Vaponzer 12.5
3
4
5.
P,pmg 8r)(1 Pump Seals
Expansion Tank
Summary
12.5
12.6
12.6
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XIII
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ECONOMICS OF ENERGY RECOVERY
A. JUSTIFICATION 13.1
1 EXisting BUildings 13.1
2 New BUlldJnqs 13.1
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I TAILE. Of CONT(NTS
I 3. Reduced Maintenance
4 Lower Labor Costs
5 Pollution Aba tement
13.2
13.2
13.2
6 Product Improvement 13.3
I 7 Revenue Generating
8 EXisting Performance Record s
C. COM PUTING FUEL SAVINGS
13.3
13.3
13.3
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• 5 Internal Rate 01 Return Method
C. SPECIAL FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
INVESTMENT ANALYSI S
1 Treatment 01 Income Taxes
2. Inllahon
3 Uncertainties 01 an Evaluallon
14 .10
14.11
14.11
14 .12
14 .13
D. APPLICAT ION OF EVALUATION METHODS TO
DIFFERENT KINDS OF DECISIONS 14.1 4
I E. SUMMARY 14. 16
I XV AREAS OF APPLICATION
A.
B.
MARKET POTENTIAL
COMMERCIAL
15.1
15 .1
C. INSTITUTIONAL 15.2
I D.
E.
INDUSTRIAL
RESIDENTIAL
15.2
15.2
F. GENERAL 15.2
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XVI MAINTENANCE AND FIELD TESTING
A. SYSTEM START-UP
1 Fans and Rotary Wheels
16.1
16.1
2. Au Condltlorung Units 16.1
3 Duel System 16.1
4 Pumps 161
I. 5 Spray Towers
6 COils an:! Heal Exchangers
7 PIping System
161
16 .1
16.2
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TABLE Of CO N T ENTS
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B. PERFORMANCE TESTING
1. General Considerations
2.
3.
4.
5.
Psychrometric Readings
Airflow MeasUiemenls
Wheel Rotation
Transfe, Ratio and Effectiveness
16.2
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.4
16.4
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16.6
C. MAINTENANCE
1. General Information
2 Inspection
16.6
16.7
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3. Repair 16.8
4.
5.
Replacement
Reassembly
D. CLEANING
16.8
16.9
16.9
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1, Cleaning Recommendations 16.9
2, Cleaning Procedures 16.10
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TABLES AND CHARTS
XVII A. HVAC Equations in U.S. Units
B. HVAC Equations in Metric Units
17.1
17.2
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C. Metric Units and Equivalents 17.7
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GLOSSARY
XVIII A. TECHN ICAL TERMS l B.1 I
XIX
B. ECONOMIC TERMS
INDEX
18 .11
19.1 • I
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SECTION I
ENERGY RECOVERY
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I INTRODUCTION 3. Effects of Contaminants. If the process exhaust
contains particulate contaminants or condensi-
bles, the energy recovery device should require
The basic objective of all air-la-air energy recovery
I • A PROCESS-TO-PROCESS
and equipment that could substantially in-
crease the cost of energy recovery installations .
Process-to-process recovery devices generally re-
I cover only sensible heat and do not transfer latent
heat in most cases, latent heat transfer could actu-
In process-to-process applications, heat is captured ally be detrimental to the process.
ENERGY RECOVERY
evaluated : DEVICE
1.1
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EN ER G Y RE C.O VEIY
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8 PROCESS-TO-COMFORT
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tially reducing the load on the space cooling equip- comfort- to-comfort applications , the energy recovery
ment. process is reversible: i.e .. the enthalpy of the building
When considering application of process-to-comfort supply air is lowered during warm weather, and
energy recovery, the following shou ld be evaluated: raised during cold weather.
1. Effects of Corrosives. Process exhaust fre- Air-to-air energy recovery devices avai lable for
quently contains substances wh ich requi re comfort-to-comfort applications generally fall into two
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categories: sensible-only devices , and total -enthalpy
MAKE·UP 0 F ( 18 C)
40000 SC FM 116,900 std, I s) ~
c: _L 1
TOOUTOOORS devices .
Sensible-only deVices normally transfer sensible
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ENERGY RECOVERY heat between supply and exhaust airstreams , while
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OEVICE total-enthalpy or total heat devices transfer both
HEATEOAIR
75 F(24 C)
PROCESS EXHAUST sens ible heat and latent heat (humidity) between
PLANT 600 13 16 C) supply and exhaust airstreams. Unlike process-to-
40000 SCFM 10,000 SCFM
11890051d IS) process and process-to-comfort applications , latent
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14720 std. I s)
r heat transfer is generally desirable in comfort-to-
!- : 'ROCESS l comfort applications. Figure 1-3 depicts a typical
comfort-to-comfort application of a sensible-only de-
ENERGY SAVINGS WITH RECOVERY
3240000 STUH 1949 536 W)
I • OUTSIDE AIR
10.000 SCFM ,4720 51d ~"' TONC SYSTEM
OUTSIDE AIR
IO.OOOSCFM lH20 lid I I I TO Ale SYSTEM
(5) 95 F. 120 G< It> 135 C. 17 II I<!,II (SHII F, I20Gtb(2rC, ' 7g~ 91
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lSI 95 F. 120 Go III 135 C 17 ,kgl ,SIDI f. 62 G<1Il 12l"C. 129"1<91
(W) O'F, 3 G< Ib r ~ I B C, 0 4 II kOI (IV) 5.'1 F 3 G'1I>(11 C. o. g.kgl lWlOF .3G<lb l IDC O(gkgj \.". lW)53F.25GrlblllC4gl.g1
EXHAUST AIR I' EXHAUST AIR
EXHAUST TO OUTSIDE IO.OOOSCFM (4720 51\1 lsi EXHAUST TO OUTSIDE 10 000 SCF M 14720tld.1 'I
(5)75 F.65G. 1b(24C_99~9) ISI7f>F 6SGflbl2~C9gkgl
1b(24C_5~~g) fWl 7f> F 35 Go- 11 (24 C Sg.1«j1
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(WJ7S F J5Gt
I psychrometric chart.
When considering application of comfort-to-comfort
energy recovery. the following should be evaluated:
has the greater short term and long term ben-
efits.
5. Effect of Supply and Exhaust Location. Where
1. Effect of Particulate Contaminants. If the build- exhaust and supply ductwork are in close prox-
I • ing exhaust air contains large amounts of par-
ticulatemaller.suchasdust. lint.animal hair.
imity, any 01 a number of energy recovery de-
vices can be designed into the air system. Other
etc .. provision shou ld be made for adequate energy recovery devices are able to handle
I preliltration of building exhaust air to prevent
plugging of the energy recovery device . The
large physical separations between the supply
air and exhaust air systems.
same quality of prefiltration should be provided
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I 1.3
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SECTION II
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY TRANSFER ••
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To be able to evaluate energy recovery equipment
ratings and to obtain the necessary expertise to
Heat transfer or flow is measured in British thermal
units (Btu) per hour in U.S. units and walts (W) in
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analyze which energy recovery system best suits the metric units. One watt equals 3.412 Btu/hr.
applicatio n, the fu ndamen tal laws of thermo -
The differences in heat absorption by various sub-
dynamics and psychrometries must be known and
stances is recognized by the term "specific heat. ,.
used by the system designer. This section will con-
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The specific heat (e) of water is 1.0 Btu per pound-
tain a review and explanation of these fun damentals
degree F (4 190 jou le per kilogram-kelvin in the melric
as they relate to energy recovery systems.
system) and the specific heat (Cp ) of air is 0.2388
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Btu/lboF (1000 JlkgoK).
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transferred by this method from material to material ,
as well as within the same material provided there is
contact between the materials. Transfer by conduc-
1. Thermodynamics tion is usually greatest in metals while organic solids.
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Heal is one of the several forms of energy which can such as wood and asbestos retard the energy flow
be converted by various methods to or from energy in (act as insulators) .
mechanical, chemical. electrical and nuclear forms .
••
Thermodynamics is the science of heat energy and The thermal conductivity (k) is the heat transfer coel-
its transformations to and from these other forms of ficient used to express the ti me rate of heat flow
energy. perpendicu lar to the surface through a homogeneous
material in units of Btu-thickness per unit time per
•
There are two fundamental laws of thermodynamics
unit area per degree temperature difference (Btu
which can be stated in different, but equivalent ways .
-in/hr/sq.fl.f F) or (W/mOK in the metric system) .
For the purpose of energy recovery systems. the
•
laws will be stated as: Heat flow in energy recovery equipment is normally
(a) Firs/ - Energy can neither be created nor de- from a lIuid (or gas) through a thin wall into another
stroyed (the net increase in the energy content fluid (or gas) , or is into a " transfer substance" which
moves inlo or to another cooler fluid (or gas) to de-
•
of a particu lar system in a given period is equal
to the energy content of the material leaving posit its energy. The method of transfer will be cov-
the system . plus the work done on the system . ered for each individual type of equipment in sections
plus the heat added to the system) . that follow.
(b) Second-it is impossible for a self-acting
machine , unaided by any external agency, to
convey heat from a body of lower temperature
Major factors in the transler of heat by conduction
are:
•
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a. temperature difference
to one of higher temperature (heatllow always
occurs from the higher temperature level to the b. size and shape of the transfer surface
lower temperature level). c. type of lIuid (or gas) and flow velocity
d. conductivity 01 heat transler material
2. Heat Transfer e. conductivity of the ··boundary layer.'·
In environmenta l systems , as well as in natural pro- There are also many other factors to consider when
cesses . heat is transferred by Ihree means:
••I
designing or using energy recovery equipment or
a. radiation systems , such as film coefficients. lou ling, corrosion ,
b. conduction condensables, fros t or freezing . poor maintenance.
c. convection etc.
2. 1
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I S[CTlON II
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exchangers, there is a difference between the enter· DiViding wall
I ing and leaving temperatures of each fluid or gas, and
there is a difference between temperatures of the
_ or transfer
sur/ace
COLD
I
the dividi ng surfaces or with the exchange media.
There are several fluid flow direction patterns used in
energy exchange equipment. such as parallel flow,
IL-_ _----'I
COUNTERFLOW
cross-flow and counterflow. For simplification. the
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direction to the other.
L
Fluid A. in Figure 2-1 . is the higher temperature fluid
which imparts heatlhrough the heat exchanger wall
to the lower temperature fluid , B. The maximum
FLUID A
HOT
. HEAT FLOW
FLUID A
..
I
] j j II ~
temperature that any part of fluid B may approach , DiViding wall
but never equal (or become greater than) , is the !!_ or transfer
•
sur/ace
highest tempera ture of fluid A. T here is a distinct rela-
COLD
FLUID B
.
I Observe that the temperature difference between the
fluids changes from point to point across the ex-
changer. If the curves on the graphs were straight
IL-_ _----'I
PARALLEL FLOW
li nes. it wou ld be possible to calcu late a useful
I arithmetical average which could be applied to de-
termine the heat transfer. However, the curvature 01
Figure 2-1 HEAT TRANSFER FLOW PATI ERNS
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I.I
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fUNDAMENTALS Of ENERGY rRANSfll I
• II
TA (HOT) T A (Hal)
UJ
0:
UJ
0:
I
::> ~ ::>
~
~
0:
UJ
"-
T. (WARM) <V'O-1
TA (WARM)
0:
UJ
"-
TA (WARM) I
">- ~(V/D ">-
I
UJ UJ
T. (WARM)
e
T. (COLD)
2. Properties 01 Air The dry air component of the moist air exists as only a
gas under all environmental conditions and can not
I
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Dry air is an unequal mixture of gases consisting be liquified by pressure alone, therefore acti ng as a
principally of nitrogen, oxygen , and small amounts of perfect gas. However, water vapor does coexist with
neon, helium, and argon . The percentage of each water as a liquid at all enVIronmental temperatures,
gas will normally be the same from sample to sample, and it can be liquified by pressure . As it is not a
2.3
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I SEcnON II
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• Air In (O"F) (·I8"CI _
Water In
(200" F)
Air Out (120° Fl
(49"C)
Temp.
I (93"CI
Coil Dept h
I Wa ter Out
11 80°Fj
IB1' C)
Parallel Flow - Heating
I
I Waler In
(45° F)
Air Ou l (56°F)
(13°C)
Temp.
I)' C)
I Coil Depth
I Waler Out
155" F)
IT3" FI
Parallel Flow - Cooling
Coil Depth
I
I Air In (7S" Fj (24"C) _
Temp.
I
Water Out (55" Fl
(13"Cl
I
Coil Dep th
Waler In (45° F)
po e) ,
Counter Flow - Cooling
I
Z.4
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FUNDAMlNTALS Of .lNl RGY TRANSfER I
perfect gas, the properties of water vapor are deler-
mined experimentally.
air were heated to 700° F, as in a process application.
the new volu me may be determined:
••
3. Air-vapor Relationship
Th roughout Ihe normal ranges of atmospheric pres-
V = V1T2 = 1335 x 460 + 700 13.35
2 T, . 460 + 70
V2 = 29.2 cu It (per pound)
x 11 60
530
•
•
sures and temperatu res , the air and water vapor Similar calcu lations may be made for any value of
mixture behaves as a perfect gas provided no con- temperature so long as the pressure remains con-
densation or evaporation takes place. A " perfect stant.
•
gas" is one where the relatio nsh ip of pressure, temp-
erature and volume may be defined and predicted by
the equation:
EXAMPLE NO. 2
•
PV ~ R It is possible to make si milar calculations which in-
Equation 2-1
T clude pressure variations. An example might be to
where: find the correct volume for an altitude of 5000 feet.
•
P = pressure (Ib/sq It) Assuming the temperature to be the same at both
V = volume of 1 Ib (cu ttl points for convenience:
T = absolute temperature (460 x
1545
~ F)
P+;l =i2 2V2
. Tl =
T2 and PI VI = P2V2
•
R ~
molecu lar weight
The actual value of R as a number has little meaning
or V2 = VI ~~
here, but the fact that A remains constant for any
•
The standard atmospheric pressure at 5000 feet is
given " perfect'" gas is extremely important. It is pos- 24.90 inches of mercury (from the Tables and Charts
sible to equate the P. V, T values for two different Section). Substituting in the equation:
conditions 1 and 2 for the same gas:
P1Vl = A = P2V2 or ..E.iY.L= P2V2
Tl T2 Tl T2
II it is assu med that atmospheric pressure in lb/ft2
V2 = VI ~~ = 13.35 x ~~:~~ = 16.05 cu It
-
PI = l.L = P2 = T2 or lL = T2 orYL = V2 no correction is normally used in applications be-
VI V2 VI V2 T l T2
low 2000 feet above sea level. Above 2000 feet
and: it becomes necessary to make the correction, since
-
VIJ2 the air has a significant reduction in its ability to carry
T, heat. Notice in Example No.2. at sea level the
-
density = 13. 35 = 0.075Ib/cu It and at 5000 feet the
processes (from SMACNA Manual for the Balancing
and Adjustment of Air Distribution Systems), and has
the following values for the T, P. V properties:
density = 16.~5 = 0.0625 Ib/cu ft, or a reduction of
-
T 70"F 17%.
P = 29.92 inches of mercury (at sea level) By a series of calculations and laboratory measure-
V = 13.35 cubic feet per pound (or a density) ments, a long list of values are obtained and are listed
•
1 in Tables 17-1 and 17-2 " Air Density and Correction
d = V' or .075 Ib/cu It)
Factors ," To be meaningful, these values must have
a reference, which has been stated to be standard
.-
EXAMPLE NO , 1 atmospheric pressure at sea level : 29.92 inches of
Using the previo us equation, any conditio n other than mercury (101.3 kPa). Since we have established that
standard may be calculated if one of the final condi- variations caused by pressure are not serious below
tions is known , Forexample, if one pound of standard
-
an altitude of 2000 feel, the values obtained by main·
1.5
I SECTI ON 1\
However, as seen in Example NO.1., temperature var- of 54%. For this reason, many engineering catalogs
I
I
I
I
I
I
I •
I
I
I
I
I
I
I.
I
2.6
I
SECTION III -
USE OF THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART .-
•
A THE PSYCHROMETRIC
CHART
drawn with the grid being formed by parallel and
equidistant humidity ratio and dry bulb temperatu re
•
•
lines. Enthalpy lines then are neither parallel nor
equidistant.
A psychrometric chart is a modified Mollier's chart for In Eu rope , psych rometr ic charts are shown in
moist air (the mixture of dry air and water vapor
•
agreement with the Mollier diagram. In comparison
discussed earlier). It is a series of graphs or curves with charts used in U.S.A.. they are mirror-viewed
arranged in such a way. that by knowing a specific
and then turned 90". (See Figure 3-13 )
value of each of two different properties, a point can
•
be obtained Ihat will determine the values for all other
properties under the same conditions. Charts are 3. Dry Bulb Temperature
available for different elevations above sea level, Constant dry bulb temperature lines on the chart are
•
higher or lower tempreatures, and many other varia- nearly vertical. They diverge slightly towards the top
tions (see Figures 3-9 to 3-13). of the chart. The scale is at the bottom. along the " dry
Referring to the sample chart in Figure 3-1 , note that air" line (zero humidity ratio) from left to right, and
values are given in OF (Fahrenheit) in the Eng lish
•
the groups or " families" of curves have been labeled
to indicate which part or parts of the graph are for the system and in °C (celsius) in the metric system.
dlHerent properties of moist air. Definitions of the
properties may be found in the "Glossary" -Section 4. Saturation Line, Dew POint
XVII I.
•
indicate the " grains of moisture per pound of dry air" temperature . Ai r is said to be saturated (with mois-
or " pounds of moisture per pound of dry air." The bot- ture) at this point. The temperature at this point is
tom line of the chart is zero humidity and represents known as the saturation temperature .
•
totally dry air. The chemical industry prefers to use
It can be seen from the saturation line that at h j gh~r
" mol-ratios", and " grams of moisture per kilogram of
temperatures air can hold more moisture than at
dry air" is used in the metric system.
lower temperatures. Conversely, the capac ity to
•
0.001 Ib of moisture! lb of dry air "" hold moisture is less at lower temperatures. There-
1 gram of moisture/kg of dry air fore , if the already saturated moist air is being
cooled . the excess moisture instantly begins to
2. Enthalpy (Total Heat)
•
separate from the moist air by condensation either
Enthalpy lines are slanted from top-left to the in the form of fog (the left side of the saturation
bottom/right. Enthalpy is designated by the letter "h" curve is the fog area) or as dew if it condenses on
a cold surface.
•
and. as all values on the chart, is referred to a pound
of dry air. This is the on ly value which does not The point of saturation is also called the dew paint
change through various processes, such as heat- and the saturation temperature is called the dew
ing-cooling, compression-expansion. and humidifi- point or wet bu lb temperature. The satu ration
cation-dehumidification. Other constant value lines temperature values (also dew point or wet bulb
are superimposed upon th is basic grid by plotting and
are neither equidistant nor parallel, although they
may appear to be so. Some industrial charts are
temperatures) are shown in OF along the saturation
line where it is crossed by the same value dry bulb
lines.
•••
I
3.1
I SECTI ON III
I • ~ -._
• •
. . . -4. . ... _..... -_- .-....
• •
-~ -
I
..
I
•
I •
•
I ..
•
I .- "
I
I --,
:-.=.-
........ ,
I • . . .. -.-----. ~
I
I 3.2
I
middle between 0% and 1000 0, the 50% RH point
is slightly below the mid· point.
USE Of THE PSY C HROMETR I C CHAR T
•
pends on changes in humidity responsive mate- or wet bulb values by another family of curves.
rials. While low cost and quite accurate, these in-
struments require frequent calibration. 8. Plotting Conditions
7. Wet Bulb Temperature
The wet bulb method was developed to obtai ~ a more
Consider poi ntA. in Figure 3 -2 , representing summer
outdoor desig n conditions. By findi ng the point which
represents 95°08 and 78°WB, the values for the
•
•
practical way to measure relative humidity and de- other properties are:
pends on the evaporation of water around the bulb of
Dew pOint temperature = 7 1 .9~ F
a mercury thermometer. Since evaporation and,
consequently, the depression of the wet bulb temp- Relative humidity "" 48%
erature depends on the relative humidity of the moist
air. it can be used to measure relative humidity by use
of conversion lables.
Enthalpy (total heat) :: 41 .6 Btu/lb dry air
Moisture content = 118 grains/lb dry air or
.0169 Ib moislure/ lb dry air.
•
_.-. - -_
--~
_.-... -
-. •
4 1.6 BTU / Lb
•
•
•
•
28.3 8Tlj/ ll' /·"-~
J
•1
-".-.-----. ~
I not found here. but the need for such variations is not
common.
examp le is theore tical because moisture from
people. cooki ng . infiltration, etc., will m ake some can·
tribution to the moisture in the air. However, this is the
I 8 CONDITION CHANGES ON
THE PSYCHROMETRIC
CHART
B. Cooli ng
Now consider the process and ignore the extraneous
moisture sources noted above. In ideal conditions, air
gives up its heat along the same line to maintain the
I From the chart. simple logic leads to the conclusion
that there must be some way to change the proper-
occupied spaces at the given 70"F DB and 20% RH.
A cooling coil , selected to cool air from 105°F DB and
ties 01the air initially at the conditions of point A to Ihe 26" DP to 70"F DB would also produce conditions
along the same line as long as the coi l surface tem·
I • conditions of point B. The means to accomplish such
a change are the environmental systems. The de-
signer, by knowing what design conditions must be
perature was above 26°F. In most systems, this
wou ld be impractical if not impossible. since the coi l
2. Latent Changes
termine what systems are capable of accompli shing
I the necessary results. In addition . he uses the heat
values in the design calculations and is able to see
Latent heat, by definit ion. involves a change of state
of a fluid; and in the case of air, this means the addi·
I impossible.
But first, the various condition changes must be ill us-
f
trated and understood. Fo r this purpose , skeleton
1. Sensible Changes
I Sensible heat, by defin ition, indicates only dry bulb
temperature changes. Therefore, any healing sys-
70F DB } ;
20·0 RH
2a F OP
SO FWB
tem not includi ng humidification is a sensible heat
I process or system and is represented on the chart as
a horizontal straight line. Conversely. any cooling "
system utilizing a dry coil wh ich does not dehumidify
or where the surface of the coil does not fall to or
I. below the air dew point is also a horizontal straight
line. Figure 3·3 SENSIBLE HEATING AND COOLING
I
3.4
I
USE o r T HE PSYCHIOMETIIC CHAIT I
tion or removal of moisture, It must be remembered
that the dry bulb temperature does not change during
cess , the first being the inilial condition of the air. and
the second being the final condition alter the process .-
-
this addition or removal of moisture. Therefore, aver- or a portion of the air treatment has been completed.
tical line on the psychrometric chart between any two On the chari. all processes have the same initial
points al constant dry bulb temperature represents a pOi nt, and the arrow poi nt indicates each arbitrary
change in latent heat. This process is indicated on the
-
final poi nt:
sample chart in Figure 3-4. Sensible heating is a horizontal line from left to
Humidification and dehumIdification are defined as right.
the addition or subtraction of moisture from air. Since
-
Sensible coolmg is a horizontal line from right 10
each is a change of state from liquid to gas and gas to left.
liquid, each occurs at a constant dry bulb tempera- HumidIfication is a vertical line upward.
ture, but a varying wet bulb temperature. Note that
-
Dehumidification is a vertical line downward.
this is the same process as the addition or subtraction
ot latent heat and is also the same vertical line on the Heating and humidification is a line sloping up-
chart in Figure 3-4 at a constant dry bulb tempera- ward to the right.
-
ture. Humidificat ion and dehumid ification are both la- Cooling and dehumidification is a line sloping
tent heat processes, and both are shown on the same downward to the left.
chart. Evaporative cooling is a line sloping upward to the
left.
-
In this example, the only constant value is the dry Chemical dehydration or dehumidification is a
bulb temperature : all other properties increase for line sloping downward to the right.
hu midification and decrease for dehumidification.
Note that this process is essentially an illustration and Now consider the specific coofing-dehumidification
cannot normaUy be reproduced in environmental sys-
tems.
3. Combination Changes
Combination sensIble-latent heat processes are the
example which might represent the conditions ob-
tained from a cooling coi l using 100% recircu lated air.
Assume that the entering air and room conditions are
80 F DB and 50% RH. Also assu me that the cooling
coil can produce leaving conditions of the air at 55c F
DB and 54 F We. The illustration of the process is
-
.-
rule In most systems. The addition or subtraction of shown in Figure 3-6.
-
lalenl and sensible heat appears as a combination
The line drawn between the initial and final conditions
process with all changes occurring simultaneously.
The result is neither a horizontal or verlicalline but a represents the change of air properties produced by
the cooling coil and is convenienlly drawn straight. In
-
slanted one tilted in the direction dictated by the pro-
aclualfacl. the process follows a curve, but the devia-
cess. Referring to Figure 3-5, consider the genera l
tion is not usually important to the system analysis.
rules below based on the two endpoints of the pro-
To the coit desigl"er, however, the curvature is criti-
-
cal, sinc~ it indicates the heat transfer conditions
DEHUMIDIFICATION-
, from pOint-la-point through the Call depth. The
amount of moisture that was removed from the ai:-
-
REMOVAL OF MOISTURE
, (condensed on the coil) was 16 gl-ains!!b of dry ail
95 F DB 1 (77 - 61 l6).
78 WB
4B·. AH J .. Thf' reve"se operation heating and humidifying .
-I
COL. d be explained by working tM cooling-dehu-
HUMIDIFICATION-l
AD olTION OF '- 'F H- midifying diagram backwards_ However, a more
MO ISTURE J . F- prar.tical application may be obtained by reusing the
Co.. previous sensible heating-cooling diagram and add-
95 FOB -,
6B .2 F WB ~ ing the humidification. Assuming that 70 DB, 20'%
25'% RH ~ AH air returns to a heating coil and that a humidifier
, has been added, the combmation process. assuming
.-
the required leaving conditions to be 105 F DB and
40% AH, is illustrated In Figure 3-7_ 114 grains of
Figure 3-4 HUMIDIFICATION AND moisture/lb of dry air was added in the process
-I
DEHUMIDIFICATION (136 - 22 = 114).
3. 5
I SECTION III
I
I
• ---
I I
,•
.
--
,-
I - • •
.'
I •
I -- --
•
• ,~~
~ •
I AIR ENTERING
SO FOB
105 FOB
83 FWB
4O".RH
b7 F 'NS
I AI R
50° RH
- .~
'- - --- AIR ENTERING
70 FOB
LEAVING
L - -"': 60 FWB
..<
I 55 FOB
','~
~GRH " ""'_..:
A
I. Figure 3·6 COOLING AND OEHUMIDIF YING Figure 3· 7 HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION
I
I 3.6
USE Of THE I'SY C HROMETRIC CHART
-
4. Airstream Mixtures
.-
-
Mixtures of two or more airstreams are a common ,
93 F08 ~
,
requirement of the environmental system. The mix·
7S F WB
ing of outside and return airon the entering side althe , ,
-
air cooling and/or heating equipment is the common •
SO Fas ~
method of int roducing the outside ventilation airlo the 67_2 F WB
system. It is noted that outside air can be one of the
greatest heating and cooling loads. ,
-I
75 F OB
Assume design conditions of: 5Wo RH
,
Outside air: 95°F DB, 78<>F W8 ,
, ,,
Return air (room design): 75°F DB, 50% RH ,
23800 + 56200 80000 All of the properties 01 the mixture are immediately
Tmix 100"'/0 x l 000 100% x 1000 available from the psychrometric chart.
-
It shou ld be noted that the use of the psychrometric
chart in the design to determine the properties of the
mixture does not establish the air quantity or elm.
Another way to arrive at the same conclusion:
-I
This determination must be made independently.
T mix "" 95° - .75 (95 - 75) "" 95° - 15° "" 80°F. The designer must establish the total air quantity re-
qu ired from the sensible heat load and the outside air
or quantity from the design venti lation requirements.
T mix "" 75° + .25 (95 - 75) "" 75° + 5° ::: 80°F.
5. Related Tables and Equations
It is all very well to know dry bulb temperature; but the
other properties of the mixture are not determined by Chapter 5, " Psychrometries,"' and Chapter 6, " Psy-
chrometric Tables, " of the 1977 ASHRAE Handbook
this method. and they may be necessary. In such
case the psychrometric chart provides a quick
method using only a ruter and requiring no calcula-
on Fundamentals has more detailed theory and data
on this subject along with the necessary equations
I
tions. and psychrometric tables. Chapter 8, " Physiological
.-I
point so that it is closest to the conditions of the
largest original quantity in the mixture. This is usually
closest to the lowest dry bulb point since outside air There are many variations of psychrometric charts
quantities are usually less than 50% when they are other than the one used in this text, which has a
3.7
I
I SECTI ON 1/1
I
I
• "normal" temperature range of 32~ F to 1Q7°F dry
bu lb. Figu re 3-10 is a low temperature range chart
(-40 F to 50 F DB) and Figure 3-9 is a high tem-
perature range chart (60 F to 250~ F DB) , There are
high alti tude charts for the normal temperature range
shown in Figure 3-11 (5000 ft.) and Figure 3· 12 (7500
fl .). A European (metric) psychrometric chart is
shown in Figure 3-13
I
I
I
I •
I
,•.,
I [';:i" ..
I ~I),.'·
! ,-
•
I.
I -
I -
I
-,., ...... - . _.. ,
I Figure 3·9 HIGH TEMPERATURE RANGE / ' / .
CHART (60 F to 250 F 0 .8 .) (3) "~
I /'
I •
I
I. - ... _--, . _- .
Figure 3·10 LOW TEMPERATURE RANGE CHART ( - 40 F to 50 F D.B.) (3)
I
I 3.8
US( O f TH( ftSYCHROMlTRIC CHART
I
.',
I
,
,
,
,
,
Figure 3·11
.,
HIGH ALTITUDE CHART FOR NORMAL
TEMPERATURE RANGE (5000 ft.) (3)
,
,
I
I
,
I
Figure 3·12 HIGH ALTITUDE CHART FOR NORMAL TEMPERATURE RANGE (7500 ft.) (3)
.'I
3.9
I
I SlcnON III
I.
I
I
I I
I
I
I G
t-
I ••
~
J
I •
"if•
I
I
• ~
-~
~ .,
I 10 15
,
20 25 l!i 40 45 50 55 150
I Mollier diagram
I
I
I.
I
I 3.10
I
SECTION IV
THE ENERGY RECOVERY PROCESS
--
-
A FUNDAMENTALS OF
HEAT RECOVERY
transler this recove red heat to a locatio n and
airstream where it can be used in place of or as a
supplement to a primarily heated airstream. It is -
II is necessary to use the psychrometric chart to ex·
plain the energy recovery process. To illustrate, the
easier to understand heat fl ow under these SItuations
by considering flow of sensible heat and latent heat
separately.
-
-
enthalpy of the W = .014 4 Ib! lb humidity ratio moist air It was slated earlier that heat flows from a higher
at 80~ F (point A) is 35 Bluflb and is 40.2 Btu/lb at temperature area to a lower temperature area, with
102 F (poi nt Sl. the temperature difference being the dri ving forc e. It
-
It takes 40.2 - 35 = 5.2 Btu to heal up the amount of takes additional energy in some form to bring a sub-
moist air containing one pound of dry air from 80 F to sl ance 10 a higher temperature level, such as com-
102~ F . Conversely , 5.2 Btu will be released when this pression. electrical energy, etc. In the exam ple in
-
air is cooled trom 102° F to SO°F. Figure 4-1, heal will flow from air " C " to air " A". For
U can be seen that heat is required to increase the the process to be effective , the resistance to the heat
moisture conlent of the air without changing Ihe dry !low must be as low as possible. In actual recovery
devices, the largest resis tance is that of the boundary
•
bulb tem perature. Thus. it lakes 50 - 40.2 = 9.B
layers of the interiace, be it a two-sided or one-sided
Btu/ lb to increase the humidity ratio from Wa = .0144
partition.
Ib/lb (poi nt B) to We = .0231 Ib/lb (point C) without
-.
any change in dry bulb temperature . This is the The transfer of latent heat is associated directly with
amount of heat required to evaporate .0231 - .0 14 :: the addition (evaporation) o r removal (condensation)
.0087 pounds 01 water at 102"F per Ib 01dry air. This of water vapor from moist air. Unless the temperature
heal. which IS used only to convert water at 102~ F into is maintained intentionally, evaporation will cause
•
vapor at 102° F, is called latent heat. Conversely. the cooling of the ambient space, since the heat of evap-
same amount of heat will be released when .0087 oration has to come from some ex ternal source.
pounds of vapor per pound of air is removed from Condensation. by releasing heat. will increase the
moist air by condensation. temperature in the same manner.
In most air- to-air energy recovery situations. both
ai rstreams will have different dry bu lb temperatures
-
-
and different humidity ratios. Referring again to Fig-
ure 4-1 , the moist air " C" has a higher O,B. tempera-
ture and higher moisture content (humidity ratio W)
than air " A ". The enthalpy (heat content) of air " C" is W
-
50 Btu/lb (referenced to QOF) and the enthalpy of air 0.02311b/lb
" A" is 35 Btu/ lb . The total difference is 15 Btu/lb of
which 5.2 Btu/lb is in the fo rm of sensible heat and 9.8
-
Btu/lb in the lorm of latent heat. This is then the poten- Wb
rial maximum amount of heat which . given opportu- .
0.0144 Ib/lb
nity. may be transferred from air "e" to air "A" 8
,a<
8 MECHANICS OF
HEAT FLOW
,•>
,~
-
.-
<
,
The basic use of energy recovery in air-to-air situa-
DRV BULB
"" > '"
Figure 4 -1 ENERGY RECOVERY PROCESS
-I
tions is to separate waste heat from an airstream and
4.1
I SECTION IV
I :0
=n'rv
11.7 INW.G.
7S' F
~~
11.7 IN. W . G.
7S' F
next cycle.
Th us, the transfer of latent heal is possible only jf
moisture (condensate) is physically transferred from
one airstream to another. The term " condensation" is
I
D
97 F. 50".. AH AlA 97' F AlA (Drier)
I
126S IN.W.G
11.7 IN W G
11 .7INW.G.
11.7INW.G.
c EFFECTIVENESS
I
4.2
I
T H E E NERGY RECOVER Y rRO CE5 5 I
_ actual transfer for the given device
e - maximum possible transfer between the
Equation 4-1 1. Total Heat Devices
The ability of an energy recovery device to transfer
heat from one airstream to another equal airstream is
.',
Referring to Fig 4-4
e _ Ws (XI - X2)
airstreams
_ We (X4 - X3)
measured and compared by qualifying its efficiency.
As was previously stated. the maximum potential of
transferrable heat is the difference of enthalpies of
,
,
- Wm in (X, Xl ) Wmin (Xl X3), both airstreams he - ha (Figure 4-1) which consists of
the sensible enthalpy hI.> - h. and latent enthalpy
where he - hI):
,
e "" sensible heat. latent heat, or total heat ef- Equation 4-2
fectiveness
X "" dry-bulb temperature, humidity ratio, or htotal "" hsens io/e + hlatent
enthalpy at the locations indicated in Fig . :: (h o - haJ + (he - ho)
4-4 . The effectiveness of the energy recovery device is
Ws "" mass flow rate of supply, pounds dry air 100% if it transfers the maximum potential of trans-
per hour ferrable heat between the two airstreams involved. In
We "" mass flow rate of exhaust, pounds dry air
per hour
actual practice , the energy recovery device will trans-
fer a portion of the maximum potential heat. This por-
I
tion then determines the effectiveness of the device.
I
,
Wmin "" smaller of Ws and We If the difference of enthalpies is 15 Btullb and the de-
The leaving supply air condition is then vice can transfer 12 Blu/lb, then the effectiveness of
the device is said to be (using Equation 4-1):
W·
e ~
X2 = X, -
, (Xl - X3)
X4 = X3 + e
W
w.rn ,"·
e
(XI - X3)
e = 15 x 100 :: SO%
This effectiveness value does not distinguish how
much of the transferred energy or heat is sensible
.,
cluding the air mass flow, the airflow ratio between
supply and exhaust streams, and the energy transfer
and how much of it is latent. Generally, all pOints of
the two involved airstreams lay as straight lines on
the psychrometric chart (as shown in Figures 3·6 and
I
characteristics of the device. Because of this. per- 3-7 in Section II I) for devices which are capable of
formance data must be established for each indi-
vidual type of device. Manu facturers 01 each type
may be contacted for detailed performance data.
transferring both latent and sensible heat.
I
2. Sensible Heat Devices
Sensible heat energy recovery devices that do not
permit transfer of moisture between airstreams are
I
the fixed plate exchanger, Ihermosiphon (heat pipe)
x. x.
exchanger, and runaround coil exchangers. " Sensi-
ble only" rotary wheel devices may be distinguished
from the above, since it is possible under certain con-
I
W, We
ditions to transfer moisture between the airstreams
with the wheel. I
Sensible heat systems are justified primarily on their
~
r~
W,
x, ~ENERGY DEVICE
RECOVERY
ability to transfer or exchange sensible heat. Sensi-
ble heat systems are not easily justified when the
transfer of moisture between airstreams provides for
I
.',
more recoverable energy I and there is a need for the
recovered energy. Total heat devices are more easily
justified in applications in the comfort-Io-comfort area
Flgur.4·4 EFFECTIVENESS RATINGS (3) where the ventilation air can represent a high latent
4.3
I
I SECTION IV
I 3. Summary
temperature and humidity will grow smaller. as was
discussed earlier in this section. Given the opportu-
nity and time. the two airstreams will become equal in
I
4.4
I
T H E ENERGY RECOVERY PRO CES S
•
-',
" C"
AIRSTREAM
,
,
,
EXCHANGER
c,C;:;11
Figure 4·6 PA RALLEL FLO W AIRSTRE AM S
-.,
airstreams for a considerable distance. This method
its maximum values and will have excellent heat
requires two devices, one for transfer of energy from
transfer. The same can be said about the " Cl " portion
an airstream to the media (usually a liquid) of the
of airstream "C '~ in relation to the airflow " A" . But
closed pipe loop and a second device lor transfer of
airstream "A,z" will just begin to transfer energy cross-
the energy from the closed loop media to another
ing airstream "C" after it is completely depleted and
airstream, If each one of the two devices had a
the same can be said about airstream ·' C2" . Still,
,
theoretical 100% effectiveness (sensible heat only),
giving opportun ity and time, a 100% theoretical
the combi ned effectiveness cou ld also be 100%. In
effectiveness is possible. Because of economic con-
actual practice, if individual effectivenesses are BO%
siderations, this maximum is never obtained and ac-
,
(O.B) for example, the overall sensible heat effective-
tual effectiveness faUs short of that for counter-flow
ness from one airstream 10 the other wi ll 64% (O.B x
devices.
0.8 ~ 0.64) .
4. Closed Pipe Loop
(Air-Io-fluid-Io-air)
With the closed pipe loop or the run-around coi l ex-
When multiple tower exchangers are used with a
sorbenl liquid as the media in the circulating pipe
loop, total heat (enthalpy) can be transferred. This
,
changer, it becomes possible to separate the process can also be seasonally reversible.
,
,
.',
4.5
,
I
I.
SECTION V
INTRODUCTION TO EQUIPMENT
I
I Whenever air (a gas) is being exhausted from the
confines 01 a space at a temperature different than
that of the environment. it is very probable thai
mended unless other economical methods of clean-
ing the recovery device are used.
If filters are used , the lilter placement should be up-
energy is being wasted . Additional air must be
I brought back into the space to fill the void. When the
space contains people, the replacement air should
stream of the energy recovery unit and is recom-
mended for both air streams. While low to medium
efficiency filters will generally be sufficient, high effi-
be distributed al a comfortable temperature. Often ciency filtering may be recommended downstream of
I this requires the addition or remova l of heat from the
replacement air. When an industrial process exhaust
system is used, the replacement gas {or air) is usually
the unit when outdoor air is being supplied to a critical
area (such as an industrial white room, or hospital
operating rooms). Manometers and alarm contacts
I. acceptable levels . Therefore. filters are recom- of the inefficiencies of heat transfer by equipment and
I
5.1
I
INTRODUCTION TO EQUIPMENT
•
materials. some difficulties arise in the selection and
operation of the equipment The freezing point of
water at 32 F also imposes some difficulties, how-
Q
-'I
,
ever. proper des ign. selection and application of
equipment and systems make it possible to over-
come these deficiencies. sometimes to our advan-
tage.
A point often overlooked, which can be an advantage
or disadvantage , is the limitation imposed by the
standard pieces of equipment and materials availa-
I
ble from manufacturers. Special equipment may be
designed for any application or capacity , but often at
an unreasonable additional cost. For the most part.
manufacturers provide a range of selections which
cover all of the req Uired conditions , but judgement
must be used to select the most practical available
,
I
,
size and type for the energy transfer requirements.
8 TYPES OF
EQUIPMENT
AiHo-air heat exchangers, for the purpose of this
discussion. will consist of rotary wheels, plate types.
parallel passages (laminar whee ls); ceramic laminar
wheels for higher temperatures; and meta! or com-
position wheels coated, impregnated or treated with
a hygroscopic material so that latent heat may be ,
-.
tower, and finned tube systems. It shou ld be recog- transferred.
nized that there are other energy recovery systems,
such as waste heat boilers, heat pumps , etc. How- 2. Fixed Plate
ever, it is essential that each air-to-air system and its These passive systems consist of alternate channels
•I
equipment be thoroughly understood in order to as- of exhaust and supply gas streams separated by a
sure the correct and most economical system selec- thin wall of metal or other materials. Sensible heat in
tion for the job. the exhaust gas or airstream is transferred to the
supply airstream. The gas or airstreams may pass in
1. Rotary Wheel parallel flow. counter flow, or cross-flow arrange-
Rotary wheel exchange devices are porous discs
fabricated from some material having a high heat re-
tention capacity which rotate through two side-by-
ments, all without contamination. Most units are av-
ailable in the modular design concept. Typical con-
figurations for low to medium temperature exchan-
,
,
side ducts. The axis of the disc is located parallel to gers are shown in Figures 5·2 and 5-3 . High tempera,
and on the partition between the two ducts. As the ture exchangers are shown in Figures 5-4 and 5-5.
disc is slowly rotated, sensible heat (and oiten mois-
,
ture containing latent heat) is transferred to the disc
by the hot air from the first airstream and then from
the disc to the second cooler airstream . The pores of
heat wheels carry a small amount of the exhaust
stream into the supply side of the exchanger. Should
Ihis result in an undesirable contamination, a purge
section may be added.
Rotary wheel exchangers are commercially available
with a number of different types of discs. The original
disc was a metal frame packed with a core of knitted
,
stain less steel or aluminum wire mesh , not unlike
common kitchen "steel wool." Othe r wheels are
made of corrugated metal assembled to form many
Figure 5-2 FIXED PLATE COUNTER FLOW
EXCHANGER (7)
.'I
5.1
I
I SECTIO N V
I. 3. Multiple Tower
This energy recovery system permits wide separa-
•• e
transfer fluid , but there are many other com mercial
thermal fluids on the market as shown in Table 12-1 of
Section XII- " Thermal Transfer Fluids." This energy
exchange system permits w ide separation 01 two or
more duct systems .
The second type is the relatively new therm osiphon
or heat pipe exchanger. This device , while appearing
as one large coil, is face divided to provide exhaust
•I
of this fluid depends on the anticipated temperatures
involved, as evaporation of the fluid takes place on
the hot side and condensation takes pl ace on the cold
Figure 5-4 HIGH TEMPERATURE PLATE side . T he condensed liquid is usually returned to the
EXCHANGER (10) hot side by a capillary action or gravity.
I
•I
I. Figure 5-5 HIGH TEMPERATURE TUBE
EXCHANGER (14) Figure 5-6 TOWER EXCHANGER (12)
I
I 5.3
I N TROD UCTION TO [QUIP M lNT
,
.'I
,
I
Figure 5-8 HIGH TEMPERATURE
Figure 5-7 CONVENTIONAL WATER COIL
(AIR-TO-LIQUIO-TO-AIR) EXCHANGER (14)
(GAS·TO-LIQUID·TO·GAS) EXCHANGER (14)
I
I
C CHARACTERISTICS
I
1. Energy Transfer Process
In any heat exchange, energy may be transferred by
I
one or more 01 the usual physical methods 01 convec-
tion , conductance, absorption, or radiation. Radiation
is considered insignificant within the limits of this dis-
cussion. The rate of energy transfer is dependent on
the velocities of the gasses or fluids, the temperature
differences. and the cleanliness and configurations
Figure 5-9 HEAT PI PE EXCHANGER (17)
••I
of the transfer surfaces.
In aUheat exchangers, except the run-around types,
the absorbed heat moves by conductance from the
hotter gas stream through a metal , ceramic or hyg-
I
roscopic material , into the cooler airstream . In the Table 5-1 indicates a reasonable series of temper-
finned-tube units, the heat must be absorbed by a
fluid which, in turn, returns this energy to a second
ature ranges and other data for preliminary energy
recovery system selection.
I
su rface for conductance into the cooler gas stream.
In the multiple tower system , heat is transferred by
absorption into the fluid and then desorption Irom the
fluid.
3. Transfer Efficiencies
In selecting a recovery system , the contractor must
I
be aware of corrosion , contamination, pollutants.
I
2. Temperature Ranges
tn selecting a suitable energy recovery device, the
range of the two involved gas stream temperatures
must be known. Naturally, temperatures below the
freezing point and above the boiling point of water
noxious gases, odors, etc. , that might affect the heat
transfer or be detrimental to the desired system.
These conditions may affect heat transfer by parti-
cles blocking one of the equipmenl airstreams , by
equipment failure due to tolal corrosion or breakdown
of the materials of construction, or by contamination
,
.'I
merit special consideration. Condensation, the of one of the airstreams or transfer flu ids. Filters are
spread of temperature ranges in the gas streams, recommended for both airstreams unless other
and the differences between these variable ranges methods are provided. such as washdown equip-
must also be considered. ment or access for manual cleaning.
5.4 ,
I S[cnONV
I. u.
•0
u.
1,
u. 0
I
u. O .
u. ~
• u.\'-
1,0
00
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~O
'"£!
~
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~;- .-
","'
, 0
0 0
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:: 0
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I Type Exchanger
Rotary Wheel
J:« W(J) W(J) W (J) W f-CC CC« a.() uo. ~ <i «-
Metallic X X X ( 1) (3) X
I Hygroscopic
Ceramic
X X
X X X
X
X
X (1)
(1 ) (3)
X
X
I Fixed Plate
Heat Pipe
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
Run-around Coil X X X X X X X
I Multiple Tower
Thermosiphon
X
X
X
X X X
X
X
X X
X
(2)
X
X
X
•
(2) Gaseous cross -contamination can occur.
(3) When used In process-Ie-process applications where cfOss-conlamlflCltion can be tOlerated .
I Most manufacturers will rate the recovery efficiency Should condensation be anticipated on the exhaust
on new equipment. The designer must assure the side, the orientation andlor velocity of the gas flow
I owner or operator that the energy recovery unit be
maintained in an efficient operating status, and he
should be taken into consideration to keep the sur-
faces from being plugged and to permit removal of
must provide the necessary filtration andlor access to the condensed liquid. Any condensation that would
I
II 5.5
INTRODUCTION TO EQUIPMENT
I
turer and the degree of test and research data varies
from theoretically-calculated data to ex tensive
laboratory testing under varying conditions. These
factors are always present in a young , growing indus-
try. The air conditioning industry had the same prob-
dard 84P - " Method of Testing for Rating Air-Io-Air
Heat Exchangers" - has been developed . The stan-
dard prescribes methods for rating the heat transfer
capacities, the thermal effectiveness, and supply air
contamination of air-Io-air heat exchangers.
.',
lems (and sometimes over-rated equipment) until
The purposes of Standard 84P are to :
I
,
uniform standards were established. Other organiza-
tions are also concerned and are taking steps to a. Establish a uniform method of testing foroblain-
alleviate these problems. ing rating data.
b. Specify types of test equipment for performing
,
Industry practice on the rating of equipment airflow
has been to size the energy recovery equ ipment such tests.
based on the average of the two air volumes bei ng c. Specify data required and calcu lations to be
handled when they are unequal. or to size the equip- used .
ment based on the larger of the two airstreams. The
total combined volume of the two ai rstreams should
never be used.
The ASH RAE T.C . 5.5 Committee has several re-
search programs in various stages of completion on
air-to-air energy recovery equipment or systems: ,
1. American Society of Heating,
a. RP-140 " Development of Performance Charac-
teristics of Two-phase Thermosiphon Loops."'
,
,
Refrigeration and b. RP-173 " Method of Evaluation Based on the
Operating Characteristics of the Following Air-
Air-Conditioning Engineers to-air Heat Exchangers: Plate . Heat Pipe ,
(ASH RAE) Run -around . . ."
Under the guidance of the ASH RAE Air-to-Air Energy
Recovery Committee T.C. 5.5, the ASH RAE Stan-
c. RP-188 " Multiple-Tu be Evaporation and Con-
denser Thermosiphon Loops ."
.,
4 ,
,
Te4 T8
FAN tJ I I
,.
+-~
I ' !F
IX
,..".
FAN
-
,
\EATER COIL TfU p" 2
,p' I~
1 0 FAN * Ir"
,
1"Ill1,:"
:I +
• .I r4 I E.A.out
,
E
M!crobiIJt'Jl.jtoo
InjQ:lion '~
8y.F\:J'S'
.1- ,I
!. .J'''l oliJn ...
,~,
~~~ >-
" ~ z
~ - nr.
! :! +t~~s)
Slotlion 4-----l
=>
,
,
Sta tion 2 SIO rion I
,
~
>-
,,
.
~,~, +J . hi
w
FAN •"
OD • E
:;fl.J w I II It
I I .~
~o
E .0 0
.~
• n:
>- -F',, ili( I
I
II It
II II
• I ,
I
,
,
~ II II
,~
, u I II II
I
Tracer 90s - I ~P', P"I ~TI' ~ , lc ootinQ Coil!l*
~
Injection
T, T; LH ectrrrQCoil Mlt
Cooling
Coil r.eore,
LHumidl f ier
:. - '"
FAN heare r
" I
"
~-:-- L-H ",midifref
FAN
lI~
.',
)IE Rel urn 10 chomber sampled
~~ OpTional
Figure 5·10 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL AIR TO AIR HEAT EXCHANGER TEST EQUIPMENT
(ASHRAE STANDARD 84P) (3)
5.6
I S[CTION V
DESCRIPTION
can be broadly divided into two categories - " com- I
A fort" applications and "process" applications.
a. Comfort. Comfort applications are designed for
transfer of either sensible heat or total heat at I
The rotary air-ta-air heat exchanger, popularly called temperatures from - 70"F to about + 200°F
a heat wheel , is a revolving cylinder made up of maximum. The media is made of metal. mineral
axially air-permeable media having a large internal
surface for intimate contact with the air passing
or man-made materials.
b. Process. Low temperature process applica-
I
•I
through il . The air ducl connections (Figure 6-1) are
tions are for sensible heat transfer at tempera-
arranged so that each of the airstreams fl ow axially
tures up to approximately 400°F. The media is
through approximately one-half of the wheel in a usually made of aluminum. However, stainless
counterflow pattern . The porous media thai is heated
steel, monel and other corrosion- resistant
from the warm duct airstream, rotales into the cold
materials may be used for corrosive atmos-
ducl airstream where it releases the newly obtained
pheres. Medium temperature process applica-
energy . Some wheels are treated with a hygroscopic
tions are used for temperatures up to aOO~ F .
material to permit them to also transfer moisture from
The media is made 01 stainless steel, monel or
one airstream to another. Such wheels are called other similar metals and ceramic materials . . I
-.
" 'alai heat" wheels. Non-hygroscopic wheels are cal- High temperature process applications can be
led " sensibl e heat" wheels. used up to 1500°F. The media is made of either
ceramic materials or high temperature-resis-
1. Temperature Range tant steels.
Heat wheels are available for temperatures from
- 70°F to + 1500"F. By application and design , they
2. Construction
For optimal performance , comfort wheels are con-
I
SUPPLY AI R
FROM WEATHER
structed from 6 inches to t2 inches thick . High tem-
perature wheels may be as thin as 4 inches or as thick
as 3 feet. depending on the allowable pressure drop
of each of the two airstreams. Shipping and install a-
tion problems limit comfort wheels to about 15 feet in
diameter. Process wheels up to 50 feet in diameter
•I
are available, The larger diameter wheels are as-
sembled at the job location. It is preferred to have the
wheel mounted in the vertical plane (horizontal
airflow). Horizontal mounting of the wheel requires
I
special design considerations and can be more ex-
pensive to install.
The materials from which the heat transfer section.
I
rotating cylinder, and parts of the supporting frame of
the heat wheel are constructed, are influenced by the
contaminants, the dew point. and temperature of the I
exhaust and supply airstreams, For normal comfort
I airflow is about 100 to 1000 sq. It. per sq. II. of face
area, depending on the design and expected effec-
tiveness.
Figure 6·2 SENSIBLE HEAT TRANSFER
PROCESS
I ,
'"
40' F
'" BO-F
"" ,
I 8 PRINCIPLES
OF OPERATION
DRY BULB TEMPERATURES
1. Pressure Drops
.1
1
(sometimes contaminated) exhaust airstream, the
The performance of an air·to-air rotary heat ex-
remaining space surrounding the media is filled with
exhaust air. During rotation , most of the entrained
exhaust air being enclosed by par1i1lons and air seals
changer may be characterized by the pressu re drops
incurring in the airstreams and by the effectiveness 01
1
of the cut-off zone is carried to the supply air side , The the unit. Both are functions of the face velocity which
supply ai r, by flowing in the opposite direction to the
exhaust air, pushes the entrained exhaust air oul of
is based on the area exposed to the airflow. The total
face area of Ihewheet is divided in half, with each half
being used by one of the two airstreams.
1
the media , where it is mixed with the supply air. The
entrained exhaust air carryover is di rectly propor-
tional to the speed of rotalion and volume of the
media. For example, a 78 " diameter, 8" thick wheel
Practical face velocities for comfort applications are
in the 400 to 900 fpm range. Low velocities normally
result in lower pressure drops . higher effectiveness
I
rotating at 8 rpm, handling 10,000 cfm on each side ,
can entrain up to 1,8% of the exhaust air (180 clm) .
II is possible to reduce this carryover (if it is not al·
and lower operating costs, but require larger size
units and more space lor installation. Higher air·
stream velocities offer lower initial costs and smaller
I
lowed as in hosp ital s, an imal shelle rs. and space requirements, but operating costs are usually
laboratories), by purging the entrained exhaust air
with supply air into a segment of the wheel adjacent
higher as a result of the increased pressure drops.
Figure 6-6 shows typical pressure drop versus face
I
to the cut-off zone and returning the expelled exhaust velocity curves for both directionally and random
air to the exhaust airstream (see Figure 6·5). For the
purge 10 function properly, the exhaust airstream of
oriented media. The pressure drop is proportional to
the velocity in the power of 1.7 for knitted metal mesh. I
the wheel should always be at a lower pressure than
the supply airstream.
Tests show that a properly operating purge section
will reduce carryover to less than 1% by volume for
1.5 for felt-type material. and 1.0510 1,' for direction-
ally oriented media.
••I
,
random oriented media, and to less than 0.2% for ex·
changers with directionally oriented media. Since
purge volumes are small , (5% or less of the supply air
volume), they are usually ig nored in performance
calcu lations. but must be considered in the selection
of the system fans.
,
I
•1" % I
,
i , ~~
'" .~
" .
;;: '-0
~,_~c,f
,it T •
..
."
..
,II> ."
I. 2. Effectiveness
For equal supply and exhaust airflows, the effective-
cooling. sensible effectiveness is80% and total effec-
tiveness is 29%. For winter heating , the sensible (as)
is 62%, but the total (eT) is 54% .
I ::: 80% .
Inconlrast, the effectiveness (es) of the sensible heal
creases rapidl y with increased speed from just above
no rotation and levels off at 4 to 20 ipm depending on
design.
Iransferwheels (non- hygroscopic) can be defined as
The effect of uneq ual airflows upon the effectiveness
I the ratio of the enthalpy rise to the maximum possible
sensible enthalpy rise, rather than the lotal enthalpy
difference. Elfectiveness val ues given for sensible
of the air-to-ai r heat transfer w heel is shown in Figure
6-10 as a function of the ration Q max.lQ m in. For
heal transfer wheels cannot be compared direclly calculation s, the effectiveness for equal flows is
I
tions will be increased and, while the sensible effec-
tiveness will be reduced, the total effectiveness will
be higher than if the condensation had not occured.
D
An example of the performance of the sensible heat The rotary wheel exchanger usually can be economi-
transfer wheel is plotted in Figure 6-8 , For summer caUy installed w here the two involved airstreams are
I
I '-
r, ~2 X~X2
I Xl
x.=F!"=
SUPPLY
Xl-.
x..
SUPPLY
r ..
X, A-' X,
• U EXHAUST f/ ~X EXHAUST
I c COOLING L
h "" HEATIN
c . COOLING /
h HEATING '
~I - XJ ~~~-
v ~ ., X, , ~ ~~ -T ~'1i
I ~ MI,. k
., MI~7
.. ,
,
I
6.4
I
ROTARY WHlll EXCHANGlRS I
WHEEL AIRSTREAM VELOCITY (FPM)
1. Filters
.'
•I
200 400 600 BOO 1000 Fillers for both ai rstreams are recommended. If oul-
100 door air is to be used for applications requiring spe-
.! ~""
cial cleanliness. such as white rooms and hospital
operating areas, additional lillers 01proper efficiency
I
:zw
60
~V
~ :::s:~ should be insta lled downstream lrom the unit in the
supply airstream. If wet snow can present a problem
at the air in let . the designer should take steps to as-
aJ 60 sure continuous airllow.
2
'f' I
~
Fans should be located in the energy recovery sys-
tem so that the supply airstream of the exchanger is
w 40
at a greater pressure than the exhaust airstream .
ui
W
~ 20
This is done to assure proper operation of the purge
system and prevent contamination of the supply air
by seal lea kages . The fan capacities must be
I
adequate to accommodate the extra air quantities
o 5 10 15 20 25
needed for the purge section and cross-leakage.
I
WHEEL RPM 2. Condensation and Freeze-up
Figure 6-9 TYPICAL ROTARY WHEEL
EFFECTIVENESS
In rotary . non-hygroscopiC exchanger. condensation
on media will occur when some portion of the media
I
is cooled to a temperature below the dew point of the
warm airstream. The media temperatu re on the cool
side of the wheel is estimated to be the average of the I
••I
cold air entering and the wa rm air leaving the media.
in close proximi ty. These airstreams should be ar- as shown in Figure 6-11. (The average temperature
ranged to tlow through the heat wheel in opposite di- of the media "" 21 QF 2+ 40QF "" 30S F.) Small
rections. It is this cou nterflow arrangement that
creates the high effectiveness of 65% to 85% at equal amounts of condesation may be evaporated into the
airflow rates. With parallel airflows. the effectiveness other airstream. For greater amou nts of condensa-
is reduced to approximately one-half of that obtained tion , provision must be made to collect the excess
by counterflow arrangement. condensate which drips from the wheel.
"w 4=~ ,
~
[--;1-
I
-
covered by the heat exchanger. This is typically ~
I 4 3 EXHAUST
air. This method requires larger heating coils 10 com-
pensate for Ihe loss of recovered heat. Frost control
by either method is actuated by an inc rease in the
- I- - pressure drop across the wheel.
I 2 57 F
SUPPLY . -
For conditions requ iring variable heat recovery. the
effectiveness of the heat wheel is modulated by vary-
ing the rotational speed from zero effectiveness at
I L AVERAGE MEDIA standsti ll to optimum energy recovery at speeds of
HOT SIDE
aboul6 rpm to 12 rpm forthe hygroscopic and about 8
rpm to 20 rpm for the non-hygroscopic wheels.
I humidity ratio of the exhaust air, effectiveness of the An alternate method of contrOlling the amount of re-
I
ROTARY
I WHEEL
E CAPACITY
CONTROLS
RE TURN AIR
I
6.6
I
ROTARY WHHl E XCHANG(RS I
..
OUTSIDE AIR
RETURN AlA
OUTSIDE AIR
RETURN AIR
-',
ROTARY
WH EEL
T
COIL
ROTARY
WHEEL
T
COIL I
Figure 6-13 FACE AND BY-PASS DA MPERS Figure 6-14 BY-PASS DAMPER
I
must not be washed or subjected to high humidities,
F MAINTENANCE
as the desicant male rial might dissolve and be losl
from the media.
I
The air seals on all types of wheels should be period-
Air-Io-air rotary wheel exchangers normally operate
with a minimum amount 01 required maintenance.
odically inspected for proper clearance and signs of
wear.
I
However, the following mamtenance Items must be
Motor and reduction gear maintenance should be in
considered for optimum performance: cleaning of the
wheel media surface. inspection of seals. and regular
servicing 01 dri ves, molors. and speed reducers .
accordance with the manu facturer's recommenda-
tions. Special attention must be given to speed con-
I
trol motors that have commutators and brushes.
In most install ations, exchanger wheel media needs These require more frequent inspection and mainte-
I
-.
periodic cleaning. It is very important to note that nance than induction motors , as the brushes require
cleaning methods suitable lor one type of media are periodic replacement and the commutator has to be
not necessarily suitable for other types . Non- turned. Wheels with bell or chain drives should be
hygroscopic wheels can be cleaned using sleam. inspected for proper tension. foHowing the manufac·
compressed air, hot water, or a suitable solvent. Hy- turer's recommendations. As "permanently" lubri-
groscopic wheels may be cleaned by vacuuming the cated and sealed ball bearings are usually used in
face otlhe wheel and/or using dry compressed air to
clean out the passages. Unless otherwise recom-
rOlary wheel construction , servicing of bearings is
normally not required, but regular inspections for
I
mended by the manufacturer. hygroscopic wheels wear are still part of a good maintenance program .
I
I
,
,
I
.',
6.7
I
I
I. SECTION VII
FIXED PLATE EXCHANGERS
I
I A DESCRIPTION
EXHAUST AIR
TO WEATHER
9
EXHAUST AIR
ence for max imum heal transfer, but a cross flow de- FROM SPACE
sign can sometimes give more convenient airstream OR PROCESS
I three categories:
I. help minimize the restraint of the systems. from 1,000 to 10,000 cfm and can be arranged in the
I
I 1.f
FI XED PLATE EXCHANGE a S
I
field for instaliations up to 100.000 cfm. The modules
are welded or assembled wit h seals to eliminate
cross contamination orto keep it ata minimum . Some
units are offered that allow easy access to the heat
transfer surfaces for cleaning after installation. Au-
•
<
~
o
•
0 .020 ~
.',
tomatic wash systems for remote cleaning are also ~
~
I
,
available.
•
" 0,010 ~
~
~
~
B
I
PRINCIPLES
I
""F
,
40"F 6O'F 6O'F l lX1' F 0
I
,
a) BALANCEO FLOW
2. Cross Contamination
One of the advantages 01 plate exchangers is that it is
a static device which can be bu ilt with little or no leak-
age between airstreams, depending on tempera-
tures, the type of construction, and the assembly
method when modules are used. Some of the ex-
changers are built with a conti nuous sheet of metal
formed to produce two divided air passages, some
FLOW , , _ 2(FLOW,,)
I
with sheets formed and welded, and others with
tubes rolled inlo crown sheets similar to the construc-
tion of fire-tube steam boilers.
I
Modular unils are assembled and sealed using gas-
keting . molded seals, welded seams, etc., depending
on the application and the temperatures of the
I
airstreams. When zero leakage between ai rstreams
b) UNBALANCED FLOW
is required, the eHects of corrosion, deterioration and
routine maintenance on the type of sealing used in
the manufacturing and/or assembly of the fixed plate Figure 7-3 CONDENSING WITH IN A SENSIBLE
.1
recovery units should be evaluated . PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER (3)
I
1.1
I
I S[CnON VII
I.
I
c PERFORMANCE changer is in the range of 50% to 80%; and the
effectiveness (sensible) is in the range of 40% to 60%
for the plate-fin type . Effectiveness curves 01a typical
fixed plate exchanger are shown in Figure 7-7.
1. Pressure Drops A high percentage 01effectiveness is not always de-
sirable in high temperature energy recovery systems.
2. Effectiveness
APPLICATION
I The fixed plale heat exchanger can achieve a high
sensible heat effectiveness because it is usually a
counterflow device with only primary surface area
D
and is not dependent on a secondary fin surface to The fixed plate exchanger is simi lar to the rotary
I enhance its heat transfer capabilities. Energy recov-
ery effectiveness (sensible) for the pure plate ex-
wheel exchanger in that it can be the most econom-
ically installed where the two airstreams are in close
I •
I ,._j--+---+--+ .... ""' .., , - .~
I I
-t--+ f-:- ,,
~
I a:1>-- ••
. "..
,,'
,,~. I
"
...... I
' I ....' "' . . '. 0
',
l .
- 0
..
<
•
<
•
I I
.... .,
,
"
T
,
\I
••
· 0"< ,
I ,•
0
"
0
<
0
•~,
~
I ~•
,!
••
<
•<
1
fempN,l"" e
,
<
I ~
.- ,~ ,
I 7.3
fiXED rlATE EXCHANGERS
I
oc
exchangers usually require filters in both airstreams.
Static pressure monitoring devices could be used for
observation of the system static pressure drop to in-
dicate when cleaning of the filters andlor recovery
.',
~ equipment is required .
1.0 LJ..1Ll-LLL-LJ-Ll,l-...LJU.Ll-LLL,L,:!
o 100 500 1000
In the fi xed plate exchanger, as well as in other sen -
sible heat exchangers. the greater the moisture con-
tent of the exhaust gas stream, the less likely that
freezing wi ll occur on the surface of the exchanger
(see Figure 7-8). Also, if the fixed plate exchanger is
oriented in a manner so that the condensate run·off
,
I
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE ( F)
1. Filters
If the exhaust airstream (as in a process application)
FROST TH RESHOLD
TEMPE RATU RE T, (OF)
-,
I
,
is laden with heavy particulates, contaminants, etc ., FOR ENTERING OUTSIDE AI R
fillers should be installed to reduce foulin g. However,
filters are not normally required for most plate ex-
changers. In fac t, with some types of applications , it ENTERING EXHAUST RATIO OF FRESH AIR FLOW TO
,
AIR CONOI TIONS EXHAUST AIR FLOW. K
can be more econom ical to clean the exchangers
than to maintain the fi lters . Some types of plate-fin OF RH% 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.0
-•
15 23 32
,
60 30 2
60 40 2 15 23 32
.J"_~
-
60 50 - 4 9 18 32
- ........' ... """'· ... n_ .",h._.
• 60 60 9 4 13 22
II
• 70 30 13 5 17 28
• f:::::::: 70 40 21 3 10 21
•
Id ~ ,• 70 50 - 27 - 9 3 15
I
,
70 60 - 32 - 13 - 1 10
i
:~ • 80
80
30
40
35
44
11
20
4
5
19
10
• 80 50 - 53 - 30 - 14 1
• ,, ,, ,,
• .. •• .. •• "
,
"
.. . .. 80
90
60
30
- 62
58
- 39
30
- 23
11
- 8
5
.'I
90 40 24 8
90 50 20
Figure 7~7 EFFICIENCY CURVES (Effectiveness)
FOR UNBALANCED AIR FLOWS (Fixed Plate Figure 7-8 FROST THRESHOLD
Exchanger) (7) TEMPERATURES (7)
7.4
I
I SlcnON VII
I E CAPACITY
CONTROLS
can be cleaned by immersion in a tank containing a
strong chemical solution or by decomposing the con -
taminants to an easily removable ash in high temper-
Face and by-pass dampers in the supply airstream is ature drying ovens. See Section XVI- " Mainlenance
"I • an effective method of controlli ng the temperature of and Field Testing" for detailed information .
I
I
I
I
I
I
I.
I
I 7.5
I
SECTION VIII
rSD Al
."',¥f/' - THERMOSIPHON (HEAT PIPE) EXCHANGERS .'I
I
,
heal pipes to the other side 01 the exchanger where it
A DESCRIPTION
warms the cooler airstream. Although the heat pipes
span the width 01 the unit, a sealed partition sepa-
rates the two airstreams. preventing any cross-
Thermosiphon heal exchangers are devices which contamination between them .
utilize the natural gravity circulation of an inter- The coil-loop type, illustrated in Figure 8-2, is similar
mediate fluid to transfer energy between exhaust and
supply airstreams through a " boi ling and condens-
ing" process. They may be classified into two types:
in appearance to the " run-around coil exchanger"
described in the next section. The most obvious dif-
ference is the absence of a circulating pump in the
I
sealed lube Ihermosiphons (heal pipe exchangers) thermosiphon loop. This arrangement does not re-
and coil loop Ihermosiphons.
The sealed-lube type exchanger illustrated in Figure
8-1. is essentially a series of heal pipes set into metal
quire the two airstreams to be adjacent nor does it
require other forms 01 energy to drive a pump. How-
ever, the orientation of the two coils must be such that
I
lins similar to the normal HVAC finned-tube coil. The
only distinction that can be made between the two
types of thermosiphon exchangers is Ihal heat pipes
condensate can flow by gravity into the coil operating
as the " evaporator". This places significant restric-
tions on the system layout, especially if it is a bidirec-
I
tional installation.
are usually considered to utilize, if not solely rely on.
capillary forces to cause the intermediate liquid to I
flow from the cold to the hot end 01 the tubes, whereas
the pure thermosiphon tube relies only on gravity. COilA I .. VAPOR LINE
FLOW ~ IICOllB
• I
,
While the heal pipe appears very similar to the stan-
dard HVAC coil, it differs in one major aspect. Rather
than each tube being connected to another by a re-
turn bend or header. each individual tube is a heat
- _STATIC
. __ __ __
.
LlaUlo . .-
lEVEL
,
f' I
II CONDENSATE
,
COOL Calla
EXHAUST RETURN LINE
Al A
~..."-'J~~~HEAT PIPES
FlOW
t STATIC
lIaUID
lEVEL
COLD
SUPPLY AIR
I • 1. Temperature Range
Tllermosiphon exchangers are available to operate
ported from the warm airstream to the cool airstream
as latent heat in the vapor. When the cool and warm
coils of the thermosiphon are su itably oriented
in the range of temperatures from - 60°F to 1325c F.
I Units that operate up to 525°F are manufactured from
aluminum , copper and steel. while the higher temp-
physically with respect to one another, the conden-
sate will return to the evaporator coil by gravity or by
action of a capillary wick, thus completing its cycle.
erature units are usually made of steel.
I 2. Construction
The natural circulation, ';gravity" return feature of a
thermosiphon has both advantages and disadvan-
tages for the designer. The prime advantage is that
Thermosiphon exchangers for exhausllemperatures units may be designed which will transfer energy be-
I below SOQoF are most often constructed wit h
aluminum tubes and fins. or for HVAC use, with cop-
tween supply and exhaust airstreams in one direction
only (unidi rectional) , or in either direction with equal
per tubes and aluminum fins. Thermal cycling can or different effectivenesses in each direction, without
•I B PRINCIPLES OF alignment than is the heat pipe. For the latter, capil-
laryforces ensure that liqu id returns to the evaporator
OPERATION end of the tube whereas the thermosiphon relies only
I
.e
vapor to flow from the warm coi l to the cool coi l. The SECTION SECTION
LIQUID
flow is sustained by condensation in the cool coil and
evaporation in the warm coil. Thus, energy is trans- Figu re 8·3 HEAT PIPE OPERATION (17)
8.2
I
TH(RMOSIPHON (H(AT PIPE ) lXCHANGERS
1
on gravity , If all the liquid resides at the cold end of a
tube. then no heat transfer can take place in that tube .
This is not a problem for unidirectional heal flow in-
as well as by the amount of liqu id charge present in
each coil , systems may be designed to provide a dif-
ferent effectiveness for each energy flow direction
.1
stallations where the evaporator (hot) end of the tube
is always at a lower elevation than the condenser
without the use of external controls.
2. Cross Contamination
1
•
end.
Coil loop thermo siphons may be used when the Heat pipe exchangers typically have zero cross con-
supply and exhaust airstreams are not adjacent to tamination for pressure differentials between air-
one another. Although similar in appearance and ap-
-
streams of up to 50 inches water column. A sealed
plication to the " Run-around coil exchanger" de- partition effectively separates the two airslreams.
scribed in Section IX, there are a number of features thereby preventi ng any leakage from one airstream
which are unique to the coil loop thermosiphon. to the other. For additional insurance against cross
As illustrated in Figure 8-2 , a single coil loop ther-
mosiphon consists 01 two coils interconnected by a
vapor and a condensate line . The loop is charged
with a quantity of working fluid al its saturation state
so that part of the loop is filled with liquid and part with
vapor. The pressure within the sealed loop is thus
contamination. it is simple to construct the unit with
two separating partitions with a space between them
of several inches. By attaching the sup ply and
exhaust ducls to these partitions, any leakage that
would occur would leak into the space between the
two ducts rather than from one duct to the other.
-I
dependent upon the working fluid uti lized and the Coil loop thermosiphon exchangers have no cross
fluid temperature at the liquid vapor interface.
In order for a coil loop thermosiphon to operate, the
contamination. as the two airstreams are usually not
in close proximity with each other whe n this type of
system is used.
I
coil in the warmer air duct must have some liquid
working fluid present at all times in order that vapori-
zation can take place. If liquid is present al all limes in I
••I
both coils. the system can transfer heat in either di-
c
rection. If it is present only in one coil, heat can flow
only from that coil to the other. For this unidirectional PERFORMANCE
system, il the supply and exhaust temperatures re-
verse, it simply stops operating because there is no
liquid to vaporize, Since the condensation and evap-
oration processes are affected in different ways by 1. Pressure Drops
the diameter, length, and orientation of the coil tubes ,
-I
Design face velocities for heat pipe heat exchangers
range from 400 to 800 fpm, with 450 to 550 fpm most
,., ,b, common. Pressure drops at 60% effectiveness (sen-
-
sible) range from 0.4 to 0.7 in. w.g. at 400 fpm up to
HEAT
1.5 to 2.0 in. w.g. at 800 fpm. Recovery performance ,
OU T NO HEAT
FLOW or effectiveness. decreases with increasing velocity,
but the effect is not as pronounced as with pressure
-I
drop. A typical set 01 curves is shown in Figure 8-5 .
COLD HOT D UCT
Available fin designs include continuous corrugated
plate fin, continuous plain plate fin. and spiral fins.
These various fin designs and different tube spacing
cause the variation in pressure drop noted above at a
given face velocity .
. ....
-
HOT COLO DUCT
.. . 2. Effectiveness
.. :
The effectiveness of a heat pipe or thermosiphon ex-
.-
HEAT
....... ' changer is a function of several external variables:
IN the heat transfer surface area offered by the combi-
nation of rows and fins, the ratio of the heat capacities
Figure 8-4 SCHEMATIC ELEVATION VIEW OF of the two airflows, the rate at which the two airflows
8.3
SEALED TUBE THERMOSIPHONS (3) are passed through the heat exchanger, and the
-I
I SlcnON VIII
OO r----r---,----,-~"'"~~""'--,
I.
FACE VELOCITY (FPM)
temperature range for which the heal pipe was de- NOTES
1. 14 FIN S PER INCH
signed. 2. EQUAL MASS FLOWS
I ,"
, available energy, several coil loop thermosiphons
may be mounted like waffers along the supply and
•• ""
I j:
1/
, ,", exhaust ducls, as shown in Figure 8-7. to create a
I , "
w
w
>
~
'" r- 1/ .-" ,"
',, ""•,
counter flow heat exchanger having an overall effec-
tiveness greater than that for a single loop. Any de-
sired effectiveness can be achieved by util izing mul-
0
w
.," i-- " • tiple coil loop thermosiphons in this manner. In the
I ""w
" V
~"'t' ...
I
" "•,
r- "
example in Figure 8-7, the temperature distribution
for a system having equal exhaust and supply flow
'" "" .., rates and where each coil has an effectivenss of
50%, the effectiveness of each loop will then be ap-
I. VELOCITY - 1rm
I HEAT PIPE EXCHANGER (4) be 50%. If the effectiveness of each coi l was 80%,
I 8.4
THERMOS l r H ON (H EAT P IPE) (XC H ANGERS I
THERMOSIPHON COIL LOOPS
then the effectiveness of the three thermosiphon
loops would be 67%.
The most economic combination 01 coil sizes and
number of loops depends upon the specilied design
criteria. the projected system tifetime. and the
.'I
economic criteria used to optimize the design. Note,
also. that since each loop is independent. diNerent
working fluids could be utilized in each loop if it is ad-
vantageous to do so.
I
I
..
,
SUPPLY Thermosiphon coil loops may also be used when
mu ltiple supply or exhaust ducts are present. Figure
8"8 illustrates schematically such a case where a
common supply duct is being heated by three diffe"
F C
n "2S0
- EXHAUST
rent exhaust ducts.
'"=>w
~
~
~
w
"-
~
68' 20'
58 15~
50 10'
41 "5"
./ -- LOOP
SUPPLY
1. Filters
Heat pipe exchangers require the same filtration pro-
tection that normal HVAC system finned-tube coils
I
w 32 O'
V
~
235
ABC
require when operating under the same environment .
Fin pitch, the number of rows, the size of the particu-
lates in the airstreams. and the type of condensables
I
Figure 8·7 MULTIPLE THERMOSIPHON are some of the items to consider.
I
LOOP HEAT EXCHANGERS (3)
A EXHAUST A
•
2. Condensation and Freeze-up
As in all air-Io-air energy exchangers. condensation
will occur when some portion of the transfer su rfaces
or media attains a temperature below the dew point of
the warm airstream. Provisions for condensate re"
,
•I
moval. such as drain pans or recessed ductwork,
should be incorporated into the system so that the
condensate will be prevented from flowing into the
,
,
EXHAUST B ductwork.
B
In cases 01 outside air temperatures below 32QF. this
condensation may freeze. While a partial freeze"up
may not cause any permanent damage to the heat
exchanger. it will result in reduced heat recovery. re-
duction of exhaust airflow, and increased exhaust
airstream pressure drop.
...
SUPPLY
AIR
A C B
When condensation is expected during normal oper-
ations , the system designer might determine the ap-
I
proximate row in which this could occur. By separat-
ing the thermosiphon exchanger into two units at that
point (as shown in Figure 8·9), the " wet portion," that
may require special attention or cleaning, can be iso-
I,
'f - - - ----Ti
l ~f- y- - -,IE=X
HAUST~C }
lated.
Condensation of vapors from industrial process
exhaust often occurs upon cooling. The amount of
I
Figure 8·8 MULTIPLE EXHAUST SINGLE
SUPPLY INSTALLATION (3)
condensation depends on the initial concentration of
the vapors and the amount of cooling that the exhaust
undergoes. Freeze-up of this condensate seldom
.',
8 .5
I
I SlCTION VIII
I. 4
m
6
f
B
I
11
D rf I· 9
'! 2 ~
lJ
7
I ~.-
"
4
I ,
Figure 8-9 HEAT PIPE EXCHANGERS IN
I SERIES (17)
l
occurs because the exhaust temperature is usually
31 t Of 'I
conveclion film coefficient, as long as it does not be-
I come sludge or a solid. An increase in the pressure
drop of the exhaust airstream can occur however.
(41
1510>1
f' e I,')/'ll' coon 11Ie<
:t
;(1 It lI,ne"l"
<lCI"'h·,' .... ,·I'hnlo"'l.
I 11'11
I' ,
"Slo'
ro~O'la
~UJ'I'ly 1~<l' H " I l"'tnlW lc;I l) I,
I • E CAPACITY
CONTROLS
1101 l'l 1'1,
1'1\ ,I
,.
Iedvor"III!",:J(>Jdr.;f~
, ".". c pooo I Conl'w
IIo1.H JI,,"o('>"!'I"
I nI conI"
I
8.6
I
THERMOS l rHON ( HEAT PIPE) EX C HANGERS
I
F MAINTENANCE
I
,
OPEN WHEN CLEAN ING
• I
I
I
...
"'"
EXHAUST CONDE NSATE
I
I
,
A'R COLLECTOR
Figure 8-11 AUTOMATIC IN-DUCT SPRAY Figure 8-12 DESIGN FOR IN-DUCT MANUAL
CLEANING SYSTEM (17) SPRAY CLEANING (17)
,
.',
8.1 ,
I
I • SECTION IX
RUN-AROUND COIL EXCHANGERS
I (COIL HEAT RECOVERY LOOP)
I
I
• 1. Temperature Range
The temperature range of run-around coil exchan-
gers is limited by the thermal transfer fluid. At higher
temperatures (above 400"F) , special coil construc-
tion and control systems may be required to ensure a
tion of the effect of high temperatures. condensibles,
corrosives, and contaminants on the coil(s), and
adequate cleaning requirements . The effects of the
condensibles and corrosives may a lso require
specialized coil construction materials and/or coat·
ings.
permanent bond of the coil fins to the tubes and to A round spiral-finned tube core energy recovery coil
prevent the transfer fluid from reaching excessive has been designed for use with air or gas tempera-
I
I
I
I. Figure 9-1 RUN-AROUND COIL EXCHANGERS
(COIL HEAT RECOVERY LOOP) (20)
Figure 9-2 HIGH TEMPERATURE COIL
EXCHANGER (14)
I
I 9.1
RUN _ AROUND COIL [XCHANG[RS
,
8 PRINCIPLES
OF OPERATION
ing costs 01 the system, the operating times of the
system, the geographic location, and the schedule of
system capacities (including effect of controls) ver-
.'I
1. The Transfer Process
The run-around coil system allows seasonal transfer
of energy from a hoi airstream to a cold airstream.
sus outside air temperatures.
Applications with exhaust temperatures up to 400~F
normally can achieve a sensible heat effectiveness of
60 to 65 percent. Applications in excess of 40IYF
usually reach a sensible heat effectiveness of up to
50 percent, which is slightly lower due to the reduced
,
When outdoor air is cooler than the exhaust air.
primarily waste sensible heal is recovered. Similarly,
when the exhaust air is cooler than the outside air,
heat transfer capabilities of the thermal fluids and
materials of construction. I
sensible heat is removed from the supply air. Thus. Generally. the sensible heat recovery effectiveness
the supply air coil either preheats or or precools the
ou tside air, being seasonally reversible,
is in the 40 to 60 percent range using reasonably
deep coils. An attempt to further increase the system
efficiency by adding additional rows to the coi ls is
I
2. Cross Contamination often offset by the higher fan horsepower requi red by
I
Complete separation of the airstream eliminates the
possibility of cross contamination between the out-
the increased pressure drops of the airstreams. The
effectiveness of the heat recovery loop is equal to the
product obtained by multiplying the individual coil ef-
,
,
side airstream and the exhaust airstream(s). ficiencies (if each coil effectiveness is 80% . then 0.8
x 0 .8 ::: 0.64 or 64% effectiveness for the loop) .
c PERFORMANCE
D APPLICATION
1. Pressure Drops ••
•I
The run-around coil energy recovery system affords
When standard !inned-lube water coils are used, coil a high degree of flexibility which makes it particularly
engineering data should be used to determine air well suited for renovation and industrial applications.
pressure drops for a specific design . Coil face vel- The system accommodates remote location of sup-
ocities are typically in the 300-600 fpm range. Lower ply and exhaust airstreams . II also allows the simul-
face velocities may resul t in first cost pena lties. taneous recovery of heat from multiple supply andlor
Higher face velocities may result in operati ng cost exhaust airstreams.
•
penalties because of higher airstream pressu re The use of an expansion tank (Figu re 9-3 ), which al-
drops. lows a '·closed" system, is required to: ensure that
Pressure drops of the high temperature round spiral- the system is filled whenever the mean fluid tempera-
finned tube coils range from 0.02 in. w.g. to 4.0 in. ture is less than Ihe fill temperature ; provide room for
w .g. , depending on the lin spacing and the number 01 volumetric expansion whenever the mean fluid
passes. temperature is greater than the fill temperature: pre-
vent oxidation and subsequent corrosion when a
2. Effectiveness glycol solution is used, as would happen in an " open"
system.
The effectiveness of a heat recovery loop design
should be carefully analyzed. When system designs II is recommended that the supply air fan be a draw-
are being evaluated on their economic merit, the best thru unit, and the exhaust air fan a blow-thru unit. This
design is that which has the greatest net cost sav- provides the maximum air temperature difference be-
ings. Highest effectiveness is not necessarily syn- tween the exhaust and supply air coils, hence the
••
onymous with greatest net cost savings, although greatest system heat transfer capacity. Heat from the
it is an indicator of the greatest energy savings. Net fan motors is also added.
cost savings can most accurately be determi ned by The supply air temperature for most applications can
•I
applying the costs of heating and cooli ng, the operat- typically be increased 60-65% of the temperature dif-
9.2
I SlCTION IX
I • SUPPLY
( CAPACITY
CONTROLS
I As with other ai r-la-air energy recovery equipment.
measu res must be taken to prevent potential freezing
I lO·PRESS
SELECTOR
I 2. Condensation and Freeze-up The only moving parts in the run-around coil system
are the circulation pump, the 3-way control valve and
As in all air-to-air energy exchangers, condensation damper operators. However, the following items
I
I 9.3
RUN_AROUND COIL EXCHANGERS
,
G THERMAL
TRANSFER FLUIDS
Thermal Transfer Fluids·' for more detailed informa-
tion) . Basically , they are aqueous or non-aqueous.
The newer non-aqueous fluids are popular due to
-',
Depending on the application, there are a host of in-
termediate thermal transfer fluids that can be used in
their low freeze poi nts (as low as - 40°F). wide tem-
perature range , and good viscosity . Since these
fluids have high boiling points. they are suitable for
,
,
run-around heat recovery systems. Before deciding higher temperature applications (up to 700 F) where
on a fluid . considera tion must be given to the follow- pressurized water systems are not feasible.
ing design variables :
2. Freeze Protection
need for freeze proteclion
need fo r burst protection
need for corrosion protection
A run-around heat recovery system exposed to air
tempera tures below freezing should incorporate
some form of freeze protection. Simple means of ,
heal transfer efficiency
fluid life and maintenance
fluid specifi cations versus design conditions
In m any cases, demineralized waler can serve as the
freeze protection such as draini ng and continuous
circulation may not be appropriate for the run-around
coil system.
Advantages of a freeze preventative solution are :
,
•
a. prevents equ ipment problems on start-up after
heat transfer medium. This is preferred since pure
a power failure or interruption.
water offers high heat-transfer efficiency. Water is
li mi ted in application because of the high 32QF freeze b . eliminates the need for pipe heaters or steam
•
point. Consequently. there can be damage to the tracing lines.
equipment al the lower ambient temperatures of c. eli mi nates the need for draining; hence corro-
many regio nal areas. Additional ly, water could ionize sion is not promoted.
and serve as an electrolyte in the presence 01 similar
or dissimilar metals . Hence, galvanic corrosion of the
equipment could occur.
The shortcomings of water have created the need for
other heat transfer fluids. Specific recommendations
for a given application should be sought from a fluid
d. eli minates the need tor solution circulation dur-
ing periods wh en energy recove ry is not
needed (pump energy is saved).
3. Burst Protection
-.,
A system that is protected from bursting during cold
manufactu rer or his representative.
periods is not necessari ly protected from freezing. A
1. Types
system that is protected from freezing is atso pro-
tected from bursting . In burst protection, the fluid may
crystallize, hence the equipment may be inoperable.
•
•
However, failure due to expansion is avo ided. Burst
There are generally consi dered to be two basic
categories for fluids exposed to the range of energy protection is achieved at lower concentrations than
recovery system temperatu res . They are either freeze protection.
,•
water-glycol mixtures or synthetic thermal transfer In run-aro und coil application s, detai led review
fluids. should be undertaken before deciding upon burst
a. Water-glycol Mixtures. The more commonly used protection. Burs t protection does not provide the ad-
mixtures are ethylene glycol-water and propylene vantages of freeze protection . lis advantages are:
glycol-water. They display similar characteristics at a. lower cost due to lower concentration .
the same concentrations . Propylene glYCOl-water b. lower conce ntratio n means improved heat
•
mixtures are of low toxicity. Consequently, they are transfer efficiency.
used in those applications in close proximity to food
or foo dstuffs. Propylene glycol-water mixtures have Thermal transfer fluid manufacturers or their rep-
higher viscosities than ethylene glycol-water mix- resentatives shou ld be contacted for specific rec-
ommendations for burst protection.
.'•
tures. These mixtures allow freeze protection below
32°F. However, they can degrade at temperatures
above 275<>F to 300<>F.
4. Corrosion Protection
b. Synthetic Thermal Transfer Fluids. There are a Corrosion of equipment can lead to leaks , prematu re
number of lIuids in this class (see Section XII - failure, and reduced heat transfer efficiency. Corro-
9.4
I SECTION I X
7. Fluid Specifications
I above and do not degrade to form corrosives. Con-
sequently , these fluids can otter a long flu id life and
ultimately, longer equ ipmenllife.
Versus Design Conditions
Table 12-1 in Section XII shows the operating ranges
I 5. Thermal Transfer Efficiency
Thermal transfer fluids display less thermal conduc-
and other characteristics of the available therma l
transfer fluids. With the overlap, the choice of a
tivity than water, Typically, the synthetic fluids have specifi c fluid is not immediately obvious.
I • It is difficult to pinpoint the expected life of the thermal range economically impractical.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I.
I
9.5
I
,
SECTION X
MULTIPLE TOWER EXCHANGERS .',
A DESCRIPnON 2. Construction
Contactor towers are manufactured in both vertical
I
and horizontal airflow configurations. In the vertical
I
The multiple lower system is an air-Io-liquid, liquid-
to-air enthalpy (total heal) recovery system. The sys-
tem consists of multiple contaclar towers handling
the buildi ng or process supply air, and multiple con-
tacto r towers handl ing the building or process
exhaust air. A liquid is contin uously recirculated be-
airflow configuration , the supply or exhaust airstream
passes vertically through the contact surface in a
counter flow relationship to the sorbent liquid in order
to achieve the highest possible contact efficiency. In
the horizontal airflow configu ration, the supply or
ex haust airstream passes horizontally through the
,
tween the supply and exhaust ai r contaclar towers
and alternately directly conlacts both supply and
exhaust airstreams (Figure 10- 1).
contacl surface in a cross-flow relationship to the
sorbent liquid yielding a slightly lower contact effi-
ciency. Vertical and horizontal contactor towers can
I
be used in a common system. Contaclor towers of
1. Temperature Range
Multiple tower enthalpy recovery systems are de-
both configurations are supplied with airflow capac-
ities of up to 100,000 cfm.
I
Contact su rfaces are usually made of non-metallic
signed primarily for operating temperatures in the
comfort-conditioning range. They are nol generally
suitable for high-temperature applications 'such as
materials. The tower casing is usually made of steel
with protective coatings. Air leaving the contactor
I
tower passes through demister pads which remove
industrial oven exhaust airstreams. During summer
operation, the system will operate with any building
supply air temperatures as high as 115°F. Winter
any entrained droplets of the sorbent solution.
• I
supply air temperatures as low as - 40~ F can gener-
ally be tolerated without freeze-up or frosling prob-
lems, since the sorbent solution is an effective anti-
freeze at all useful concentrations.
I
8 PRINCIPLES OF
OPERATION I
1. The Transfer Process
EXHAUST
One or more energy transfer towers through which
the warmer airstream passes will extract both sensi-
I
". ".
///\\\" / / II \'
ble heat and moisture by Ihe process of the sorbenl
liquid being sprayed through the airstream. The " en-
riched" sorben! liquid is pumped to the tower(s) in the
I
cooler airstream where the heat and moisture is
transferred by spraying (Figure 10-2 ).
In this direct contact with the airstreams. the liquid
I
acts as a vehicle for transporting humidity, as well as
PUM P
"""'
V _ _ _ _ _ _COHTACTOR
heat. The process is reversible, and in a typical com-
fort-conditioning application building supply air is
I
cooled and dehumidified during summer operation,
.'I
- TOWE RS
and heated and humidified during winter operation.
Figure 10-1 TWIN-TOWER ENTHALPY The sorben! solution is usually a halogen sail solu-
RECOVERY LOOP tion , such as lithium chloride and water. Pumps are
10,1
I
I S£CTl QN X
I.
I SU MMER
~==Jl85 F, 91Gr. - SUMMER 75 F, 65Gr. 6 •
A
fIT.1 F,
• •
I w... TEIl SOF 75F.65Gr:
l I
~
I
I
j
I
I
I
• I • I
I,,'
42.S· F,
26.5Gr:.
I I • j I. • I
I '-------;-'.CH~'~U='~,~,=,,- ---~
SUPPLY AIR
I
I
used to circu late the solution between the supply air-
stream and exhaust airstream towers.
2. Cross Contamination
c PERFORMANCE
1. Pressure Drops
Figure 10-3 depicts a typical airside pressure drop for
I Particu late cross-contamination does nol occur in
multiple tower systems because the supply and
exhaust contaclars are independent units connected
a multiple tower system. The towers are generally
designed to operate between 350 and 525 fpm air
on ly by the sorbent liquid. Gaseous cross-con- face velocity. Airside pressure drops accordingly are
generally in the range of 0.5 to 1.2 inches water col-
1• tamination may occur to a limited degree. depending
on the solubility of the gas in the sorbenl solution.
Tests of gaseous cross-contamination using the su l-
umn .
Since the supply and exhaust air towers are inde-
system.
1 If the building or process exhaust contains large
amounts of gaseous contaminants. such as chemical ,,
fumes , hydrocarbons, etc. , possible cross-contam-
I ination effects shou ld be investigated as well as pos-
sible eflects of the contaminants on the sorbent solu-
os: 1. 2
1
tion.
00
w
i\~ 1. 0
V
3. Bacteria Removal "~ /
I wos
-----
Sorbent solutions (particularly the halide brines) are
bacteriostatic (wi ll not support bacterial life) at all use- ~~
ful concentrations. Micro-organism testing of the mul- • o. ,
I tiple tower system using the 6-plate Andersen Sam-
pling Technique has shown that micro-organ ism
transfer does not occur between the supply and 0.4
300 350 400 '50
exhaust airstreams. These tests have also shown FACE VELOC ITY (STD. FTJMIN)
I
I '0.2
MUlTlrll T OWlR l.l(CH"NGlRS
1
exhaust air fans can be located wherever practical.
The towers are generally designed to operate with
1. Filters
The thermal transfer lIuid is a bacteriostatic solution
.1
any air inlet static pressure from - 6 in. to + 6 in. w.g.
The exhaust tower may be operated at a higher inter-
nal static pressure than the supply tower without
of water and lithium chloride salt . This , together with
the efficient air scrubbing within the towers. makes
the system an elficient decontaminator of both intake
1
danger of exhaust-to-supply cross-contamination.
2. Effectiveness
and exhaust airstreams. Dust removal tests show a
dust removal efficiency of 35°{. as measured by the
National Bureau of Standards Dust Spot Test Method
1
Figure 10·4 depicts a typical enthalpy recovery effec- on normal atmospheric dust.
tiveness curve for a multiple tower enthalpy recovery
loop. Effectiveness is shown as a function of the
If the building or process exhaust contains large
amounts of lint, animal hair, or other solids , prefiltra-
1
tower air face veloci ty. The effectiveness of the tower tion should be provided upstream of the exhaust air
system will generally be about 70% at typical summer
operating conditions, and about 60% at typical winter
operating conditions.
tower.
1
2. Condensation and Freeze-up
When applying twin· tower systems on controlled-
1
humidity buildings or areas located in the colder cli-
I E CAPACITY
CONTROLS
1
0
~
Generally, the sorbent solution heater is controlled by
a thermostat sensing the air temperature leaving the
,
,
supply air tower. The tower system is capable of de-
livering air at a constant temperature all winter, re-
- gardless of the outside air temperature. Automatic
r ,I
5
addition of makeup water to maintain a fixed concen-
tration of the sorbent solution enables the twin-tower
50 system to deliver supply air at a fixed humidity during
300 ,so .00 .50
cold weather. Constant supply air temperature and
FACE VELOCITY · FPM
humidity can thus be delivered by the multipte tower
Figure 10-4 MULTIPLE TOWER SYSTEM system without the use of preheat coils, reheat coils,
or humidifiers in the supply airstream .
EFFECTIVENESS (3)
-I
10.3
1
I S[UION,X
I. SUPPLY EXHAUST
~
<}
I II = -,--<lK----
AUXILUARY
HEATING VALVE
r ~~::~~~~~=~~T~URN'DOWN VALVE
I ,,,~,
/: I \'. -;:: \~"
SOLUTION
HEATER
I
I
I ,
Figure 10-5 MULTIPLE TOWER OPERATION AND CONTROL (3)
I
I A turndown cycle to limit the leavi ng temperature of
the supply airstream tower during mild weather oper-
During spring and fall when the air temperature to the
intake tower is the same as the desired delivered air
ation is achieved by automatically modulating the temperature, then the turndown valve is in the full
flow of the sorben! solution to the tower. diverted position with no spray to the intake contactor
I • The multiple lower system offers a number at alterna-
tives of capacity control depending upon the specific
surface and all pumps in the tower system are then
de-energized.
I
tem modulates its heat recovery potential. To reduce
the amount of recovered heat, a thermostat on the
intake tower leaving air tempe rature modulates a
F
Maintenance of the multiple tower system is primarily
turndown valve to reduce the amount 01 solution a matter of observation. On a monthly basis, the
sprayed over the intake towercontactor surface. This following items should be checked .
mode of control allows for exact winter delivered
I. temperatures as the winter weather moderates to
spring and as the fall weather approaches winter.
a. Spray pressure of tower units
b. Complete spray coverage of contaclor surfaces
I •
I 10.4
MUlTlrll TOWlR lKCHANGlRS
•
c. Solution concentrations
d, Level controller operation
On a bimonthly basis, the following items require
inspection :
'"
90 SUMM ER " " ' " " '0 0""'---:
"[rrn;'~",~C.~'~G~'~'"~'~"~':'~"~'~'·:'~~/1=--
-'•
•
a. Solution color comparison
b. Mist eliminator inspectIon
On a six-month basis. the following should be at-
•
tended :
a. Greasing of fan and pump bearings and fan and
pump motor bearings .
b. Check 01 level controller and limit level control-
ler function.
c. Washing and reinstallation of mist eliminators.
•
G THERMAL TRANSFER
FLU IDS
Figure 10~6 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
LIQUID SORBANT ENTHALPY SYSTEMS (3)
•I
•
The heat transfer fluid circu lated between the multi - These solutions are stable from - 90 GF to 240' F at the
ple tower supply and exhaust units is usually a water various concentrations. The solution concentration
and sail solution . Normally , lithium chloride and water for a system is determined for the exact temperature
or calcium chloride and water is the liquid used. extremes of an actual application.
-.
•
•I
I
,
,
.'•
10.5 ,
I
I.
SECTION XI
DRY AIR COOLER EXCHANGERS
I
I A DESCRIPTION 1. Temperature Range
The major use of the dry air evaporative cooler is to
pre-cool the outside airstream to reduce the load of
I
I
I
I _.....-
(i) .._ - _ .. -
"""' ..._ _
_---- --
_ _
-......-"'-....... _..--_...- ..
@""', .. _ ' " _ .. - _ .......
"'-'-
<5> ...... - - - .. _ _ ..... .. _ ..
~
"
'
Y
"
Gl--_*'_· .......... _ _ ",_ ..
I. ....
Figure 11-1 DRY AIR EVAPORATIVE COOLER EXCHANGER (22)
I
11. 1
I
DIY All COOLE I EXCHANGllS
,
During the heating season, the unit acts as a plale
type heat exchanger as the outdoor air is pre-heated
by recovering the heat of the exhausted building air. .',
,
r Thi s heat recovery is accomplished by deenergizing
the unit circu lating pump and allowing the knitted
tube sleeves to dry oul. Automatic controls can ener-
gize and deenergize the water pump based on the
entering air temperature 01 the outdoor airstream.
Well over 90% of most cooling system operating
,
,
hours are at partial load conditions. It is important to
evaluate the capability of dry air evaporative cooling
units at these partial load conditions. The cool ing
work performed by the units increases as the wet-
Figure 11·2 DRY AIR COOL ER EXCHANGER (22) bulb temperature decreases. As the outside dry bulb
te mperature decreases, the outside wet bulb temp-
erature usually decreases also. The factors contri-
,
,
bute 10 a very favorable chain of events:
1. As outside temperatures fall , the lotal system
load decreases.
PRINCIPLES
8 OF OPERATION 2. Along with this , Ihe wet bulb temperature has
decreased.
3 . As the wet bulb temperature fall s, the unit
,
.,
1. The Transfer Process capacity increases.
a. The Dry Air Cooler Exchanger Hence , the units will provide a larger portion (percen-
tage) of the total HVAC system load than during full
,
In order to obtain the maximum cooling capability of load operation . As wet bu lb temperatures decline, the
the dry air cooler. the system design should provide percentage increases until a point is reached where
that the building exhaust air be dueled to supply the the HVAC system cooling load and outside wet bulb
,
air source lor the wet-side air passage . This pre-con- temperatures can allow for the total cooling to be pro-
ditioned exhaust air can thereby serve a useful pur- vided by the dry air evaporative cooler.
pose prior to wasting its energy into the atmosphere.
It provides a useable low wet bulb temperature in the
cooting season. thus increasing the capacity of the b. The Fixed Plate
unit for cooling . In lieu of bu ilding exhaust air, outside Exchanger
ambient air may be used as the wei-side air source as
Fixed plate (sensible) energy recovery devices may
I
,
shown in Figure 11-1 .
also employ the unique concept known as indirect
The wet-side air is cooled as it passes over the out- evaporative cooling or " dry evaporative cooling : '
side of the tubes and becomes relatively satu rated. Norm al evaporative cooling processes reduce the
,
Further energy can be saved by using this air to pre- supply air temperature while increasing the moisture
cool air conditioning system condensers when near· content and are adiabatic. Indirect evaporative cool-
satu rated air is satisfactory. ing reduces the enthalpy level of the supply air and
,
During the cooling operation of the unit, the dry bulb under certain conditions can condense moisture out
temperature leaving the wet-side wi ll be depressed . of the supply air stream. This is accomplished by
The depression will vary somewhat depending on sprayi ng a mist of water vapor into the exhaust air
dry-side air temperature and the evaporation rate. stream prior to the fixe d plate heat exchanger, where
This depression can be expressed as approach to it is deposited on the exhaust side surface and is
wet bulb temperature. The unit , based o n the evaporated. The temperature of the plates is lowered
. 'I
minimum recommended wet-side air, will achieve an to approximately the exhaust wet bulb temperature .
approximate 10° F DB approach . When building The outside air entering the heat exchanger is ex·
exhaust air is provided as the wet-side air source , the posed to the cooled plates and can approach to
maximum cooling capacity is obtained. within approximately 25 percent 01the difference be-
11.2 ,
I SECTI ON X I
I • tween the outside dry bulb and exhaust side wei bulb
temperatures. This process is shown schematically
in Figure 11-3 . The effectiveness of recovery can be
2. Cross Contamination .
I Tube headers 01 the dry air cooler unit are fabricated ~
..-...,-::.::j -. '
01heavy-wall . high-impact polystyrene material. Sol· Ai'2 "'-
I vent welding of the close tolerance tube header
achieves an excellent waleHighl modular core as- I
I
~M
sembly so that cross contamination is virtually elimi-
nated . r ,~
I ~
.
. r-- f-
.
I 1. Pressure Drops
The wei side of the dry air cooler unit is sized for a
DRY·SIDE 2000 CFM PER CORE (.85 " S.P.)
I minimum air quantity with a pressure drop of 0 .15 in.
w.g. The dry-side air quantity can vary , but perfor-
•
I
11.3
I
DRY AIR COOlfR EXCHANG[RS
,
2. Effectiveness As with most heal recovery units. tempered (pre-
heated or bypass) air must be provided when lem-
peratures are below 32°F to avoid frost accumu la- .',
,
The heat recovery capacities, per core , of the dry-air tion; hence, 35" F entering airtemperalure represents
coolerwilh a minimum of 900 cfm of exhaust airlo the a reasonable heat recovery design temperature for
" wet" airstream are given in the table below: the dry air cooler unit.
In areas where temperatures consistenlly drop to The required maintenance of the dry air cooler is min-
•
below freezing. it is adYisable to consider freeze pro-
tection of the dry air cooler unit pump and basin on
the same basis as wou ld be given to air conditioning
imal. The only moving part to be serviced is the basin
water pump. Periodically examine the water filter
media and change when necessary. Check the oper-
•
•
water towers or evaporative condensers. ation and level of the float yalve, and check all control
Typical methods are an automatic or manual draining valves and thermostats. Annually clean the flush ba-
sin.
of the water pan , the use of electric pan heaters.
•
steam or hot water coils. It is recommended that a Water treatment is normally not required , however,
40" F basin water temperature be maintained. jnstailalion of the unit in some areas may require a
periodic or continuous water treatment program to
obtain maximum performance. Algae growth may be
E CAPACITY
CONTROLS
non-existent in some areas, and quite severe in other
areas. Periodic treatment can control the worst of
algae problems. In areas where the make-up water
has a high percentage of dissolved solids, a program •
Cooling is obtained by energizing the water circulat-
ing pump (and wet-side fan if used). A temperature-
to prevent scaling should be considered. Mineral
scale deposits in the unit are minimal due to the small
temperature difference between the tube and waler.
.',
1'-4
I
I
I.
SECTION XII
THERMAL TRANSFER FLUIDS
I
I Most of the discussion in this section was taken from
a paper entitled " Design and Operational Consider·
ation for High Tempera ture Organic Heat Transfer
needs to select a material that will perform satisfac-
torily and safely at the process temperatu res re-
quired. To do th is. one can draw on past experience
Systems " prepared by W. F. Seifert and Dr. L. L. or make relative comparisons of the existing fluids by
I Jackson of the Dow Chemical Company, and C.E.
Sech of Charles E. Sech Associates, Inc. Consulting
compili ng the d ata available from fluid manufactur-
ers. The important factors that must be evaluated in
& Design Engineers , and presented at the 71sf Na - selecting a high temperatu re heat transfer fluid can
I in Table 12-1.
In the design of a high temperature organic heat
corrosive to mild steel as long as all traces of water
are kept out of the system and as long as the fluid is
not overheated. If halogenated materials are over-
transfer system, the engi neer has two key problem
I areas to evaluate. These are: the selection of the
heat transfer media and the system des ign and
heated either by a bu lk temperature higher than the
recommended maximum lim it Of by localized hot
spots in a furnace, hydrogen chloride gas will be
selection 01 equipment. evolved. The hydrogen chloride gas will remain rela-
I tively noncorrosive to mild steel as long as the system
A HEAT TRANSFER
MEDIA EVALUATION
is kept absolutely dry, but if traces of water are pres-
ent, the hydrochloric acid formed will be extremely
corrosive, particularly at elevated temperatures.
I
12.1
I
THERMAL TRANSfER fLUIDS I
Registered
Tradename
of
Fluid COmPOSition Producer
Table 12-1 HEAT TRANSFER FLUIDS
Usable
Temperature
Range
Flash
Point
OF
Fire
Point
'F
Specilic Heat
Btu/lb' F
Viscosity
Lbllt hr
Thermal
Conductivity
Btulhr fF ('Flit)
Density
Lb/ltl
•
•
eutectic
Dowlherm di& til Dow 20'F to 305 F 315 F 0.42 0,48 7.02 1,65 0.074 0.072 65.5 60.0
G aryl elhers Chemical Co. 700 F C.O.c. C.O.c.
Dowtherm alkylaled Dow - l00' F to 14S-F 155 F 0.49 0.60 0.90 0.34 0.073 0.068 5004 44.1
•
J aromalic Chemical Co 575' F C.O.c. C.O.c.
Dowtherm aromalic Dow - 2S' F 10 260' F 280' F 0.43 0.51 2,66 0.92 0.077 0.067 61.2 55.9
LF blend Chemical Co. 6OO' F c.o.c. C.O.c.
Dowtherm inhibited Dow - 40' F to 250' F 250' F 0.88' 2.1S· 0.243" 62.1
•
SR-t ethylene Chemical Co. 300' F (100% ) (100% )
glycol p.m.c.c. c.o.c.
Dowfrost inhibited Dow - 40' F to 214'F 220' F 0.92' 2.1S' 0.220' 64.1
propylene Chemical Co. 300' F I.c.c. C.O.C.
•
glycol
Mobiltherm mineral Mobil 10' Fto 41 ~F NJA 0.46 0.56 16.2 2.7S 0.066 0.062 52.0 47.9
600 oil Oil Co. 600 F C.O.c.
•
Mobiltherm mineral Mobil 20' F to 405 F NIA 0.54 0.65 9.92 2.27 0.074 0.069 44.0 40.2
6113 oil 011Co. 600' F C.O.c.
MobiUherm mineral Mobil - lS' F 10 250' F N/A 0.44 0.53 3.82 1.38 0.065 0,061 55.6 52.0
-.
Light oil Oil Co. 400' F c.o,c.
Therminol modi fied Monsanto - 50 F to 405 F 438' F 0.51 0.57 2.34 0.66 0.076 0,065 54.1 48.7
44 ester base 42S<F C.o.c. C.O.c
Th erminol syn thetic Mosanto 010 355°F 410' F 0.52 0.62 10.3 2.18 0.075 0,069 52.4 47.S
55 hydrocarbon 600 F C.O.c. C.O.c.
•
Thermrnol polyaromatic MosanlO - GO' F to 310'F 320' F 0.44 0.54 4.0 1.3 0.073 0.068 59.1 54.6
6ll compound 600 F c.o.c. C.O.c,
Thermlnot modified Mosanto lS-F to 35S"F 3S2 F 0.44 0.53 10.0 2.1 0.067 0.061 59.8 55.0
terphenyl 6S0' F C.o.C. C.O.c.
•
66
Therminol mi~ed Mosanto 300"F to 375 F 460' F Solid 0,50 Solid 2.0 Solid 0.071 Solid 59.9
B6 terphenyl 7SO' F C.o.C. c.o.c,
Therminol diphenyl Mosanto 60' Fto 255°F 275"F 0.42 0.49 2.66 0.87 0.075 0.065 62.7 56.7
•
VP·l O~lde 750 F C.o.C. c.o.c,
eutectic
Thermia mineral Shell - SO' F to 300 F 0.51 N/A 0,072 52.4
A oil Oil Co. 350' F C.O.c.
•
Therrnia mineral Shell 15' F to 455' F 0.51 0.60 NIA NIA 0,073 0.069 51.S 47,5
C oil Oil Co. 600' F C,O.c .
•
Nole, Consull manufacturer for detailed appl!calton recommendations .
3. Flammability
I leak from the system into a space other than the fire
box of a furnace. they will almost invariably, if not al-
contrast. high boiling materials and polymers in a
fl uid will result in higher viscosities. Increasing viscos·
ways. be below their auto ign ition temperatures be- ity will accelerate the degradation process due to less
I
higher than its fi re point .
c EQUIPMENT DESIGN
AND OPERATING
I
11.3
I
TH[IMAl TRANSFlI flUIDS
,
When considering operating a fluid at temperatures
higher than the manufacturer's recommended max-
imum te mperatures. it is extremely important to
a. Flame Impingement
Flame impingement on a heat transfer surface will .',
,
guard against approach ing the critical temperatu res invariably cause trouble if not corrected. T he results
that may cause the fluid to carbonize and form hard will be lower heat efficiencies. loss of capacity. and
carbon scale on the heat transfer surface. When this ultimately tube fai lures. Flame impingement can be
caused by using improper burners. improper adjust-
,
happens the hard carbon lends to Insulate the sur-
face and decreasing the rate of heat transfer at this ment of a burner. o r by poor furn ace design.
point. This resul ts in an increased metal temperature
under and around the edges of the carbon , thus ac·
b. Low Circulation Rate
celerating the rate 01 hard carbon scale forma tion. If
this condition is not discovered and corrected , it will
lead to overheating and ultimate destruction and rup-
1. Forced circulation heater
Poor circulation rates through the heater can be the
,
,
ture of the heat transfer surface. result of a power failure , instrumentation failure. or
The formation of soft or particulate carbon as well as pump cavitation due to either low liquid level or sys-
high molecular weight polymers need not be serious tem contamination with a low vapo r pressure mate-
,
as long as the condition is recognized and kept under rial.
control. It is important, however. that the fluid be
2. Natural circulation heater
sampled periodically in accordance with the recom-
mendations of the fluid manufac turer and the heater Poor flow in a natural circu lation heater can be attri-
manufacturer. With fluid s having an atmospheric boil·
ing point outside their recommended operating tem-
perature ranges , the quantity of soluble degradation
products is usually determined by measuring the vis-
buted to low fluid level in the healer. insolubles re-
stricting the flow in the tubes or uneven firing of the
burners of the furnace .
,
-,,
cosity of the sample at a given temperature.
c. High Heat Fluxes
In addition to these high molecular weight products
which are soluble in the fluid. there will frequently be When a heater is operated above its rated design
an accumulation of line particulate organic insolubles capacity, the fitm temperatures that the fluid is ex-
as well as some particles of mill scale in the sample. posed to will be in excess of the recommended de-
sign value. To insure that excessive degrad ation of
,
The percentage of this sediment in the lIuid must also
be kept within limits recommended by the manufac- the fluid does not take place. the heater manufacturer
turer 01 the fl uid . should be consulted 10 d etermine their recommenda-
tions for circulation rate and burner modifications.
Whenever the decomposition products, the insolu-
bles, or the acidity of the heat transfer media exceeds
the established recommendations, it is important that
the fluid in the system be replaced or rec laimed.
d. Heat Transfer Fluid
Contamination ,
Some of the manufacturers of high temperature or-
ganic heat transfer fluids oHer a reclamation service
for their products. On stream purification units are
Contaminalion can be caused by a process material
leaking into or unintentionally being charged into the
,
,
available to reclaim some of Ihe fluids semicontinu- high temperature heating system. This situalion can
ously in the field without returning the fluid to the cause signifi cant problems depending on the thermal
manufacturer. However, it is important that the cost of stability and quantity of process fluid added.
reclaiming the fluid be included in evaluating the
,
Most any type of organic contaminants are potential
overall operating cost. If any given fluid is over- hazards because of their lower thermal stability. If the
stressed severely above the recommended contamination is excessive , hard carbon scale can
maximum temperature, the decomposition rate wi ll deposit on the heat transfer surface of the heater;
become quite high. If this happens. the cost of remov- once this hard carbon deposit starts , degradation of
ing the high molecular weight polymers, the cost of the heal transfer fluid will be accelerated due to the
replacement fluid. and , especially the cost of lost excessive film temperatures. Even if a hard carbon
production can be appreciable.
The most frequent causes of excessive fluid deg-
radatio n operating difficulties in a fired heater are :
scale is not formed on a heat transfer surface, or-
ganic contaminants can accelerate the decomposi-
tion rates for a heat transfer fluid.
.',
12.4 ,
I SlC.T1 0N .1(11
fluids increase as their temperatures decrease unlil The purpose of this was to protect the seal rings
I
12.5
I
THlRMA.l TRANSfER fLUIDS
•
4. Expansion Tank 5. Summary
.'
•
The use of an expansion lank , which allows a Regardless of the intended use of a thermal
" closed" system, is required to: ensure that the sys- transfer fluid, contact the manufacturer of the
lem is fitled whenever the mean fluid temperature is selected fluid for detailed recommendations and
,•
less than the fill temperature; provide room for vol- information. There are many additional proper-
umetric expansion whenever the mean fluid temper- ties of the fluids that are not listed in Tabe112-1
ature is greater than the fill temperature ; prevent which can affect the performance of the system
oxidation and subsequent corrosion when a glycol or possibly create serious maintenance prob-
solution is used , as wou ld happen in an " open" sys- lems. Every component in the piping system that
tem. comes in contact with the fluid (or its vapor) must
be evaluated.
With many of the organic fluids, it is necessary to
charge or " blanket" the tank(s) with an inert gas such
as nitrogen, or to use a "cold
system.
sear' type expansion
•
•
•
-. •
•
•
•I
•
•
.'•
12.6
I
,
SECTION XIII
'.
I
ECONOMICS OF ENERGY RECOVERY
I A JUSTIFICATION OF
ENERGY RECOVERY
f. Modifications of the buitding environmental sys-
tems.
When all of the above data is used in a building
I 1. Existing Buildings
energy analysis and there is a yearly net savings in
energy consumption , it would seem that an energy
recovery system would be feasible if the " payback
I
,
forts should be concentrated on conservation of waste per day or greater.
energy by using good maintenance procedures on
the environmental systems and realistic use 01 the 2. New Buildings
bu ilding systems as outlined in the SMACNA ASH RAE Standard 90-75 "Energy Conservation in
" Guidelines for Energy Conservation in Existing New Building Design" , contains the following rec-
Buildings" . Venti lation loads should be reduced to ommendation for use of energy recovery systems:
the minimum requ ired by local codes unless there are
I
B.I
I
ECONO MI CS Of ENE R GY R lCOVE R Y
,
have recently made such investments attractive are
rising fuel costs and curtailment of regular fuel
sources which th reaten production cutbacks and
3. Reduced Maintenance
Reduced maintenance and repair on certai n items of
-',
,
changeover to other energy sources. In addition. existing equipment may, in some instances, be a
mandatory pollution controls and rising labor costs further benefit of investment in energy recovery. The
cut into profits and cause firms to look more closely principal impact on the maintenance of existing
for ways to control costs . equipment is likely to result from the planning, en-
The kinds of potential benefits which may result from
energy recovery are :
gineering, and installation phases of investment in
energy recovery , when the existing equipment and
plant processes are often scrutinized. Existing faults
,
,
1. Fuel savings may be identified and corrected ; and improved
2. Reduced size, hence lower capita l cost , of maintenance practices may be extended to existing
heating/cooling equipment equipment.
3. Reduced ma intenance costs for ex isti ng
equipment
4. Reduced costs of production labor
4. Lower Labor Costs
Another kind of benefit which may resu lt from invest- ,
5. Pollution abatement
6. Improved product
ment in energy recovery systems, is savi ngs in labor
costs. Labor savi ngs can resu lt. for example, from a
lowering of industrial furnace changeover time (I.e. ,
,
,
7. Revenue from sales of recovered heat or the time needed to alter furnace temperatures re-
energy quired for a change in production use) by preheating
These benefits were suggested by a preliminary look combustion air with waste heat. Savings may also re-
at existing applications. However, on ly " fuel savings" sult from faster furnace start-ups, accomplished by
-,
was found in every case exami ned. The other ben- similar means , By reducing the amount of labor
efits, "savings in capital and maintenance costs on " downtime" , unit labor costs are reduced . (A tradeoff
existing equipment, pollution abatement, labor sav- may exist between idling the furnace at higher tem-
ings, product improvement, and revenue from sales peratu res du ring off-duty hours and incu rring labor
of recovered heat", appear limited to certain applica- "downtime" during furnace start-ups. If the existing
tions. practice is to idle the furnace at high temperatures in
I
,
order to avoid "downtime", the savings from using
waste heat recovery to preheat air would be in terms
1. Fuel Savings of fuel reductions rather than lower labor costs.)
,
Fuel savings result when waste heat is recovered
and used in substitution for newly generated heat or
energy. For example, heat from stack flue gas may
5. Pollution Abatement
be recovered by an energy recovery device and used Pollution abatement is a beneficial side eHect which
to preheat the input water, thereby reducing the
amou nt of fuel needed for steam generation.
may result from recovery of waste heat For example,
the pollution abatement process in texti le plants will
often be facilitated by waste heat recovery . Pollutants
,
2. Lower Capital Costs
Savings in capital costs for certain items of existing
(plasticizers) are usually collected by circu lating air
from the ovens (where fabrics are coated or backed
with other materials) through electrostatic pre-
,
,
equipment (I.e ., regular equi pment apart from that cipitators. The air must, however, be cooled to ac-
required for waste heat recovery) may be possible if complish collection of pollutants. If it were not for heat
recovered heat reduces the required capacity of the recovery, it would be necessary to cool the air by
heating and/or cooling equipment. For example, in- other means, which wou ld generally entail additional
stallation of rooftop energy recovery equipment on fuel consumption. Thus, there is a twofold impact on
buildings with high ventilation requirements can en- fuel use from this application of heat recovery.
able significant reductions in the size and cost of the Another instance of poll ution abatement, as a side
building's heating and cooling system. This potential
for savi ngs is not limited to new construction when
existing equipment needs to be replaced.
effect of waste heat recovery, occu rs if pollutants are
reduced by the higher furnace temperatu res resulting
from preheating combustion air with waste heat.
.'I
11.2
I
I SECTION XIII
I.
I
The pollution abatement side effects represented by
the two preceding examples are distinguishable from
the use of systems to recover heat from a pollution
abatement process , where recovery of heat does not
in itself contribute to pollution abatement. For exam-
c COMPUTING
FUEL SAVINGS
•I
fuel savings from using the recovered heat in other
2 . Using design conditions, size and the energy
processes.
recovery system, and determine the amount of
6. Product Improvement recovered energy.
Product improvement is a further potential side effect 3. Calculate fuel saved for a given time period-
of energy re covery. For example, by achieving a usually one year.
more stable furnace temperature and a reduction in 4. Determine installed cost of system.
•
furnace aeration , use of a recuperator to preheat
Energy recovery equipment usually accou nts for a
combustion air may reduce the undesirable scaling of
small portion of the total installation cost. The cus-
metal products. In absence of preheating combustion
tomer wi ll eventually need accurate cost estimates
•••
air, it would be necessary to invest in improvements
which usually must be obtained from an installing
to furnace controls or in some other means of pre-
contractor. Only after the equipment energy con-
venting scaling ; to secure the same product quality.
sumption rates , the installed cost of the recovery sys-
7. Revenue-Generating tem , and the hours of operation are known , can Ihe
economics of the installation be determined.
A fin al potential benefit from energy recovery. as
suggested by existing applications, is the generation Some energy recovery systems operate indepen-
of revenue from sales of recovered waste heat or dent of ambient conditions. But often it is required
•I
furnace operation, the demand for recycled heat, and
saved for a given time period. The equation for de-
the expected price of fuels, it shou ld be possible to
termining this value is:
make a close estimate of the savings in fuel costs that
would result from substituting waste heat for newly-
generated heal or energy. Certain of other potential Equation 13 1 8
•I
valved. Q = Heat recovered - Btuthr at design conditions.
u.)
ECONOMICS Of ENERGY RECOVERY
,
N = Number of hours heat recovery system oper-
ates in the lime period used in the analysis
(e.g. for an Oct. 1 to May 1 heating season-
Tl = Temperatu re of the hot gas or air entering
the heat recovery unit at design conditions
_ OF
-',
,
212 days x 24 hrs/day = 5,088 hours) tl = Temperatu re of the cold fluid (air to liquid)
E = Efficiency of fuel using device or system over entering the heat recovery unit at design
the time period (express as a decimal) conditions - OF
(ETD)a = Entering tem perature difference be-
tween average ambient (t1a) for the
specified time period and the hot inlet
t1a = Ave rage ambient temperatu re for time
period (N) - OF
,
,
For a one year period, ,, ~ is calculated as follows:
temperature (Tl - t1al - OF
Referring to Table 13-1, which gives the degree-day
(ETD) = Enteri ng temperature difference at de- values for major cities throughout the United States,
sign conditions (T 1 - t 1) - OF Canada, and Austral ia, select the appropriate
Table 13-1 AVERAGE DEGREE DAYS, CITIES IN UNITED STATES, CANADA, AND AUSTRALIA (Base 6S'F)
Yearly I
•I
State Station July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June Total
Ala. Birmingham 0 o 6 93 363 555 592 462 363 108 9 o 2551
Ariz. Phoenix. 0 o o 22 234 415 474 328 217 75 o o 1765
Ark. Litlle Rock . 0 o 9 127 465 7 16 756 577 434 126 9 o 3219
Calif. Los Angeles 0 o 6 31 132 229 310 230 202 123 68 18 1349
San francisco. 192 174 102 118 231 388 443 336 319 279 239 180 3001
-.
Colo. Denyer .. 0 o 90 366 714 905 1004 851 800 492 254 48 5524
Conn. Hartford .. 0 12 117 394 714 1101 1190 1042 908 519 205 33 6235
Del. Wilmington 0 o 51 270 588 927 980 874 735 387 112 6 4930
D.C. Washington 0 o 33 217 519 834 871 762 626 288 74 o 4224
Fla. Miami Beach .. 0 o o 004056369 o o o 141
o o
•,
Pensacola 0 o o 19 195 353 400 277 183 36 1463
G•. Atl anta . .. .. . 0 o 124 417 648 636 518 428 147 25 o 2961
Idaho
Sayannah .
Boise
0
0
o
o
"o
132
47
415
246
792
437
1017
437
1113
353
854
254
722
45
438
o
245
o
81
1819
5809
III. Chicago 0 12 117 381 807 1166 1265 1086 939 534 260 72 6639
Ind. Indianapolis 0 o 90 3 16 723 1051 111 3 949 809 432 177 39 5699
Iowa Des Moines 0 6 96 363 828 1225 1370 1137 915 438 180 30 6588
Kans. Topeka ......... 0 o 57 270 672 980 11 22 893 722 330 124 12 5 182
K,. louisville 0 o 54 248 609 890 930 818 682 315 105 9 4660
L. New Orleans 0 o o 19 192 322 363 258 192 39 o o 1385
Me.
Md
Mass.
Portland . . ... .. .
Baltimore ..
Boston
12
0
0
53
o
9
195
46
60
508
264
3 16
607
585
603
1215
905
983
1339
936
1088
1182
820
972
1042
679
846
675
327
513
372
90
208
111
o
36
7511
4654
5634
I
Worcester 6 34 147 450 774 1172 1271 11 23 996 612 304 78 6969
I
,
Mich. Detroit .. ... 0 o 87 360 738 1088 1181 1058 936 522 220 42 6232
Minn. MinnaapoJis 22 31 189 505 1014 1454 1631 1360 1166 621 288 81 8382
Miss. Jackson . . 0 o o 65 315 502 546 414 310 87 o o 2239
Mo. 51. Louis ·. .. 0 o 60 251 627 936 1026 648 704 312 121 15 4900
,
Mont. Billings 6 15 186 487 897 1135 1296 1100 970 570 285 102 7049
Helena 31 59 294 601 1002 1265 1438 1170 1042 651 381 195 8129
Neb. Lincoln 0 6 75 301 726 1066 1237 1016 834 402 171 30 5864
Omaha 0 12 105 357 828 1175 1355 11 26 939 465 208 42 6612
Ney. Las Vegas 0 o o 78 387 617 688 487 335 111 6 o 2709
Reno .. .... 43 87 204 490 801 1026 1073 823 729 510 357 189 6332
N.H. Concord 6 50 m 505 822 1240 1358 11 84 1032 636 298 75 7383
o
.'I
N.J. Atlantic City 0 39 251 549 880 936 848 741 420 133 15 4812
N.M. Albuquerque 0 o 12 229 642 868 930 703 595 288 81 o 4348
N.Y. Albany 0 19 138 440 777 1194 1311 1156 992 564 239 45 6675
Buffalo ........ . 19 37 141 440 777 11 56 1256 11 45 1039 645 329 78 7062
New york ....... 0 o 30 233 540 902 988 885 760 408 118 9 4871
U .4 ,
I SECTION XIII
I
Tab le 13-1 AVERAGE DEGREE DAYS, CITIES IN UNITED STATES, CANADA , AND AUSTRALIA (Base 6SOF)
I ~ t ale Station July Aug . Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb . Mar. April May
Yearl y
J une Total
I N.C.
N.D.
OhiO
Raleigh
Bismarck . .
CinclM31j
0
34
0
o
28
o
21
222
39
164
577
208
450
1083
558
716
1463
862
725
1708
915
616
1442
790
487
1203
642
180
645
294
34
329
96
o
117
6
3393
8851
44 10
Columbus . . 0 o 57 285 651 977 1032 902 760 396 136 15 5211
I Okla.
Ore.
Pa.
Tulsa .....
Portland
Philadelphia
a
25
0
o
28
o
18
114
60
158
335
297
522
597
620
787
735
965
893
825
1016
683
644
889
539
586
747
213
396
392
47
245
118
o
105
40
3860
4635
5144
Pittsburgh .. . 0 9 lOS 375 726 1063 11 19 1002 874 480 195 39 5987
I· R.I.
S.C.
S.D.
Providence ... ...
Columbia . . . .. .
Sioul< Falls
0
0
19
16
o
25
96
0
168
372
84
462
660
345
972
1023
577
1361
1110
570
1544
988
470
1285
868
357
1082
534
81
573
236
0
270
51
o
78
5954
2484
7839
Tenn. Nashville 0 o 30 158 495 732 778 644 512 189 40 o 3578
I VI.
Va.
Wash.
Burlington
Richmond . .
Seanle . . . . . .
28
0
50
65
o
47
207
36
129
539
214
329
891
495
543
1349
784
657
1513
815
738
1333
703
599
1187
546
577
714
219
396
353
53
242
90
o
117
8269
3865
4424
Spokane . . 9 25 168 493 879 1082 1231 980 834 531 288 135 6655
I W. Va.
Wise.
Wyo.
Charleston ...
Milwaukee
Cheyenne
0
43
28
o
47
37
63
174
219
254
471
543
591
876
909
865
1252
1085
880
1376
1212
770
1193
1042
648
1054
1026
300
642
702
96
372
428
9
135
150
4476
7635
7381
I Atla. Calgal)' 109 186 402 719 1110 1389 1575 1379 1268 798 477 291 9703
BC. Vancouver 81 87 219 456 657 787 862 723 676 501 310 156 5515
I Man.
N.B.
Nlld.
Winnipeg
SI. John
51. John's
38
109
186
71
102
180
322
246
342
683
527
651
1251
807
83 1
1757
11 94
11 13
2008
1370
1262
1719
1229
1170
1465
1097
11 87
8"
756
927
405
490
71 0
147
249
432
10679
82 19
8991
NS. Hali/all ...... . . . 58 51 180 457 71 0 1074 1213 11 22 1030 742 487 237 7361
I Onl. Toronto .. . .... .. 7 18 151 439 760 11 11 1233 1119 1013 616 298 62 6827
Co,. Montreat 9 43 165 521 882 1392 1566 1381 1175 684 316 69 8203
Sasks. Regina . . 7B 93 360 741 1284 1711 1965 1687 1473 8.. 409 201 10806
Adelaide. Australia . . . 2302
Melbourne, Australia . . 2675
I. Per1h, Australia . . . . .. .
Sidney. Australia ... . . .
1393
1318
I
11.5
I
ICONOM I CS Of INER(;Y RICOVERY
I
tem is80%. Find the total amount olgas saved during
the heating season .
Solution :
Since recirculated air is used. this application is a
E x C x (ETD)
Q = 676,500 Btulhr
N = 5.088 hours
Solution:
F = Q x N x (E TD)~
-'I
•I
heat recovery system which is independent of am- E = 0.80
bient conditions. In this case, (ETD). and (ETD) are C = 100,000 Btu Itherm
equal.
Degree days per month for Milwaukee from October
Therefore: 1 to May 1 are obtained from Table 13-1:
Example No.2
11a = 65°F - (6864/212) = 65°F - 32.38°F = 32.62°F
for the heating season Oct. 1 10 May 1.
I
The plant in Example No. 1 is located in Milwaukee.
The owner wants, as an alternate. to consider using I
-.
the exhaust heat from his paint drying oven to pre· (ETD) = (T. - to) = 200 - 0 = 200°F
heat make-up air being drawn into the plant. On a 0° F = 676,650 x 5,088 x 167.38
day it has been determined that the energy recovery 0.80 x 100,000 x 200
system recovers 676.650 Btu/hr. Determine the fuel = 36.016 therms/season
•I
savings. @ $O.I 2/therm = $4,322 per season
I. Table 13-4
ANALYSES OF TYPICAL COALS (14)
--'----'---- -
I Type Slate
Heating Value-Btu per Ib
As Rec'd Dry'
Anthracite Colorado 14,099 14.490
I Anthracite
Semianlhracite
Semianlhracite
Pennsylvania
Colorado
Pennsylvania
13,298
13,468
13, 156
13,682
14, 155
13,617
I
Semibiluminous Maryland 14,162 14,665
Semibilum inous Pennsylvania 14,279 14,800
Semibiluminous West Virginia 14.800 15,330
Bituminous Alabama 14, 141 14.602
I
,
Bituminous Colorado 10.143 12.472
Bituminous Illinois 11.741 12,746
Bituminous Indiana 11,218 12.508
Bituminous Iowa 10.019 11 ,678
Bituminous Kansas 12.242 12.884
Bituminous Kentucky 12,022 13.055
Bituminous Missouri 10,622 12,619
I Bituminous
Bituminous
Ohio
Oklahoma
12,247
11 .695
13,567
11,945
•I •
Bituminous Pennsylvania 13.699 14,178
Bituminous Tennessee 13.048 13.788
Bituminous Virginia 13,826 14,411
Bituminous West Virginia 14,105 14.521
Sub·bituminous Colorado 9,616 11 ,893
Sub·bituminous Washington 9,331 11 ,312
lignite North Dakota 7.069 11 ,038
lignite Texas 7.348 11 .084
I lignite Wyoming
' 14.000 Btu/lb is a good usable average .
7,783 11 .012
I
Table 13-5 Example NO.3
I Natural:
California ..... 1,045 104.500
trically at $0.03/kWhr and operates 16 hours/day, 5
days/week, 50 weeks/year. Find the dollar value of
the energy saved.
Kansas ......
I Oklahoma ....
Pennsylvania .
992
990
1,210
99,200
99.000
121.000 a = 676.650 Btu/hr
Solution:
I
I 13.1
ICONOMICS Of INIIGY I[COVII'
I
(ETD) - 200 - 0 - 200°F
(ETO). - 200 - 44.09 : 155.91 ' F
F "" 676,650 x 4,000 x 155.91
0.50 x 3,413 x 200
"" 1,236.408 kWhr/year
Q = 168,000 Btu/hr
Solution:
,
5,088 hours during the healing season. What will be
saved by installing an energy recovery system which
recovers 854 ,000 Bluthr at QOF ambient? @ $0.421gal = $ 1,939 per year
-.
that for every 1 Btu saved by a heat recovery system,
October 279 31
a savings of 1 Btu/.B = 1.25 Btu of raw fuel can be
November 705 30 saved. If, however, the system is old and not properly
December 1051 31 maintained and has an efficiency of 60%, the 1 Btu of
January 1150 31
•
recovered heat now becomes 1 Btu/.6 = 1.67 Btu of
February 1000 28 raw fuel saved.
March 868 31
April 489 30 The best return on an energy recovery system can be
realized when the heat is obtained from a process.
•
Total 5542 212
Most processes can operate on a year round basis
5542/212 : 26.14' F and are independent of the heating season. If, for
65°F - 26. 14°F = 38 .86°F "" 11 ~ for the season e)(ampte, a process operates 24 hrs per day, 365
•I
(ETO) - 70° - 0 ~ 70°F days per year, there is a total of 8,760 hours of poten-
"" 70° - 38.86° = 31 .14°F tial recoverable energy.
= 18,279 gals/year
@ $0.42 gal = $7,677 per year
Example No. 5
D MAKING A SIMPLE
CAPITAL INVESTMENT
ANALYSIS
The flue gas from the boiler in Example NO. 4 is
450°F. The c linic uses large volumes of hot water. In Once the engi neer has determined the dollar value of
I
Chicago the average winter tap water temperature is fuet saved by the heat recovery system, he is ready to
50°F. By installing an energy recovery device in the
stack of the boiler, hot water can be heated during the
make an investment evaluation. As pointed out ear-
lier, however, there is more to energy conservation I
heating season recovering an additional 168,000 than just dollars of fuel cost. Some other facts to b&
Btu/hr. The hot water is used 16 hrs/day, 6 days/ considered are:
week. What will the additional fuel savings be by the
installation of the energy recovery device?
1. By reducing the use of a lower cost fue t, it is
often possible to eliminate the need to purchase
.1
I
13.8
I
I SECTION XIII
I
I
• example, a midwest gas company has a con-
tract which charges a premium of 20¢fMCF for
gas used beyond the contract base rate.
Certainly there are other factors that can and should
be considered. These few have been suggested so
that others might be thoug ht of to be added to the list.
depreciation @ 10% of
Capital Cost
Net annual Savings
before income taxes
Less income taxes
@ 50% of savings
- 1.600.
$10.779.
-5,389.
Two popular methods used to make a capital invest- Net annual savings
after income taxes $5 ,390.
I ment analysis are:
1. Simple pay back.
2. Simple rate of return.
c. Return on Investment
Net Annual Savings 5,390 = 33.6%
Capital Cost = 16.000
I Example No. 6
An energy recovery system is to be installed in Mil-
$0.35/gal is the fuel used in the boiler.
Solution:
waukee , Wisconsin, on a die casting operation where a. Savings
I
13.9
I
[CONOM I C.S Of [N[RGY R[COV[RY I
= 74,581 gals/year@$0.35/gal
= $26,103/year
b. Investment Analysis
Capital Cost
Savings
Less Property Tax
$ 16,000.
$26,103. /year
Less Property Tax @
1V2% of capital cost
Less Straight Line
Depreciation @ 6.6% of
capital cost
Net Annual Savings
- 465.
'- 2.046.
-'I
@ 1 V2% of capital cost
Less Straight Line
Depreciation @ 10%
- 240. Before Income Taxes
Less Income Taxes @
50% of Savings
$24,864.
- 12,432.
I
Net Annual Savings
of Capital Cost
Net Annual Savings
Before Income Taxes
- 1.600.
$24,263.
After Income Taxes
c. Return on Investment
$12,432.
I
Less Income Taxes
= 40 1%
@ 50% of capital cost
Net Annual Savings
- 12, 132.
Net Annual Savings = $12,432
Capital Cost
Pay Back =
31,000 . I
After Income Taxes $12, 131.
•
F = Q XN
E x C comparison of alternalive building systems."
1,000,000 x 8.760 An Executive Order directs federal agencies to can·
= 0.80 x 140.000 ::: 78.214 gals/year
sider in their building plans only those energy can·
@$0.35/gal ::: $27,3751year
.'I
servation improvements which are cost-effective
b. Investment Analysis based on a life-cycle cost approach. and further di-
Capital Cost $31,000. reels agencies to give the highest priority to the most
Savings $27.375. /year cost-effective projects.
n.10
I
I SEc nON XIII
•I
a. Energy and fuel costs.
• Convert costs and savings occurring al different b. Water charges .
times to a common time. c. Sewer charges.
• Determine the cost-effectiveness of the alterna-
2. Annual Maintenance Costs
tives.
a. Maintenance contracts.
• Analyze the results for sensitivity to the initial b. General housekeeping costs .
assumptions .
c. Labor and material for replacing worn parts
Section XIV-·'Energy Recovery System tnvestment and filters.
I
I Table 13·6 CAPITAL RECOVERY FACTORS
I Years 3 1/ 2 4 1/2 6 8 10 12 15 20 25 30
2 0.52640 0.53400 0 .54544 0 .56077 0 .57619 0 .59170 0.61512 0.65455 0.69444 0.73478
I 4
6
8
.27225
. 18767
. 14548
.27874
.19388
. 15161
.28859
.20336
. 16104
.30 192
.2 1632
.17401
.31547
.22961
.18744
.32923
.24323
.20130
.35027
.26424
.22285
38629
.30071
.26061
.42344
.33882
.30040
.46163
.37839
.34 192
10 . 12024 .12638 . 13587 .14903 .16275 17698 .19925 .23852 .28007 .32346
I 12
14
0. 10348
.09157
0. 10967
.09782
0.11928
.10758
0.13270
.12130
0. 14676
.13575
0. 16144
.15087
0.18448
. 17469
0.22526
.21689
0.26845
.26150
0.31 345
.30782
16 .08268 .08902 .09895 .11298 .12782 .1 4339 . 16795 .21144 .25724 .30458
I 18
20
.07582
.07036
.08224
.07688
.09236
087 18
.10670
.10185
. 12193
.11 746
. 13794
.13388
.16319
. 15976
.20781
.20536
.25459
.25292
.30269
.30159
25 0.06067 0.06744 0.07823 0.09368 0. 11 0 17 0.12750 0.15470 0.20212 0.25095 0 .30043
30 .05437 .06139 .07265 .08883 . 10608 .12414 .15230 .20085 .25031 .3001 1
I. 35
40
.05000
.04683
.05727
.05434
.06897
.06646
.08580
.08386
.1 0369
.10226
.12232
. I 2130
.15113
.15056
.20034
.20014
.25010
.25006
.30003
.30001
I
13.11
ECONOMICS OF ENERGY RECOVERY
,
g. Testing.
h. Waste disposal.
3 Operators - The annual wages of building en-
gineers and/or operators should nol be included as
part 01 maintenance, but entered as a separate cost
item.
3. Operating Costs
Since all energy recovery systems require two air-
streams, attention should be directed to energy
costs which are created by the systems. The impor-
tant determining factor for fan size and horsepower,
other than air quantity, is the system total pressu re.
-'I
Since fans normally operale continuously when a
building is occupied or the process is underway , the
I
2. Initial System Costs energy demand of air fan distribution systems is one
The first impact 01 an energy recovery system is the
initial cost of the system. A careful evaluation of all
of the major contributors to the total system annual
energy cost. Fan energy cost can be minimized by
reducing duct velocities and using recovery devices
I
cost variables entering into the system should be
made if maximum economy is to be achieved . The
designer has a great influence on these costs when
he specifies the duct system material, system operat-
with low static pressure losses: however, th is has a
direct beari ng on the system fi rst cost. Extra space
might be required by the enlarged ductwork through-
I
out the building and larger equ ipment rooms might
ing pressure, duct size and complexity, fan horse-
powers, the type of energy recovery device , and de-
termines the space requirements for ductwork and all
also be required. It is extremely important for the de-
signer to adequately investigate and calculate the I
impact of operating costs versus system first cost.
apparatus. The SMACNA " HVAC Duct System De-
sign" manual contains valuable information on these
subjects.
For example. it has been computed that a con-
tinuously-operating HVAC system costs 1 cent
I
per cfm, per ¥4 inch stalic pressure, based on 3 cents
The amortization period of useful life for energy re-
covery devices will vary widely with the type of appli-
per kW cost of electrical energy. Therefore , a V4 inch
I
-.
increase in static pressure for a 100,000 cfm system
cation. The duct systems also could have a shorter would add $1 ,000.00 to the cost of operation for one
life expectancy than HVAC duct systems which are year at the 3cents per kW rate. Increasing the system
usually amortized the same as the buitding. operating pressure may add to first costs by changing
the class of duct construction required to contain a
In Table 13-6, data is given for capital recovery fac-
higher static pressu re.
tors based on years of useful life and the rate of return
or interest rate. The purpose of this table is to give a
factor which, when multiplied by the initial cost of a
Because energy prices are widely expected to in-
crease faster than general prices, provision for esca-
I
system or component thereof, will resu lt in an equiva- lation of energy rates is to be included.
lent uniform annual cost for the period of years cho-
sen. More detaited tables are found at the end of Sec-
l abor and material costs, and other non-energy
costs are assumed to increase in accordance with
I
tion XIV. general price increases.
I
•I
•
• 1
I
B.12
IJ
I
I.
SECTION XIV
ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEM INVESTMENT ANALYSIS
I
I All of tHe text and tables In this section and some of
the text In tfle preceeding section was taken from
Despite their shortcomings. the partial techniques of
analysis may serve a useful purpose. They can pro-
Chapter 3 of the National Bureau of Standards vide a firstleve! measure of profitability which is, rela-
1. Payback Method
It is important that only those costs and benefits
I which are attributable to an investment be included in
the analysis 01 that investment. For example , if a
The payback (also known as the payout or payoff)
method determines the number of years required for
the invested capital to be offset by resulting benefits.
ptant is required by mandate to add a pollution control
apparatus, the decision 10 add an energy recovery The required number of years is termed the payback,
I though it may be undertaken joinlly for convenience. ing net change in incoming cash flow, or, in the case
of a cost·reduci ng investment like energy recovery.
as the reduction in net outgoing cash flow.
I PARTIAL METHODS
The payback period is usually calculated as follows:
A
Payback Period (PP) = Equation 14 1 w
First Cost
I OF EVALUATION Yearly Benefits - Yearly Costs
I
14 . •
j
[N[RGY Rl C OV[RY SYST[M I NV[STM[NT ANALYS IS I
Table 14·1 POTENTIAL COSTS TO CONSIDER IN INVESTING IN ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEMS (21)
Type of costs
.'I
ments A and B, presented in Table 14-2. Using the of inaccurate measures of benefits and costs to cal-
undiscounted payback method, a firm would prefer culalethe payback period , and, hence, determination
Investment A, which has a payback period 011 .7yr, to of an incorrect payback period. This problem is illus-
Investment B, which has a payback of 2.2 yr. Yet. trated by the example of two alternative investments
14.2 ,
I SECTI ON XIV
I Yearly benefits
Total
present
First Payback value
benefitsa
I Investment
Investment A
Cost Year 1
$0
period
I
shown in Table 14-3. Payback analysis using undis- b. Advantages
I counted values would resu lt in indifference between
Investments C and D. They both have a payback of 2
yr, and yield total benefits, undiscounled, of $25,000.
Despite its limitations. the payback period has advan-
tages in that it may provide useful information for
But because Investment 0 yields more benefits to- evaluating an investment. There are several situa-
I ward the begi nning than Investment C, and thereby
allows the investor to realize a larger return on earn-
tions in which the payback method might be particu-
larly appropriate:
ings . Investment 0 would be the preferred choice. In
1. A rapid payback may be a prime criterion for
I present value terms , with an opportunity cost of 10
percent , Investment C would yield total benefits of
judging an investment when fi nancial resources
are available to the investor for only a short
$20.697. and Investment D. $21 .524. period of lime.
I
I Table 14-3 AN ILLUSTRATION THAT THE UNOISCOUNTEO PAYBACK
METHOD CAN RESULT IN INACCURATE MEASURES (21 )
I Yearly benefits
Total
present
First Payback value
I Investment Cost Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 period benefitsa
I
14.1
lNEIlGY Il lC O V lllY SYS T EM INVlSTMlNT ANALYSIS I
c. More Accurate Method
The shortcomi ngs that resul t from failure to discount
Original Book Value = $15,000
Expected life = 10 yr
Annual Depreciation, $15 000
.1
costs and the omissio n of important cost items can be
overcome simply by using a more accu rate calcula-
tion of payback. Essentially what is desired is to find
using a straight-line method = '10 = $1,500
I
the number 01 years, R. for which the value of the Yearly Operation. Maintenance
following expression is equal to zero: and Repair Cost = $200
Expected Annual Fuel Oil Savings = $5000
I
R Solution:
C = ~
j == 1
Equation 14-2
RO I = $5000 - ($1500
$15,000
+ $200)
x 1
00 I
:: 0.22 x 100 = 22 percent
where
C = Initial investment cost, a. Di sadvantages
I
Bj = Benefits in year j ,
The return on investment method is subject 10 the fol-
Pi
R
'=
:=
Costs in year j,
Break-even number of years, and
lowing principal disadvantages. and. therefore , is not
recommended as a sale criterion for investment de-
I
cisions:
i := Discount rate.
Where yearly net benefits are uneven , an iterative
1. like the payback method , this method does not
take into consideration the timing of cash ftows.
I
•
process can be used to determine the solution . If, on
and thereby may incorrectly state the economic
the other hand, yearly net benefits are expected to be
efficiency of projects .
••
about uniform, the following equation can be used to
facilitate the calculation: 2. The calculation is based on an accounting con·
cept, original book value, which is subject to the
log
R = -:-.L-...=.
\1 + iZ) Equation 14-3 peculi arities of the firm 's accounting practices,
and which generally does not include all costs.
'
log (1 + i) The method , therefore, results in only a rough
where
R = Break-even number years.
approximation of an investment's value.
b. Advantages
I
M =
e =
=
Yearly net benefits,
Initial investment cost , and
Discount rate.
Equation 14-4
ALTERNAnVES I
Return on Investment (ROI) There are additional methods of financial analysis
I
:=
Average Annual Net Benefits 100 which avoid the problems of the partial methods by
Original Book Value x . taking into account total costs and benefits over the
.-I
lile of the investment and the time 01 cash flows by
Example No. 2
discounting. Methods 01 this type are the present
Find the ROI for an investment in an energ y recovery value 01 net benefits method. the annual net benefits
system: method, the benefit /cost ratio method, and the tn-
14.4
I
I SlCTI ON XIV
I 1. Discounting of Costs
Investment in energy recovery system s, like many
as alternative productive investments are possible.
Cash flows occuring at different times can be con-
capital investments, wilt generally require a number verted to a common basis, i.e .. discounted, by means
•
to $1.47 in 5 years and would about double in 9 years. rate of discount or interest) . In the sample tables pro-
Deferral of the receipt of $1 .00 for 5 years would vided, factors are calcu lated for 50 to 100 interest
mean that the earnings on it over the interim 5 years periods (which could be years, months , or any other
•I
would not be realized, and it would be worth less than time interval deSired) , and for selected discount rates
$1.00 received today. It would , in tacl, be equivalent ranging from 6 to 25 percent per period. Factor tables
to receivi ng only $0.68 today. Therefore, other things covering other time periods and interest rates are
equal, a firm will prefer early income and deferred ex- available in most engineering economics textbooks.
I I ~l \.,' \i
I." .." I~ ,,, f",,( 1
I (I , \. , \1
I
\\ h ~r<:
1'r ••
_. I.'.·· .. ", .,,", " f ",,,,,,.,
I""",· 'U'" "f "",,,,". "'p'nal.." , ,,, f'., Ihr ,·"d " I \ 1.,·,;",1. " I' IU"I" ~ I a"
",I,· ..··, ,.r I.
' '''' ...... ·"u"' .. r "" .., .. ·1 (~I~ I" (~n ... . Ih_ "1'1~'''''''''' . ,,'1 "j .-a l,i'a l
I
14.5
I
ENERGY RECOVER.Y SYSTEM INVESTMENT ANALYSIS
I
To find the comparable value of a given sum of
money if it were received (or disbursed) at a different
time, the appropriate equation from Table 14-4 may
be used, or the corresponding discount faclor may be
multiplied by the given sum. $500 (1 +
Solution:
Annual Payment Equivalent -= $500 (USF) i = 10%,
N = 5 years
I
K; ",I (O r '·...· 1 u'
hcal fI:C"'·""·
I
- 2
r;a. h 11.....· 1'311 N"
-'I
,. , ,
.- 10
I' r~.c tl! c'!"i "J I~" '
4 = S 2 .( ~1O
r:.CA. 15'1 . 2
~car-I (LX Ir . IS'";.
-.
$2.UIJU
= $2.(,.1·1 III ,u r, )
= SZ/IOII (1.:122 1 fO 1'J<l3f
=S:)2j
I
I'u,d,.,f and ; n. t~ II . 1i "" ,,( ,- , , 10 1'= S ~ U.u(JlI I1) I '" 120,1.1(/0 (l'l·I' . I ;;~;. ' 0
r~ r u l ,..r O! w
uH ,)f l'""lnr l",,' ,1" ... "" "", ,. 1'= S.; .f "~ I I:-- I ·""
. 1 5~. , ,,' 1= $5.00U 1";1'\\ . 15':'r. ,
~ -
'0 = 15 .fW~1
=$ 1.:1 UI
(11)\("'0\ "'ar) (I CU . 15'1. '0
' ear' )
= $.:;. IWH I I(l.!\(,'}(,/
\0. 1'}');II
I
15.000 = SH("
, " = $2.t)h(1 iSI'\\'. 15').7 vr) 1' =S2 .\ HHII~ I · ""· . 15-:;. :- I
r-=-- I
$2. Uoo
7
" - '0 = S2.I)I <O 1U.3j'5"1
= $75 2
~U r-I tUtU . 15<;:.
"'a r,)
= ${ oOO (0.;175') I(U.I 9'13.
=$ 150
'0
I
S. h· .~c vo h,,, " f hu t ,.,·tWe ll ,. , , $7.000 " = S7.0UU lS I'\\'. 1 5~ . A= S7.UOO (L':'I'. IS"', '0
.-I
IQ
.'lui l""enl. "nd nf I (I )'ca'~ ~ rf Ha , . )
.....'."..l
,-I
= $7.QIlU IO.24 i2 ) =$7.000 (U.(WJ:"lf
= $ 1.7.10 .. nl-.'j
Annu.1 f" e l ,", i " ~,. lh'u", , ,, ~ S7.000 S7.000 1'= $7.0U(1IU I' W. 1 ~)?< . .4 = S7.UUO I II
"u r ha"!I" ;" f", ut ~ fuel
f'r i ~e~ l·
I $i
, t l()
2 t 1'0 t
S7 lOO , rl
= $7.0u0 (5.0 10)
'"
,
= S35. 1:l3
14.6
I S[CnON XIV
•I
be calcu lated in annual cost terms, based on 5 years
reductions in cash outflows (as would result from
for A and 10 years for B, and the annual benefits and
substitution of recovered waste heat for newly-
costs can then be used to calculate the present value
generated heat). of benefits and costs for the desired number of years
The equation forcalculaling the net present value, or of service (for example, 12 years of service for both
net benefits, is as follows: systems). This avoids the need to find a common
multiple of system life.
(3) If either system will be used for only a limited
I where
period of time, which is less than a common multiple
of the economic lives of the alternatives, the esti-
mated cash flows associated with each system over
I. analyzed ,
S j = Energy cost savings in year j,
R j = Revenue from sale of excess
energy received in year j,
nated use. For example, the problem might be to
choose between heat exchanger A, with its economic
life of 5 years, and heat exchanger B, with its
economic life of 10 years, where intended use of
I
14.7
I
ENE R GY RECOV E RY SYST E M INVEST M EN T ANALYS I S I
either would be only 7 years due to expected closure
of the plant at the beginning of the eighth year. Sys-
tem A would require one replacement because its
expected life is only 5 years and it is needed 7 years .
The remaining value of the replacement after 2 years
Table 14·6 ILLUSTRATION OF NET PRESENT
Investment
al!ern allves
VAL UE METHOD (21)
First
cost
Expected
economiC
Annual
fu el
Net
pl esent
.-I
lil e savings value"
of use would be discounted to present value and
deducted from present value cost of the system. Simi-
larl y, an estimate would be requ ired of the value of
the remaining 3 years of life of system B, If removal
Pl an
Plan Y
x $20.000
12.000
6 years
to ye ars
$7.000
5.000
$12.847
16.256
I
-I
costs are prohibitive, or if there is no good resale " Based on a discount fate or to pefcent. an inveslmenlllofll"oo or 8 ye~.
aro::t the assumpt,on that the lull value or an~ fema'fU f"ig fie aflilf 8 yeafs can
market forthe eqU ipment. the remaining value of both be salvaged
systems at the end of 7 years shou ld be evaluated at
zero dollars. Th is holds true even though the equip-
ment could provide additional years of service if the
existing operation were continued. Plan Y is found to provide $3409 more in net benefits
than Plan X. The additional fuel savings from the
I
(4) An investment can also be evaluated on the basis larger recovery device is, therefore. not sufficient to
of a perpetual, or indefinite period of use by "capitaliz- justify its additional costs.
ing" renewal costs and expected benefits. Present
In the case where alternative investments are ex-
value benefits of an investment in perpetuity are cal-
culated by dividing the expected annual benefits by
the discount rate, Present val ue costs in perpetuity
pected to provide the same level of benefits . the net
present value method becomes equivalent to a net
present cost method , often referred 10 as life-cycle
I
are calculated by converting all costs other than first costing, or cost-effectiveness analysis. In this case.
costs to an annual equivalent, dividing by the dis-
count rate. and adding the amount 10 Ihe first cost.
Thus. if first costs were $5000; operation costs $1000
the most efficient alternative may be identified as the
one with the least present value of costs alone. This
I
approach is also often used when the benefit levels
yearly: and renewal costs S4000 every 5 years , the
presenl value capitalized cost of the above heat ex-
changer A in perpe tual service would be equal to
cannot be quantified.
• II
$5000 + ($1000 -:- i) + ($4000 (USF , i, 5 yr) -:- il . c. Disadvantages
The choice among these fou r approaches to measur- A feature of the net present value method which may
be a disadvantage in some applications is that, In
II
ing present value is often not critical 10 the outcome;
-I
the particu lar nature of the investment will generally focusing only on net benefits , it does not distingu ish
determine wh ich approach is used . For example. in between a project involving relatively large benefits
the case of a short-lived investment with unrecove ra- and costs, and one involvi ng much small er benefits
ble salvage, the third approach explained above and costs. as long as the two projects resu lt in equal
wou ld be preferred . net benefits. Th us a project req uiring $10,000 in
present value costs, and resulting in $11.000 in pre-
sent value benefits (i.e., $1000 in net benefits) will
yield the same net benefits as a project costing $1 000
b. Comparing Altern atives
The use of the net present value method to compare
and resulting in $2000 in total benefits (again $1000
in net benefits). A way to avoid this problem is to
I
alternative investments in energy recovery equip- compute benefit-to-cost ratios for further evaluation
ment is illustrated in Table 14-6. It is assumed that the
investment choice is between Plan X, the addition of
of the projects. Choices will be most eHicient jf inde-
pendent projects are chosen in the order of their I
a large energy recovery device designed to preheat benefit-cost ratios , starting with the highest and work·
combustion air to a high temperatu re. and Plan V, the
addition of a smaller device capable of a lesser
amount of preheating but sized to avoid the replace-
ing down unti l the budget is exhausted . (Later in this
section under the heading of "Application of Evalua-
tion Methods to Different Kinds of Decisions", there is
-
.'I
ment of fans, etc., on the existi ng equipment. II is a discussion of the appropriateness of each evalua-
further assumed that Plan Y has longer expected tion method to different decisions and suggests ways
economic life due to lower temperatures. to avoid potential problems.)
14.8
I
I S£c.nON XIV
I _ Another possible disadvantage of the net present Si = Energy cost savings in year i,
i.
•I
value method is that the results are quite sensitive to Ri = Revenue received in year
the discount rate, and failure to selecllhe appropriate I; = Invest ment costs in year i,
rate may alter or even reverse the efficiency ranking Vi = Salvage value in year i,
of the alternatives. For example, with too Iowa rate M; = Mai ntenance and repair costs in year i,
~
an alternative with benefits spread far info the future
(I i)j = Single present value discount formula.
may unjustifiably appear more profitable than an al·
ternative whose benefits are more quickly realized and
but of lower amount in undiscounted terms. Since
(1 +i)n+ i)n-1 = Uniform
i( l .
compound amount formula.
I changing the discount rate can change the outcome
of the evaluation , the rale used should be considered
carefully.
a. Different Approaches
I rates to test for sensitivity of the outcome to the (2) If the use of the investment alternatives is re-
.-
choice of rates. quired for only a limited time, it is necessary 10 calcu-
late costs based on the planned investment period,
d. Advantage estimating the salvage value of each alternative at
The net present value method has the advantage of the planned time of terminated use. (This is similar to
measuring the net effect of an investment over its life, th e third approach described under Net Present
Value.)
I taking into account the opportunity cost of capital.
The method is particularly useful for determining the
efficient scale or size of an investment project.
With the cash flows of the preceding example (de-
scribed in Table 14-6) and the assumption that either
plan will be used for an indefinite period of time , the
•I
Y to be the most efficient choice; as did the present
Benefits) Method value example.
This method takes essentially the same form as the
net present value method. The difference is that all
b. Disadvantage
costs and benefit s of the net annual benefits method
are converted to a uniform annual basis instead of to This method, like the most present value method, has
present value. The equation to be used is: the disadvantage of failing to distinguish between
projects of unequal magnitudes which yield equal net
I (1
i(1+ i)n
+ i)h 1
c. Advantage
I.
where A possible advantage of the net annual value
A = Annual value of net benefits, method, as compared with the net present value
n = Number of time intervals over which the in- method , is that the concept of an equivalent annual
vesment is analyzed , amount may be easier to understand than the con-
I
• 14.9
j
ENERGY RECOVE R Y SYSTE M INVEST M ENT ANALYSIS
I
cept of a present equivalent of all cash flows over the
period of analysis.
ecl. This problem can be avoided by applying the
benefit/cost ratio method to evaluate the efficiency of
_I
4. Benefit/Cost Ratio Method
The benefit/cost ratio method expresses benefits as
a proportion of costs, where benefits and costs are
discounted to either a present value or an annual
increments of an investment, rather than the total in-
vestment.
I
A disadvantage of the benefit/cosl ratio method is
that the ralio is influenced by the decision as to
whether an item is classified as a cost or as a dis-
benefit, i.e. , whether it appears in the numerator or
denominator of the ratio. For many cost or benefit
Solution:
To do this, the net present value (NPV) for various i
values (selected by visual inspection) is calculated :
NPV 25% ~ ($3000) (3.57 1) - $10 ,000
~ $10,713 - $10,000
,
items, this is simply an arbitrary decision, but one
which can lead to confusion as to the real efficiency of
a project.
~ $713
NPV 30% ~ ($3000) (3.092) - $10 ,000
~ $9276 - $10 ,000
~ -$724
II
Another problem wi th the benefit/cost ratio method is
that it is subject to be misapplied in determining the
efficient scale of a given project. It pays to expand a
For i = 25 percent, the net present value is positive;
for i = 30 percent, the net present value is negative. I
project up to the point that the ratio for the last incre- Thus , for some discount rate between 25 and 30 per·
ment of the investment is equal to 1.0, assuming no
alternative investment is available with a higher ratio.
Because the benefit/cost ratio for the overall invest-
cent, present value benefits are equated to present
value costs. To find the rate more exactly, without the
benefit of a complete set of discount tables , one may
I
.'I
ment declines as the investment is expanded to- interpolate between the two rates as follows:
wards the most efficient level. a smaller less efficient . $713
size of a project may have a higher ratio for the total , ~ 0.25 + 0.05 $713 _ (- $724)
investment than a larger more efficiently sized proj- = 0.275, or 27.5 percent
14. 10 ,
I SECTION XIV
I
I
- To decide whether or not to undertake this invest-
ment, it would be necessary for the firm to compare
the expected rate of return of 27.5 percent with its
minimum attractive rale of return.
a. Advantage
important element in the economic evaluation of in-
vestment in energy recovery systems .
If, for example, an investment results in increased
taxable revenue. the effective value of the additional
revenue to the firm is reduced by taxation . Over the
life of an investment, the effective present value of
I Use of this method has th e advantage of generally
resulting in conclusions consistent with the three
after-tax revenue (R) can be calculated as foll ows:
Equation 14-8
other comprehensive methods discussed in this sec-
I tion .
R= I
" R,· (1 - t,·)
j~l (1 + i)i '
b. Disadvantages where
I pear less efficient than the smaller. However, addi- The present value of after-tax cost-savings (C) from
.-
tional investment in the larger project may none-the- an investment can be calculated as follows:
less yield a positive rate of return in excess of the Equation 14-9
minimum attractive rate of return. This problem,
which is comparable to the problem which was de-
scribed for the benefiUcost method, can be avoided ,.,
by analyzing incremental changes in an investment. where
I A third problem is that the rate of return may be
somewhat more cumbersome to calculate than the
Ci = the cost savi ngs from the investment in yearj,
ai = that percentage of the cost savings which
other methods. were deductible from taxable revenue, and
•I
TO CONSIDER fini ng C, C j • and aj in terms of " costs" rather than
" cost savings. "
IN INVESTMENT
An economic analysis of investment in energy recov-
ANALYSIS
ery systems might involve each of these three tax
effects. For instance, system equipment costs may
give rise to tax deductions in terms of depreciation
1. Treatment of Income Taxes allowances andl or investment tax credits; savings in
fuel costs wi ll reduce deductions from taxable income
I Income taxes can have a profound impact on op-
timum investment decisions. By changing the effec-
of cu rrent operating costs; and sale of excess heat or
I.
energy to other firm s will result in additional taxes on
tive values to the firm of the reven ues and costs as-
the revenue received,
sociated with an investment, taxes can reverse the
relative profitability of al terna tive projects as The following example compares the before-tax and
evaluated apart from taxes, and they can alter the after-tax annual net benefits from an investment in a
optimal size of investments. Taxes are, therefore, an recovery device, given the assumptions below,
I
I 14. 11
j
ENERGY R ECOVERY SYSTEM I NVESTMENT "NAlYSIS
Example No. 6
Investing Firm's Tax Rate. at the Marg in: 40%
investing firm can affect the timi ng of the tax deduc-
tion and thereby inftuence the effective amount of in-
_I
come tax payments. The choice ot a depreciation
Opportun ity Cost of Capital: 10% . after taxes
Source of Capital: Equity Funds
Method of Equip. Depreciation: Straight-line Method
method which yields higher depreciation allocations
in the early years will increase the present value of
I
First Cost of Recovery Device: $25,000 depreciation deductions, thereby decreasing the
Annual Maintenance Cost: $500
Expected Salvage Value in 10 yr: $0
present value of income tax payments and raising the
profi tability of the investment to the firm . I
Expected Annual Fuel Savings: $5000
Solution :
2. Inflation
For simplicity , changes in price were not considered
I
a. Benefits in the preceding illustrations of methods of evaluation
An nual Reductions in Fuel Costs.
Before Taxes
(minus)
" $5000
and treatment of taxes. However, price changes may
be very important in an investment analysis.
I
Annual Value of Tax Deductions
Lost = 0.40 ($5000)
(equals)
" 2000
a. Price Changes
To take price changes into account, it is usefu l to
I
distingu ish between two kinds of price changes. One
An nual Red uctions in Fuel Costs,
After Taxes
b. Costs:
= $3000 is a " nominal"· price change which results from
changes in the purchasing power of the dollar, i.e ..
I,
inflation or deflation. The amou nt of this nominal price
Annual Capital Cost of Equ ipment = change is indicated by the change in the general lever
$25, 000 (UCR ; 10%; 10 yr) " of prices as measured by price indices. I
-.
$25,000 (0.1628) " $4070
(plus) The other type of price change which can occur is a
Annual Maintenance Cost 500 change in ··rear · terms. This means that the price of a
(equals) given good or service rises proportionately more or
Total Annual Increases in Equipment and less than the change in the general purchasing power
Maintenance Costs, Before Taxes = $4570 01 the dollar, such that its price changes over time
(minus)
Annual Value of Tax Ded uctions of
relative to the prices of other goods and services. For
example, given that the general price index rose over I
Eq uipment and Maintenance Cost = a 5 year period from 1.00 to 1.30 , the price of a piece
0040 ($25 ,000/10 + $500)
(equals)
An nual Increase in Eq uipment and
" $ 1200 of equipment which also rose 30 percent over the
same period, would in effect remain constant in terms
of its price relative to prices in general ; Le. , its price
'I
would change in nominal terms but would remain
Maintenance Costs, After Taxes
c. Net Benefits: Before and After Taxes:
Net Benefits of Investment , Before
= $3370
constant in real terms.
I
b. Constant Increases
Taxes = ($5000 - $4570)
Net Benefits of Investment. After
Taxes = ($3000 - $3370)
" $ 430
" $ - 370
An approach often followed in investment analysi::; is
to assume that all costs and revenues inflate at the
II
same general rate , and that they therefore remain
In this case, before-tax evaluation of the investment
in the recovery device indicates a positive annual net
cost savings of $430. But the after-tax evaluation in-
constant in real terms. With th is assumption. renewal
costs and other fu tu re expenses and benefits are I
evaluated at present prices. If there is reason to
dicates a negative cost savings of $370 , which
means the investment would not be profitable .
Even though depreciation is not itself a cash flow, it
believe that certain items of costs or benefits wi ll not
infiate at the general rate, then their future values are
adjusted only for the estimated real change, i.e., the
I
affects the firm's cash flow through the deductions
from taxable income. By its choice of depreciation
methods (e.g., the declining balance method as op"
posed to the straight- line method of depreciation), an
effective change after taking into account the change
in the general price level. If. for example, oi l prices
were expected to rise at a rate of 6 percent a year, the
imputed real rise in oi l prices would be 3 percent, i.e., .-I
14.12
I
, SlCTION XIV
•
and even ly to inflation , but also o n the assumptions analysis. Among the key factors affecting the out-
that tax considerations and the source of investment come of evaluations of energy recovery systems are
funds do not importantly affect the outcome - two the followi ng:
assumptions which may be qu ite unrealistic for pri-
•I ·
1. the cost estimates for planning , pu rchasing, in-
vate investments. stall ing , and operating and maintaining the
energy recovery systems ;
c. Taxes 2. the additional costs imposed by the investment.
The real after-tax return to the firm may be substan- such as labor downtime and production loss:
tially changed by inflation , even if pre-tax investment 3. the future rate of real price escalation in energy
•I
receipts and costs are assumed fully and equally sources ;
responsive to inflation . Other things equal, inflation 4. the amount of usable energy recovered :
will tend to have a detrimental effect on an investment
5. the economic lives of system components, the
financed principall y by equity funds, i.e ., nonbor-
length of intended use of the system, the sal-
rowed funds. Among the reasons are the following :
vage va lues at termination ;
(1) tax deductions for depreciation are unresponsive
6. the discou nt rate used to convert future costs
to inflation ;
and benefits to a common time.
(2) term inal value of equipment is responsive to in-
•I
There will often be uncertainity as to the correct val-
tion of capital are unresponsive to inflation , such that
ues to use in evaluating an investment. Uncertainty ,
the present value of the deductions diminishes over-
which can be defined broadly as disparity between
time;
the predicted and the actual, encompasses two
(4) inflation in receipts tends to move a firm into a specific concepts: "'risk ," an event whose probability
higher tax bracket. of occurence can be predicted: and "uncertainty," an
event whose expected chance of occurence can not
d . Borrowed Funds be predicted.
I.
large proportion of borrowed funds it is possible that
the after-tax return to equity may be maintained , or Th ree general approaches are used to dealing with
even improved, other things equal, in the face of uncertainty (used in the broad sense): (1) probability
inflation due to the following factor: The real value of analysis, (2) sensitivity analysis, and (3) break-even
the debt charges (amortized principle and interest) to analysis.
I
I 14.13
ENERGY RECOVERY SYST E M INVESTMENT ANALYSI S
I
Probability analysis is generally used lor situations
for which the probability of an expected occurrence
lalion rate. is entered as an unknown. and the equa-
tion is solved for the break-even rate.
_I
can be estimated ; Le. , for evaluating risk. By multiply-
ing the probability that an event will occur by the re-
sulting doliar value if it does occur, it is possible to
I
express costs and benefits as "expected values ,'-
rather than simply as " point" estimates.
No difficulties
bilities Develops Cost
One kind of decision is whether to accept or reject a
particular investment project - where acceptance I
in install ation 20% $1500 $ 300 may mean implementation without further analysis or
No serious
difficulty
Serious difficulty
70%
10%
3000
7500
2100
750
designation of the project as potentially profitable and
worthy of further evaluation against other profitable
projects . A Simple accept/reject decision might be
I
made, for example, if there were only one kind and
TOTALS 100% $3150
Probability or expected value analysis, therefore,
size of energy recovery system feasible for a particu-
lar plant application. Any of the comprehensive
-1
provides a method 01 incorporating uncertainity into evaluation methods described in this section gener-
the investment evaluation in a quantitative way. It re-
quires , however, determination of probabilities.
ally could be used to determine if the expected be-
nefits (or cost savings) from the investment would
exceed the expected costs.
I
Sensitivity analysis can be used to assess the con-
sequences of assuming alternative values for the
significant variables in the analysis. By determining
the effect on the outcome of potential variation in a
b. Mutual Excl usive Projects
I
Another kind of decision is choosing among mutually
factor, the analyst identifies the degree of importance
of that estimate or assumption and can then seek
more information about it if desired. For example, the
exclusive projects, where any of them would be ex-
pected to yield positive net benefits. This is the kind of
I
•.1
profitability of a furnace recuperator might be tested choice which arises when doing one project pre-
for sensitivity to the expected utilization rate of the cludes doi ng the others. For example, it might be de-
furnace. termined that energy recovery would be desirable in
a particular furnace via either a heat wheel or a plate
Break-even analysis, a third technique for dealing
,
exchanger. Since only one method 01 energy recov-
with uncertainity, focuses on a Single key variable
ery would be used , a choice must be made between
which is regarded as uncertain, and calcu lates the
them.
minimum (or maximum) value of the variable which is
required to achieve a given outcome. For example. Determining the efficient scale or size of investment
one might solve for the rate of escalation in fuel prices in a given project is a special case of mutual exclu-
.1I
required for an investment in a heat exchanger to sions, in that choosing one size of a project usually
break even , other things given. To find the break- means rejecting the other possible sizes. The choice
even escalation rate, an equation is developed which of time for undertaking a single project, that is ,
equates capital and maintenance costs with fuel cost whether to begin it now or to delay it, is another spe-
savings. The " uncertain variable, " i.e., the fuel esca- cial case of mutual exclusion.
14.14
I"
I SECTI O N XIV
I To accept or rejec t a given project. Project A is accepted jf its level of profitability meets the
minimal acceptable level.
To choose between mutually exclusive projects. If Project A is accepted , Project 8 is rejected: if size 1 of
I perfectly mutually exclus ive: projects are seldom perfectly independent since capital usually musl be rat ioned and
manpower may be overlapping ; projects may be imperfect complements in that acceplance of one encourages accep-
tance of another, rather than complele prerequisites where acceptance of one project requires acceptance of another.
I ple, investment in energy recovery equ ipment may and 3, when the budget is fixed at $200,000.
I Project
Benefits{B)
($ thousands)
Costs(C) Project Project
(S thousands) $thousands ranking Ratio ranking
I. 2
3
200
140
120
80
80
60
2
3
1.67
1.75
2
1
I
I 14.15
I
.-I
ENl.ac;y al.COVl.ay SYSTEM I NVESTMENT -"N-"lYS I S
d. Prerequisite Project tions of the firm. The essenlial factor IS that all relev·
ant costs and benefits attributable to the investment
A fourth kind 01decision is determining the desirabi l· be included in the evaluation.
ity of a project when it is a prerequisite to the under·
taking of other projects. This type of decision may be e. Mandated Projects
particularly relevant to the evaluation of energy reo
The final entry in Table 14-7 does not involve a deci-
covery systems. in that investment in energy recov·
ery may in some cases be necessary to preserve the
overall operation of a plant. This situation might arise
sion. It is the case in which there is no decision to be
made because the investment project must be under-
I
in the face of severe curtailment of fuel allocations. taken by mandate , regardless of its profitability to the
Without some means of stretching available fuel
supplies. plants might have to reduce production
firm . Legislated requirements for specified levels
andlor types of pollution control investments are
examples. An important point 10 remember in this
I
levels and layoff workers. thereby causing subslan·
tial loss of revenue, without equal reductions in costs.
Alternatively, investment in energy recovery might be
necessary in order to enable desired expansion of
case is that other investments which are being consi-
dered. perhaps in conjunction with the required in·
vestment , should not be saddled with its costs and/or
I
benefits. For example. the decision to add an energy
production in the face 01 short supplies of fuel , or to
avoid costly changeover to substitute sources of
energy .
recovery system 10 a legally required pollution in-
cinerator; the investment evaluation should not lump
I
the costs and benefits of the two systems together.
If the project in Question is a prerequisite for other
aclivilies of the firm. the evaluation of the prerequisite
project should take into account the overall return ex·
I
pected not only from it, but also from the other ac·
tivities whose success depends upon it. Even jf the
project shows a very small or negative rate or return
E SUMMARY
I
when evaluated in terms of enabling other profitable Each of Ihe investment evaluation methods has its
activities to be undertaken . If the overall return to in·
vestment on the group of interdependent projects is
attractive. lunds should be allocated first to the pre·
particular advantages and disadvantages, and will be
a useful decision criterion in certain cases. For most
• I
decision problems, the net present value or the net
requisite project.
In most cases, any of the comprehensive evaluation
methods would be adequate to assess the impor'
annual value method. supplemented by benefiVcost
ralios or internal rates of return . will provide adequate
measures for economically efficient investment deci-
I
tance of a project that is prerequisite to other func- sions.
I
I
I
I
I
.'I
14.16
I
I SECTION XIV
I. Table 14-9
6 % COMPOUND INTEREST FACTORSa (21)
Table 14-10
8% COMPOUND INTEREST FACTORS (21)
I
I ,-._.,...... . ,.. "'f,!- 1">- "
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np
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f" ...
NO
r....'
FI./ 1'1..
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I •••, ,-
,
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I 1236
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1.=5
1.3381
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74ll
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3 H ll
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,1:740
l OW,,,
U.s..\<4-'
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t 7) 40
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1.0111000
D.5b07T
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08; ~ Z
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'" " 2,1539 ~, .1.963 14487 61 10
"
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" 2.0 122
2.132'>
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05] ""
M ) 511
;~ . 126 ;'<I
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1 ~810
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1.11111
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2-5 182
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2.9372
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21 1liZ
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2.Y118 '7 ' 4 .IllS .... ~'" Vl.21l 10.4 " "" """
3.425'1
37000
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mOl ~.
1129$
.1000b3
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33.750
OM'
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4$:22] .:!(IH O,S 70 (11.\;., bl ;(:If, 13 ·: 11 1.""" .1252 UII -IS 10?35
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I
I 14.17
j
I
.-I
ENERGY RECOVERY SYSTEM I NVESTMENT A.NA.lYS I S
-
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Zl , r.~ ~,
,
212.:n
z..s 477 " .eoolS
' ''~
~
1U57 "
""
~~ I%ZOO »U20
"" '1.IW
"
..
1510471
•
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... .•
11 1 _ .~ M oon! . It • .\I . , ~
~.--
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7~.eoos
11 7 _ _
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.OU I
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oo, ~
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'.00
,10 1 30
100 L'16
,100»
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1 1 8'lO~
Il bJloW
I _..w,
9.119
.~
991S
,
9....1 •
•
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•
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"
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I ztLa
lru.oz
,767(1'1 1
14IlOQla
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.= ••"
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• JOI .... 1~ OW .00(3)
'00" JO)U I ~
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4110 ,)1111
lIP/ 7. 70
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••
00" .000 13
~.
'00.
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'00.
. l1li3.107
• • HIO
I Z:oe.~
...-
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•""
.. I
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. IroDS 20<1'.000 ~.'I'IS
I. Table 14-13
15% COMPOUND INT EREST FACTORS (21)
Table 14-14
20% COMPOUND INTEREST FACTORS (21)
I
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I 14.19
I
SECTION XV .-I
AREAS OF APPLICATION
.'I
Virtually every HVAC application presents an oppor-
limitless. tunity. Prime examples are found in the restaurantl
Opportunities for air-to-air energy recovery occur in kitchen areas and also laundry areas of commercial
every sector. The discussion to follow categorizes structures.
15.1
I
I Slc.TION xv
I •
I
c INSTITUTIONAL Lower temperature applications would include the
tempering or preheating of make-up water from the
waste heat in the airstreams from electrical trans -
former and mechanical equipment rooms.
This area also provides excellent application oppor- Fluid-to-air applications occur everywhere water is
tunities. This is because of the high venti lation air re- used in cooling a process . An example is the hot oil
I
IS.2
I j
AlllA Of Arl'lICATION I
be made . Mandatory regulations such as new can·
struction building " energy budgets" which are part of
Ihe mandated performance standards in the Federal
1930's because people were not familiar with its ben·
efits. the energy recovery industry must educate the
public to where "energy recovery" (and its benefits)
• I
" Energy Conservation Standards for New Buildings
Act of 1976" (Title III of PL 94·385) will cause energy
recovery systems to be designed into the more
becomes a household word. Th en the first cost
economics factor will become less important. as the
on·going cost benefits (savings) will accelerate the
I
energy efficient new buildings . Similar to the resis· sales of systems.
lance mel by the air·conditioning industry in the I
TABLE 15-1 APPLICATIONS OF ENERGY RECOVERY I
ComforHo·Comfort Process·to·Comfort Process·to·Process
Hospitals
Hotels
Kitchens
Laundries
Heat Treating
General Drying
I
Laboratories Food Drying Milk Drying
Schools
Plants
Bake Ovens
Gen . Drying Ovens
Grain Orying
Foundries
I
Restauranls Print Presses Paint Baking
Recreational Facilities
(swimming pools)
Annealing Furnaces Coffee Orying
I
Animal Care Facilities Print Presses
Paint Booths Malt Processing
Curing Operations
Pulp & Paper Industry
I
• I
I
I
I
I
I
I
.',
IS.l
,
I
I.
SECTION XVI
MAINTENANCE AND FIELD TESTING
I
I The performance of any energy recovery device,
once it is selected and the lolal system is properly
designed for a particular application. is based on a
3 . Duct System
a) Verify that all outside air intake, return air and
exhaust air d ampers are operable.
I A SYSTEM
START-UP
e) Inspect coils, energy recovery devices, duct
heaters, and terminals for leakage at duct con-
nections and piping penetrations.
f) Confirm locations for Pitot tube traverse mea-
I Prior to the start of the testing and adjusting proce-
dures for the lotal energy recovery system , including
surements and accessibility for measurements
in general.
the related process or HVAC systems, all equi pment g) Confirm openings in walls above ceilings for air
I a) Follow the fan check list generally . b) Confirm provisions in piping for fl ow and temp-
I.
b) In addition inspect the air flow pattern from the erature measurements.
outside air intake to the fan discharge. c) Confirm open position of water valves. Vent as
c) Investigate air intake provisions to insure an necessary.
adequate air supply on fan start. d) Inspect for excess air leakage from tube sheet
d) Confirm installation of filter media. at tubes.
I
16.1
I
MAINTlNANCE A ND r l EL D TE S TING I
e) Inspect return bends and tubes for damage.
f) Confirm that piping is connected properly for
counter or parallel flow heat transfer.
d. Mounting: Most wheels can be mounted in
either the horizontal or vertical plane. However,
when the exchanger is mounted horizontally,
• I
7. Piping System
a) Confirm that the system has been hydrostatic'
insu re that the manufacturer is aware of the fact
so that thrust bearings and casing support are
properly located.
I
ally tested , filled. flushed, refilled and vented
as required .
b) Confirm that strainers have been cleaned.
c) Inspect pressure reducing valve operation for
The performance of any heat exchanger is measured
by its effectiveness, the ratio of the actual rate of heat
transfer to the maximum possible rate. The total
I
both system values and makeup valves. heat rotary wheel exchanger transfers enthalpy, the
d) Confirm that all manual valves are in the open
position, and all automatic valves in the proper
sum of sens ible and latent heat, rather than sensible
heat alone. Sensible heat exchanged may be deter-
I
position . mined from measurement of flow rates and the differ-
e) Inspect the water level in the expansion tank.
f) Confirm accessibility into ceilings and walls for
ence between entering and leaving dry bulb tempera·
tures, whereas , the enthalpy, or total heat, ex· I
adjustment of balancing valves and access to changed requ ires measu rement of flow rates and the
flow meters . entering and leaving dry bu lb temperatures and mois-
ture contents. The di lferences of these psychromet-
ric values allows the determination of the effective-
I
8 PERFORMANCE
TESTING
ness of an enthalpy exchanger on both the sensible
and latent heat basis. I
The following guide on performance testing is
1. General Considerations
based on a total heat rotary wheel exchanger,
which is probably the most comptex to test. The
principles would apply to almost all of the other
a) Prior to any testing, the system should be I
checked as outlined above. The faces of the
heat exchangers.
In all cases, manufacturer s installation and operat-
wheel must be clean and undamaged. The gap
between the wheel and air seals should be as • I
ing manuals shoufd be consulted prior to system recommended by the manufacturer.
start· up, but in general. there are four key fac tors to
consider before a heat wheel is installed:
a. Drive Access: Take care to install the wheel
b) If the unit is equipped with an adjustable speed
drive system and is at a reduced speed phase
of operation , the controls should be repro-
I
such thai service personnel have access to tile gram med to bring the exchanger wheel to full
drive motor. Motor location varies widely by
manufacturer; the majority have drive motors
speed.
c) Stable inlet and exhaust conditions must be
I
located in the wheel casing but access can be maintained throughout the tesl.
through the face of the unit or througl1 the side
panels. d) Psychrometric measurements of both the sup-
ply and exhaust air streams are to be taken at
I
b. Wheel Access: Good design practice should the enterin g and leavi ng sides of the ex-
allow for Ille possibility of wheel replacement.
Since designs vary widely , consult individual
manufacturers for access recommendations ,
changer.
e.) The volumetric flow rates of both air streams
I
but side access of 112 wheel diameter is a good must be accurately determined.
rule to follow. Additionally, access to both wheel
faces will al low the exchanger to be periodical ly
f) Measurements should be taken at points suffi-
ciently remote from the exchanger to preclude
I
cleaned in accordance witl1 tl1e manufacturer's the possibility of temperature, moisture and
recommendations.
c. Fan Replacement: Fans can be located on
flow stratification. If stratification is suspected,
additional measurements should be made at al· I
either the entering or leaving sides of the wheel, ternate locations.
but optimum design would place both the sup-
ply and exhaust fans drawing air throug h the
wheel.
g) Duct work betwee n the test sites and the unit
must be airtight to prevent leakage from altering
the composition of the measured stream.
.',
16,2
,
I SEcnON XVI
l
I • h) There must be no air modification devices be-
tween the points where readings are laken and
whose temperature is at or slightly above the
wet bulb temperature.
the exchanger to assure that the psychrometric 9. Dry and wet bulb the rmometer readings
I conditions measured are identical to those at
the unit.
shou ld be taken simultaneously when the wet
bulb temperature reaches its minimum value.
10. If possible, si multaneous psychrometric read-
I 2. Psychrometric Readings
Procedures for measurement of air temperature and
ings should be taken at the inlet and outlet to
the dehumidifier of each air stream.
moisture content have been described in the "Pro-
I ambient condition.
4. In most operating situations , using a mercury
in glass thermometer , ve locity corrections
C. Low Dew Point Measurements
I
I 16.3
I
.-I
M A INT [ NAN C [ AND fIELD T ESTI N G
'I
dures. Standard primary systems provide accuracy
only when air flow is uniform, and within given veloc- I
SImI>' A.,
Inlet
• F w
ity ranges. Only measurements determined within
the framework of an established test code can be
used with confidence. Values gained from secondary I
instruments when the characteristics of the airsteam
are unknown, non-uniform. or inconsistent with the
Figure 16-1 DEW POINT CUP (5) range of the instrument can be used only on a com-
parative basis. I
6. Chilllhe cup slowly by adding small amounts of
crushed dry ice while stirring the acetone vigor-
ously with the thermometer. The rate of cooling
shall be decreased for low dew points.
The static pressure of each air circuit is to be deter-
mined at the entering and leaving sides of the recov-
ery unit. The static pressure drop across the wheel is
the difference in static pressures at the entering and
leaving sides. This difference can be both measured
and calculated. Some units are shipped with differen-
• I
I
7. The polished surface of cup must be well
lighted. The temperature at which the first sign tial pressure gauges. These measured values should
match the differences in individual absolute readings.
of dew or mist appears is the dew poinllemper-
ature.
B. A positive dewpoinl determination is made
Using the same methods, the differential between the
supply air entering the unit and the exhaust air leav-
I
ing must be determined .
when dew or frost can be made to disappear
and reappear with slight fluctuations in the
temperature of the cup.
4. Wheel Rotation I
The wheel rotalion is to be observed and timed. The
9. There must be assurance that the source of the
dew orlros! induced on Ihedew cup is moisture.
Other condensible vapors in an air stream may
rotational speed is recorded in units of revolutions per
minute . I
have dewpoinls higher than that of moisture 5. Transfer Ratio and Effectiveness
and their dew points must be differentiated from
the moisture dewpoint.
The Transfer Ratio is the ratio of the measured heat
or moisture exchange of the supply circuit to the
I
measured heat or moisture exchange of the exhaust
3. Airflow Measurements
The static pressure loss across the exchanger wheel
circuil. Satisfactory measurement of the system's air
properties may be assumed when this value is be-
I
may be used to re fiably measure the volumetric tween 0 .9 and 1.1.
airflow in the supply and exhaust circuits. Likewise, ff the results of this performance test are unsatisfac-
the purge flow may be determined from the static
pressure differential between the supply inlet and the
tory. contact the device manufacturer for analysis of
data and recommendations.
:. I
I
16.4
I
I SEcnON XVI
PROJECT _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _~SYSTEM/uN IT _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
I Make,Model Numbe,
Type/So u
Make/ Flame
H,P .lRPM
I F L. AmpllS. F.
M ake Sheave
Med ia Ty pe
I Face Ar ea Rows
I CFMlFPM
SUPPLY SIDE
All
Air P,ess.
1'",..",.6 P
En\JLvg. A ir P, e...
Air Preuure 6 P
A" l em,Jeralure 6. T
Wh ••1 RPM
I Eflect'Verl6' ~ 'It.
T",uie, Ralio
P"'geCFM
Dam"", P"',lIon
REMARKS:
I
I READ INGS8Y _____________________________________________
TEST OATE _ _ __
I
16.5
1
MAINTENAN(.E AND fiELD T[STING
I
The effectiveness (sens ible/ sensible, en thalpy/
enthalpy, or sensible/enthalpy) is then computed as
outlined in eariier sections 01 this manual. The value
obtained is entered on the report form with the rest of
the data to be submitted . or used.
The following instructions are taken from a typi-
cal maintenance manual and provide general
dismantling and disassembly procedures for
cleaning modules of waste heat recuperators
(fixed plate exchangers) . The principles would
.-I
also apply to many other types of energy recov-
ery devices.
I
c MAINTENANCE
ACCESS
-
-
-
END FRAME
-
-
-
Figure 16·3 TYPICAL INSTALLATION, RECUPERATOR ASSEMBLY (FIXED PLATE TYPE EXCHANGER) (10) .'I
16.6
I
1 S£(nON XVl
Tab le 16-1
WARNINGS
1 b. Cleaning
Figure 16·4 shows a typical example of the types of
fou ling that may be encountered in process applica·
• Organic solvents, including kerosene, varnoline,
etc. have very low flash points. These solvents
present dangerous fire hazards when used for
cleaning.
1 c. Disassembly
The manufacturers' disassembly Instructions provide
protection and a respirator.
• Handle modules carefully when dipping in a lank
for immersion cleaning to avoid burns caused by
complete step-by-step procedures for dismanlling
1 and removing modules . In many cases , removal of all
modules is neither necessary nor recommended. As
splashing hot caustic chemicals.
• The burn-off oven should be installed in a well
ventil ated area. Never open the furnace during
most contaminants generally accumu late on mod- burn-off, The entrance of a large volume of air
1 ules facing the process air (exhaust) inlet . if possible,
it is recommended that the Recuperator be disman-
tled only to the extent necessary, starting with mod·
could cause combustion . Handle modules with
care to prevent burns.
• Due to the unpredictable or unknown
2. Inspection
characteristics of the contam inants, before using
the burn-off procedure a careful analysis shou ld
be made to protect the operator and/or avo id
I.
b. Check seals for deterioration and leakage. In· • Insure that turnbuckles are not over-tightened
sure that swelling or hardening of seals is not • High temperatures used in burning-oft
evident ; hardened or swollen seals may not contaminants can result in remelting the brazing
provide adequate protection against cross-con- material. Do not exceed 1000"F.
tamination .
I
1 16.7
MAINTENANCE AND rHLD TESTING
I
Check for secure mou nting of frame and attachment
of ducts and sheet metal.
Check turnbuckles to insure they are drawn up tight.
Upper frame should provide sufficien t clamping
4. Replacement
a. Modules
Modules wi ll function with approximately 20% of the
.-I
pressure on modules to prevenllhem from shifting or air passages blocked. If structural damage is more
movi ng without crushing seals or modules. severe than this, causing loss of performance and in-
crease in pressure drop, the modu le should be re-
placed.
I
3. Repair
Repair of modules is limited to straighten ing bent fin s.
Fins should be straightened wi th needle nose pliers if
b. Seals
Seals should be replaced if there is any visual sign of I
they impede air flow through the air passages. breaks, cracks, deterioration, or other damage such
I
.... Clean eof ~ shoWlf1oCl
I
-•
:"'__ alf passag~ open
~
I
I
• I
I
Make U/l Side
I
I
: I
-• I
•
•
•F --I
• I
Make·up Side Core from ELPO{ PIIin! oven
I
.',
5howirog efleet~ of condensation 01
solvents on the el(haun side,
make·up side clean.
16_8 ,
1
I SEcnON XVI
I 5. Reassembly
Reassembly is basically the reverse of disassembly.
NOT THI S
l1Trmlillfmm~
I ~
silicone lubricant or, where si licone is unac-
ceptable , a graphite lubricant. This will keep ~ V iew Looki ng at
t he Top
them from sticking when disassembling.
b) Seals must be installed on the correct face of SEA L WIL L COVER AIR PASSAGES A T ENDS OF
I (Side View)
I D CLEANING
I 1. Cleaning Recommendations
The following are recommendations for cleaning reo
I nature of contamination.
The selection at the best cleaner for a set of operating
conditions is based on many factors. Someti mes one
I
16,9
I
MA I NH.NANCl AND flUD TESTING
I
b) Attack on Aluminum - the se nsitivity of
aluminum prohibits the use of some cleaners
even though superior performance in soil re-
moval could be obtained with them.
a. Pressure Cleaning
This method employs the use of a chemical spray,
detergent mixed with steam , or compressed air, and
is generally good for light to moderate contaminants.
.-I
WARNING: ORGANIC SOLVENTS, INCLUDING Use the procedure best suited for the particular pro-
KEROSENE, VARNOllNE, ETC. HAVE VERY LOW
FLASH POINTS . THESE SOLVENTS PRESENT
DANGEROUS FIRE HAZARDS WHEN USED FOR
cess.
1. Spray Cleaning I
CLEANING. Use a chemical spray, working the spray against the
.',
tains a strong chemical mix . The moduie(s) is im-
Caustic chemicals and flying particles represent per· mersed in the tank and left to soak for a period of lime.
sonnel eye hazards . Consequenlly. it is recom· This method is generally good for moderate 10 heavy
mended Ihal eye wash facilities be available. contaminants.
16.10 ,
I SECTION XVJ
c. Burn-Off
PLOSION AND LI NT, OIL, ETC . WHICH COULD
CATCH ON FIRE.
High temperatures can result in remelting the brazing
material. Do not exceed 1000°F.
I This method uses a drying oven operating with a con-
trolled atmosphere at very high temperatu res (800°-
1 OOO" F) to burn and decompose the contaminants to
1. Place the module in the oven (see figure).
2. Close and secure oven door.
an easily removable ash. This method is good for
I heavy contaminants , providing quick cleaning re-
su lts.
3. Turn drying oven on.
4. After a period of 45·60 minutes , turn oven off,
THE BURN-OFF OVEN SHOULD BE INSTALLED allow to cool. then open door and remove mod-
I
Table 16-2 PROCESSES CHART FOR CLEANING (10)
I Loose Panicles
Sleam. 1 part Echelon/ IO parts H20
LINT AND OUST REMOVAL
Clean lhoroughlv wilh compl essed air
all 00 psi
Pennwa" Echelon
Compressed All
I Hea Vily Conlam lnaled Cores I . Imm ersion , boil, one part atres1l6
pans H20
2. Immersion, boil , 6 ozJgal. atres!.
Pennwal! Arrest and Sllategy '
•I
imm ersiO<1 time IWIce Ihal 01 slep 1
Immersion. boil, 6 OZ./g31. DuBois Spre l A.C.
Immersion, 16O"F. 4 oz./gal. Healbath Unikleen 49 - 0
Si esm. 60z./gal. Pennwalt Stra tegy"
Moderately Contaminated Cores Immersion, 16O'F. 20z.lgs1 Amchem Rldahne No. 57
PAINT OVENS ' "
Hea vily Contam inaled Col es Immersion, 6 ozJga l.. rolh ng boi l DuBois Sp! e~ A. C.
Bum·ot! 800' F - 100000F Heal
Heavi ly 10 Moderately Immersion, 6 oz Jgal., 180·F Pennwalt Str ategy"
Coni aminated Cores
Moderately Conlaminaled Cores ImrnersiO<1. 6 ozJgal .• ,oiling boi l DuBois Prime
Immersion, 20z./gal., 140" F - ISO-F Amchem A idoline No. 57
I. available.
'Contains phenols. (These chemicals may Pfesl:lnl a disposal problem and are tOXIC if used undel Improper COnditlOflS)
"Contluns crewl\; . chromales . meth ytene chlonde. (These chemicals may presenl a disposal problem and are tOX IC II used undel
I improper condItions)
"'For removal 01 lacquers. enamels, urelhanes. and ELPO
• 16,11
A HVAC EQUATIONS
IN U.S. UNITS
(BRITISH SYSTEM) (16)
1. AIR EQUATIONS
v = Velocity (fpm)
I
a) V ~ 1096 j ~"
or for standard air :
VI' = Velocity pressure (in w.g.)
I
bl Q = 60 xCI' X d x efm xh.1
o r fo r standard ai r :
Q = Heat Flow (bl ut h r)
-
k) c fm = Ax fpm
d = Density (I b/cu It)
I 1. AIR EQ UATI O N S
a) V = 1288 J C~ )
V,.
V = Ve locity (m/s)
I or for standa rd ai r :
VI>= Veloc ity Pressu re (pascals)
I (d = 1.2 kg/m"l
V= 13 {V:
I
I b) 0 = 3.6 xCI' x d x lis x..lt
or for standard air :
Q = Heat Fl ow (Bl uthr)
I a e)
1
= A x U x.11
U = Heat t ransfer coeffic ient
1) R =- A = Therma l Resistance
U
I
) PIV _ p~ V~ _ R P = Absol ute Pressure (pascals)
9 - -1- - - -
I Tl T2
V = To tal Vol u me (m:')
R = Gas Constant
V ' d
i) VI1=(-) =- xV~ Vp = Veloc ity Pressure (Pal
I 1.3 2
SP = Static Pressure (Pa)
. , m3/ s = A x m ls
I A = Area (m2)
t 7. Z
I
T AIILES A N D CHAR T S I
U.S. UNITS
.'I
2. FAN EQUATIONS
aj -
clm;,> rpm ~
=-
cfm = cu It/min I
cfm , rpml rpm = revolutions/min
SP = Static pressure (in w.g.)
bhp = brake horsepower
I
cj bhp,
bhp,
= (,pm,) ,
rpm 1
I
rpm (fan) Pitch diam. motor pulley
d) rpm (motor) = Pitch diam. fan pulley I
3. HYDRONIC EQUATIONS
gpm = Gallons per minute
I
a) Q = 500 x gpm x j,t
Q = Heat Flow (Bt u/hr)
I
•
j,t = Temperature diff. (OF)
V"
E,. = Efficiency 01 pump (% /100)
NPSHA = Net positive suction head available
I
I) NPSHA = P,," p, +'2 - P".
• Pa = Atm. press. (use 34 ft w.g.)
P, = Pressure at pump centerline (It w.g.)
I
fLv:.'
V = Velocity head at point P, (Ipm)
gj h = 2g0
P, I' = Absolute vapor pressure (ft w.g.) I
9 = Gravity acceleration (32.2 ftlsec ~ )
-
n .3
-
I SECTION XVII
I.
I METRIC UNITS
I 2. FAN EQUATIONS
a) m3/s~ =- rad/s~ mats = cubic metres/second
3
m /s, rad /s, fad /s =- radians/second
I kW~
c) - = (rad/S~)
-- '
kW , fad/s ,
d) fad/s (fan) Pitch diam. (mm) motor pulley
I
=
rad/s (motor) Pitch diam. (mm) fan pulley
I 3. HYDRONIC EQUATIONS
Q =- Heat Flow (kilowatts)
a) a =- 4190 x m'lls x.lt .It = Temperatu re Difference (0G)
I ~P,
b) - = - 3 (m-")' rna (used for large volumes)
J.P , m , .lP ::: Pressu re Diff . (Pa or kPa)
I·
(m')' C, = Valve constant
c) ~P = -
c, WP =- Water power (W or kW)
I d) WP = O.1 020xm l /sx H x d
H = Head (k p . )
d "" Density (kg/rna)
I e) BP = -
WP BP =- Brake power (W or kW)
E,. E" =- Efficiency of Pump (%/100)
I g)h = -
fLv~
P" = Pressu re at pump centerline (Pa)
V'
2gD - = Velocity pressu re at point P < (Pa)
I 2g
P'I_ = Absolute vapor p resSure (Pa)
g = Gravity accelerat ion (9.807 m/s~ )
I v = Velocity (m/s)
I 11.4
TA 8U S AND CHARTS I
• I
U.S. UNITS I
4. ELECTRIC EQUATIONS
I
a) Bhp = I x E x :4~' x Eft. (Sing le Phase) I = Amps (AI
E = Volts (VI
I
I x E x P.F. x Eft. x 1.73 P.F. = Power factor
bl Bhp = 746 (Three Phase l
R = ohms (f!) I
cl E = IR P. = watts (W)
dl P = EI I
e) F.L Amps' x Voltage' = Actual F.L. Amps
Actual Voltage I
'Nameplate rat ings
I
I.
I METRIC UNITS
c) E ~ IR P. = watts (W)
I d) P ~ EI
I
I
• Altitude 1m)
Table 17-2 AIR DENSITY CORRECTION FACTORS (Metric Units) (16)
Sea
Level 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2500 3000
Barometer (kPal 101 .3 98.3 96.3 93.2 90.2 88.2 85.1 63.1 80.0 76.0 71.9
I Ai r Temp
C
0
21
50
1.08
1.00
0.91
1.05
0.97
0.89
1.02
0.95
0.86
0.99
0.92
0.84
0.96
0.89
0.81
0.93
0.87
0.79
0.91
0.84
0.77
0.88
0.82
0.75
0.88
0.79
0.72
0 .81
0.75
0.68
0.76
0 .71
0.64
75 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.63 0.60
I 100
125
150
0.79
0.74
0.70
0.77
0.72
0.68
0.75
0.70
0.66
0.72
0.68
0.64
0.70
0.86
0.62
0.68
0.64
0.60
0.66
0.62
0.59
0.65
0.60
0.57
0.63
0.59
0.55
0.59
0.55
0.52
0.56
0.52
0.49
175 0.66 064 0.62 0.62 0 .59 0 .57 0 .55 0.54 0 .52 0 .49 0 .46
I 200
225
250
0.62
0.59
0 .56
0.61
0.58
0 .55
0.59
0.56
0.53
0 .57
0 .54
0 .52
0.56
0.53
0 .50
0.54
0.51
0.49
0 .52
0 .50
0.47
0 .51
0.48
0.46
0.49
0.47
0.45
0.47
0 .44
0.42
0.44
0.42
0.40
275 054 0.52 0 .51 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.43 0040 0 .36
I 300
325
0.51
0.49
0 .50
0.46
0.49
0 .47
0.47
0.45
0.46
0.44
0.45
0 .43
0 .41
0.43
0.41
0.40
0042
0 .40
0.39
0.41
0 .39
0.38
0.38
0 .37
0.35
0 .36
0 .35
0.33
350 0.47 0046 0.45 0.43 0.42
0.36 0.34 0.32
I 375 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 0 .39 0 .38 0 .37
400 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0 .38 0 .37 0 .36 0 .35 0.33 0 .31
425 0.42 0.41 0040 0.39 0.36 0 .37 0 .35 0.34 0.33 0 .32 0.30
450 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.37 0 .36 0.35 0.34 0 .33 0 .32 0 .31 0.29
475 0 .39 0 .38 0 .37 0 .36 0 .35 0.34 0 .33 0 .32 0 .31 0 .29 0.28
I. 500
525
0.38
0.37
0 .37
0 .36
0.36
0 .35
0 .35
0 .34
0.34
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.31
Dry air weigh t at Sea l evel. 21 C = 1.205 kg/m '
0 .31
0 .30
0 .30
0 .29
0.28
0.27
0 .27
0.26
I
11.6
I
TABLES AND C HAR T S
11
c METRIC UNITS
AND EQUIVALENTS (16)
Table 17-3 METRIC UNITS (Basic & Derived)
.'I
Equivalent or
Unit
ampere
Symbol
A
Quantity
Electri c current
Relationship
Same as U. S.
1
candela
CelSius
cd
c
Luminous intensi ty
Temperature
1 cd/m2 "'" 0.292 ft lamberts
F = 1.8 C -r 32"
11
coulomb
farad
c
F
Electric charge
= _F
C + 273.15
'----"+~4"'5"'9"'.6,,7_
I
kilogram
litre
lum ens
kg
1m
Mass
Liquid volume
1 kg = 2 .2046 Ib
1 I = 1.056ql = 0.264 ga l
waft
v
w
Electric potential
I.
I Table 17·4 METRIC eQUIVALENTS
I gravity
heal flow W
9.8067 m/s2
watt
32 .2 fUsee 2
1 W = 3.4128tu/hr
I 17.8
II
SECTION XVIII • I
GLOSSARY
I
A TECHNICAL
TERMS
Air, Outside : External air; atmosphere exterior to
refri gerated or conditioned space; ambient (sur-
I
rounding) air,
I a system.
Calibration: Process of dividing and numberi ng the
Condenser (refrigerant): A heat exchanger in
which the refrigerant, compressed to a suitable pres-
scale of an instrument ; also of correcting or determin- sure, is condensed by rejection of heat to an appro-
•I •
Capillarity: The action by which the surface of a or other parameters of a substance or system which
liquid. where it contacts a solid (as in a slender tube), defines an accepted reference state or forms a basis
is raised o r lowered. for comparison.
Celsius (Formerly Centigrade): A thermometric Conductance, Surface film: Time rate of heat flow
scale in which the freezing point of water is called 0 per unit area under steady conditions between a sur-
deg. and its boiling point 100 deg. at normal atmos- face and a fluid for unit temperature difference bel-
pheric pressure (14.696 psi). ween the surface and lIuid.
I
18.2
I ,
GLOSSARY
I
Conductance, Thermal: Time rate of heat flow
through a body (frequently per unit area) from one of
Cooling Effect, Total : Difference between the total
enthalpy of the dry air and water vapor mixture enter- • I
its bounding su rfaces to the other for a unit temper' ing the cooler per hour and the total enthalpy of the
ature difference between the two surfaces, under
steady conditions.
dry air and water vapor mixture leaving the cooler per
hour. expressed in watts (Stuh). I
Conductivity, Thermal : The time rate of heat flow Cooling Range : In a water cooling device, the dif-
through un it area and unit thickness of a homogene-
ous material under steady conditions when a unit
ference between the average temperatures of the
water enteri ng and leaving the device.
I
temperature gradient is maintained in the direction Core Area (Face Area) : The total plane area of the
perpendicular to area. Materials are considered
homogeneous when the value of the thermal conduc·
tivity is not affected by variation in thickness or in size
portion of a grille, register, or coil bounded by a line
langent to the outer edges of the openings through
I
which air can pass.
of sample within the range normally used in construc·
tion.
Conductor, Thermal : A material whic h readily
Corresponding Values: Simultaneous values of
vanous properties of a lIuid. such as pressure. vol-
I
ume, temperature. etc. , for a given condition of fluid.
transmits heat by means of conduction.
Connection in Parallel : System whereby flow is di-
Corrosive: Having chemically destructive effect on
metals (occasionally on other materials).
I
vided among two or more channels from a common
Counterflow: In heat exchange between two fluid s.
starting point or header.
Connection in Series : System wh ereby flow
opposite direction of flow. coldest portion of one
meeting coldest portion of the other.
I
through two or more channels is in a single path en-
tering each succeeding channel only after leaving the
first or previous channel.
Critical Velocity: The velocity above which fluid
flow is tu rbulent. I
•I
Control : A device for regu lation of a system or com- Crystal Formation. Zone of Maximum: Tempera·
ponent in normal operation, manual or automatic. In
au tomatic. the implication is that it is responsive to
changes o f pressure, temperature or other property
ture range in freezing in wh ich most freezing takes
place. i.e .. about - 3.9" to - i.1 ° C (25 to 30°F) for
water.
0
I
whose magnitude is to be regulated. Cycle: A complete course of operation of working
Convection: Transfer of heat by movement of fluid. fluid back to a starting point, measured in a ther-
modynamic terms (functions) . Also in general for any
Convection , Forced : Convection resulting from repeated process on any system.
forced circulation of a fluid , as by a fan , jet or pump.
Convection, Natural: Circulation of gas or liquid
Cycle, Reversible: Theoretical thermodynamic cy-
cle, composed of a series of reversible processes ,
I
(usually aJr or water) due to differences in density re- which can be completely reversed.
sulting from temperature changes.
Cooling, Evaporative: Involves the adiabatic ex-
Dalton ' s Law of Partial Pressure: Each con-
stituent of a mixture of gases behaves thermodynam-
I
change of heat belween air and a water spray or wet- ically as if it alone occupied the space. The sum of the
ted surface. The water assumes the wet-bu lb lem-
perature of the air, which remains constant during its
traverse of the exchanger.
individual pressures of the constituents equals the
total pressure of the mixture. II
Damper: A device used to vary the volume of air
Cooling , Regenerative: Process of utilizing heat
which must be rejected or absorbed in one part of the
passing through an air outlet. inlet, or duct.
Degree Day: A unit, based upon temperature differ-
I
cycle to function usefully in another part of the cycle
ence and time. used in estimating fuel consumption
by heat transfer.
Cooling Coil: An arrangement of pipe or tubing
and specifying nominal heating load of a building in
winter. For anyone day. when the mean temperature
I
which transfers heat from air to a refrigerant or brine .
.',
is less than 65° F. there exist as many degree days as
Cooling Effect, Sensible: Difference between the there are Fahrenheit degrees difference in tempera·
total cooling effect and the dehum idifying effect. usu- ture between the mean temperature for the day and
ally in watts (Stu h). 65° F.
18.3
I
I S[CnON XVIII
I methods,
lowering the moisture content of the air passing Drift: In a water spray device, the entrained un-
I through it; (2) An absorption or adsorption device for
removi ng moisture from air.
evaporated water carried from the device by air
movement through it.
Drip: A pipe, or a steam trap and a pipe considered
I Dehydration: (1) removal of water vapor from air by
the use of absorbing or adsorbing materials; (2) re-
moval of water from stored goods.
as a unit, which conducts condensation from the
steam side of a piping system to the water or return
side of the system .
I
1 18.4
j
GLOSSARY
I
Ent ha lpy: Thermodynamic property of a substance
defined as the sum of its internal energy plus the
air volu me fl ow rate which is covered generally ex-
lends from shutoff (zero air volume flow rate) to free
.1
quantity Pv/J, where P = pressure of the substance, delivery (zero fan static pressure). The pressure
v = its volume, and J = the mechanical equivalent of
heat. Also called " tolal heat" and "heat content."
curves are generally referred to as the pressure·
volume curves.
I
Enthalpy. Specific: A term sometimes applied to en-
thalpy per unit weight.
Entrainment: The capture of part of the surrounding
Fan , Propeller: A propeller or disc type wheel withi n
a mou nting ring or plate and including driving
mechanism supports for either belt drive or direct
I
air by the air stream discharged from an outlet (some- connection.
times called secondary air motion).
Entropy: The ratio of the heat added to a substance
Fan , Tubeaxial: A propeller or disc type wheel withi n
a cylinder and including driving mechanism supports
I
to the absolute temperature at which it is added. for either belt drive or direct connection.
.'I
is a graphical presentation of static or total pressure condensation of vapors from normally solid materials
and power input over a range of air volume flow rate such as molten metals. Fumes may also be formed
at a stated inlel density and fan speed. II may include by sublimation , distillation. calcination. or chemical
static and mechanical efficiency curves. The range of reaction wherever such processes create airborne
18.5
I
I SEc.nON XVIII
'.
quired to raise the temperature of a given mass of any humidi ty of humid air to that of saturated air al the
substance one degree to the quantity required to same temperature and pressure. usually expressed
raise the temperature of an equal mass of a standard as a percentage (degree of saturation ; saturation
substance (usually water at 59 F) one degree. ratio) .
I
I 18.6
GLOSSARY
II
Humidity Ratio: The ratio of the mass of the water
vapor to the mass of dry air contained in the sample.
,~
inch high at a temperature of 4'" C or 39.2" F.
Outlet, Ceiling : A round , square , rectangular, or
Induction: The capture of part of the ambient ai r by
linear air diffuser located in the ceiling, which pro-
the jet action of the primary air stream discharging
vides a horizontal distribution pattern of primary and
from an air outlet.
InfiUration: Air flowing inward as through a wall ,
secondary air over the occupied zone and induces
low velocity secondary air motion through the oc- I
crack , etc.
Insulation, Therma l: A material having a relatively
high resistance to heat flow and used principally to
retard heat flow.
Isentropic: An adjective describing a reversible
cupied zone.
Outlet, Slotted: A long. narrow air distribution ouUet,
comprised of deflecting members, located in the ceil-
ing, sidewall, or sill, with an aspect ratio greater than
10, designed to distribute supply air in varying direc-
tions and planes, and arranged to promote mixing of
• I
I
adiabatic process: a change taking place at constant
primary air and secondary room air.
entropy.
Isobaric: An adjective used to indicate a change
taking place at constant pressure.
Outlet, Vaned : A reg ister or grille equipped with ver-
tical and/or horizontal adjustable vanes.
I
Outlet Velocity: The average velocity of air emerg-
Isothermal: An adjective used to indicate a change
taking place at constant temperature. ing from an opening , fan. or ouUet, measured in the
plane of the opening.
I
law of Partial Pressu re, Dalton ' s: Each con-
Output: Capacity; duty; performance ; net re frigera-
stituent of a mixture of gases behaves thermodynam-
ically as if it alone occupied the space. The sum of the
individual pressures of the constituents equals the
tion produced by system. I
Outside Air Opening : Any opening used as an entry
total pressure of the mixture.
liquefaction: A change of state to liquid; generally
used instead of condensation in case of substances
for air from outdoors.
Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer (thermal
I
transmittance): The time rate of heat flow through a
ordinarily gaseous.
load: The amount of heat per unit time imposed on
body per unit area, under steady conditions, for a unit
temperature difference between the fluids on the two
sides of the body.
I
or required from a system.
louver: An assembly of sloping vanes intended to
permit air to pass through and to inhibit transfer of
water droplets.
Performance Factor: Ratio of the useful output
capacity of a system to the input required to obtain it.
Units of capacity and input need not be consistent. .'I
18.7
I
I S[CTI ON XV III
•I
area that would be exerted by a moving fluid on an from one Object to another without warming the
infi nitesimally small body immersed in it if the body space between.
were carried along with the fluid.
Radius of Diffusion : The horizontal axial distance
Pressure, Partial : Portion of total gas pressure of a an airstream travels after leaving an air oullet before
mixture attributable to one component. the maximum stream velocity is reduced to a spec-
Pressure, Saturation : The saturation pressure for a ified terminal level.
pure substance for any given temperature is that
•I .
Refrigerant : The fluid used for heat transfer in a re-
pressure at which vapor and liq uid , or vapor and frigerating system, which absorbs heat at a low
solid. can coexist in stable equilibrium. temperature and a low pressure of the fluid and re-
Pressure, Static : The normal force per unit area that jects heat at a higher temperature and a higher pres-
would be exerted by a moving fluid on a small body sure of the fluid, usually involving changes of state of
immersed in it ilthe body were carried along with the the fluid.
fluid. Practically, it is the normal lorce per unit area at Register : A grille equipped with an integral damper
a small hole in a wal1 of the duct through which the or control valve.
I
I IS.S
GLOSSARY
I
Resistance, Thermal: The reciprocal of thermal
conductance.
Superheat The difference between the temperature
of a pure condensable fluid above saturation and the
.1
temperatu re at the dry saturated state, at the same
Resistivity, Thermal: The reciprocal of thermal
conductivity.
Return Air: Air returned from conditioned or refriger-
pressure.
Surface, Heating: The exterior surface of a heati ng
I
ated space. unit. Extended heating surface (or extended sur-
Room Dry Bulb (dewpoint, etc.) The dry-bulb
(dewpoint, etc .) temperature of the conditioned room
face). consisting of fins, pins, or ribs which receive
heat by conduction from the prime su rface. Prime
I
or space. surface: heating surface having the heating medium
Saturation, Degree of: The ratio of the weight of
water vapor associated with a pouind of dry air to the
on one side and air (or extended surface) on the
other. I
weight of water vapor associated with a pound of dry System : Central Fan A mechanical. indirect system
air saturated at the same temperature.
Secondary Air: The air surrounding an outlet that is
of heating, ventilaitng, or air conditioning, in which the
air is treated or handled by equipment located out-
side the rooms served, usually at a central location,
I
captured or entrained by the initi al outlet discharge
and conveyed to and from the rooms by means of a
airstream (furnished by a supply duct or fan).
Semi-Extended Plenum: A trunk duct that is ex-
fan and a system of distributing ducts.
System, Closed: A heating or refrigerating piping
I
tended as a plenum from a fan or HVAC unit to serve
system in which circulating water or brine is com-
multiple outlets andlor branch ducts.
Sensible Heat Factor: The ratio of sensible heat to
pletely enc losed, under pressure above atmos-
pheric, and shut off from the atmosphere except for
I
total heat. an expansion tank.
Sensible Heat Ratio, Air Cooler: The ratio of sensi-
ble cooling effect to lotal cooling effect of an air
System, Duct: A series of ducts, conduits, elbows.
branch piping, etc. designed to guide the flow of air,
I
cooler. gas or vapor to and Irom one or more locations. A fan
Sorbent: See absorbent.
Standard Air Density: Standard air density has
provides the necessary energy to overcome the re-
sistance to flow of the system and causes air or gas
• I
flow through the system. Some components of a typi-
been set at 0.075 Ib/fl3. This corresponds approxi- cal system are louvers. grilles, diffusers, filters , heat-
mately to dry air at 70°F and 29.92 in. Hg. ing and cooling coils, energy recovery devices,
Standard Rating: A standard rating is a rating based burner assemblies, volume dampers, mixing boxes.
on tests performed at Standard Rating Conditions. sound attenuators, the ductwork and related fittings.
Static Regain Method: A method of duct sizing System, Flooded: A system in which only part of the
wherein the duct velocities afe systematically re- refrigerant passing over the heat transfer surface is
duced, allowing a portion of the velocity pressure to evaporated. and the portion not evaporated is sepa-
convert to static pressure offsetting the duct friction
losses.
rated from the vapor and recirculated.
System, Gravity Circulation: A heating or re-
I
Subcooling; The difference between the tempera- frigerating system in which the heating or cool ing fluid
ture of a pure condensable fluid below satu ration and
the temperature at the liquid saturated state, at the
same pressure.
circulation is effected by the motive head due to dif-
ference in densities of cooler and warmer fluids in the
two sides of the system.
I
Subcooling, Specific: Th e difference betwee n
specific enthalpies of a pure condensable fluid be-
tween liquid at a given temperature below saturation
System, Run-around: A regenerative-type. closed,
secondary system in wh ich continuously circulated
fluid abstracts heat from the primary system fluid at
I
and liquid at saturation, at the same pressure. one place, returning this heat to the primary system
Sublimation: A change of state directly from solid to
gas without appearance of liquid.
fluid at another place.
System, Unitary A complete. factory-assembled
I
.'I
Superheat , Specific: The difference between and factory-tested refrigerating system comprising
specific enthalpies of a pu re condensable fluid bet- one or more assemblies which may be shipped as
ween vapor at a given temperature above satu ration one unit or separately but which are designed to be
and vapor at dry saturation, at the same pressu re. used together.
18.9
I
I SEcnON XVIII
I tical.
Temperature, Dewpoint: The temperature at which
(1) When work is expended in generating heat, the
quantity 01 heat produced is proportional to the work
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the condensation of water vapor in a space begins for expended; and, conversely, when heat is employed
a given slate of humidity and pressure as the tem- in the performance of work , the quantity of heat which
perature of the vapor is reduced. The temperature disappears is proportional to the work done (Joule);
corresponding to saturation (100 percent relative (2) II a system is caused to change from an initial
humidity) for a given absolute humidity at constant state to a final state by adiabatic means only. the
pressure. work done is the same lor all adiabatic paths connect-
ing the two states (Zemansky):
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Temperature, Dry-bulb : The temperature of a gas
or mixture of gases indicated by an accurate ther- (3) In any power cycle or refrigeration cycle, the net
mometer after correction for radiation. heat absorbed by the working substance is exactly
equal to the net work done.
Temperature, Effective : An arbitrary index which
combines into a singte value the effect of tempera- The Second Law
I ture, humidity, and air movement on the sensation of
warmth or cold felt by the human body. The numerical
(1) II is impossible for a self-acting machine. unaided
by any external agency. to convey heat from a body
value is Ihat of the temperature of still. saturated air 01 lower temperature to one of higher temperature
•I .
solid water, by evaporating into air, can bring the air maximum stream velocity is reduced to a specified
to saturation adiabatically at the same temperature. terminal level; e.g. , 200, 150, 100, or 50 fpm.
Wet-bu lb temperature (without qualification) is the
Total Heat : Thermodynamic property of a substance
temperature indicated by a wet-bulb psychrometer
defined as the sum of its internal energy piuS the
constructed and used according to specifications.
quantity PvIJ , where P = pressure of the substance,
Temperature, Wet-bulb Depression : Difference v = its volume. and J = the mechanicat equivalent of
between dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures. heat. Also called " enthalpy" and "heat content."
I
I '8.10
GLOSSARY
I
Total Pressure Method : A method of duct sizing
which allows the designer to determine all friction and
dynamic losses in each section of a duct system (in-
cluding the total system).
Transmission : In thermodynam ics. a general term
for heat travel: properly. heat transferred per unit of
Velocity, Terminal : The highest sustained airstream
velocity existi ng in the mixed air path at the end of the
throw .
Ventilation : The process of supplying or removing
air, by natural or mechanical means, to or from any
space. Such air mayor may not have been con-
.1
,
time.
Transmission, Coefficient of Heat: Anyone of a
ditioned.
Viscosity : That property of semifluids. fluids, and
I
number of coefficients used in the calculation of heat gases by virtue of which they resist an instantaneous
transmission by conduction , convection , and radia-
tion. through various materials and structures.
change of shape or arrangement of parts. It is the
cause of fluid friction whenever adjacent layers of
I
fluid move with relation to each other.
Transmittance, Thermal (U factor) : The time rate of
heat flow per unit area under steady conditions from
the fluid on the warm side 01 a barrier to the Iluid on
Volume : Cubic feet per pound of dry air in the air-
water vapor mixtu re as used in psychrometries.
I
the cold side. per unit temperature difference be- Volume, Specific : The volume of a substance per
tween the two fluids.
Vane Ratio : In air distributing devices. the ratio of
unit mass : the reciprocal of density.
Wet-bulb Depression : Difference between dry-bulb
I
depth of vane to shortest opening width between two and wet-bulb temperatures.
adjacent grille bars.
Vapor : A gas, particularly one near to equilibrium
I
wi th the liquid phase of the substance and which
does not follow the gas laws. Usually used instead of
gas for a refrigerant, and, in general, for any gas
below the critical temperature .
Vapor, Saturated : Vapor in equi librium with its
liquid : i.e .. when the numbers per un it lime of
molecules passing in two directions through the sur-
face dividing the two phases are equal.
B ECONOMIC
TERMS
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after each branch or outlet. tween two alternatives.
Velocity, Room : The average , sustained, residual Differential Energy Esca lation Rate : The expected
air velocity level in the occupied zone of the con- difference between a general rate of inflation and the
ditioned space; e.g., 65 , 50, 35 fpm. rate of cost increases assu med for energy.
18 . 11
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I SlCTION XVIII
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18.11
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" II
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I SECTION XIX
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• INDEX
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After-lax evalua tion, 14.12
After-lax revenue. 14.11 yearly net, 14.4 Compre hensive techniques, 14.1
Ai r, B idirectional. 8.1, 8.4. 8.5 Computing fue l savings, 13.3
a tmospheric, 2.3 Borrowed funds , 14.13 Condensation, 3.1. 4.1. 6.5, B.2
condi tioning units. 16.1 Break-even an alysis, 14.13,14.14 Condensibles. 1.1. 1.2
density correction factors, Metric Break-even period, 14.1 Condition changes, 3.4
Units. 17.6 Brines, 12.1 Conduction , 2.1
density correction factors , U.S. Units, Burn·off. 16.11 Constant increase. 14 .12
17.5 procedure, 16.11 Construction, dry air cooler, 11 .1
dry-side, 11.1 oven . 16.1 1 fi xed plate. 7.1
I equations. 17.2
high temperature. 7.3
properlies of. 2.3
Burst protection, 9.4 multiple tower. 10. 1
rotary wheel, 6.1
run-around coil, 9.1
seals , 6.3 thermosiphon , B.2
I vapor relationship. 2 .5
waler mixture. 2.3
wet side, 11.2
Capillary, 8.1
Capillary wick, 8,2
c Contactor tower. 10.1
Contaminants, 1.1 , 1.2. 5.1
Con tamina ti on. 12.4
Air/ low measurements, 16.4 Capital. cost o f, 14.2, 14 .9 Convection, 2.1
I· investment, 14.4
Analyses of coal, 13.7
Analyses of fuel gases, 13.7
Carbonization, 12.4
Carry-over, 1.2, 6.3
Cash flow diagram, 14 .6
Cost. annual operating. 13.11
annual o w ning, 13.11
Cost bene fits, 15.3
Analysis, Break-even. 14.3, 14.14 Cash fl ows, 14 .1, 14.2, 14.4 Cost·effectiveness analysis, 14.B
I cost-eHectiveness. 14.8
probability, 14.13, 14.14
sensitivity. 14 .13, 14.14
Cermaic, 6.1
Changes. combination, 3.5
latent, 3.4
Cost, fan energy, 13.12
maintenance. 13.11
Cost of capital, 14.2, 14.9
Annual basis. 14.9 sensible, 3.4 Cost savings, 14.11
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Coil loop thermosiphon. 8.3
Coils/heat exchangers. 16.1
Combination changes, 3.5
Combination process. 3.5
Bacteria removal , 10.2 Comfort, 6.1
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I. Before-tax basis, 14.1
Before-tax evaluation, 14.12
Benefit/cost ratio method. 14.10
to-comfort, 1.2, 15.1, 15.2
to·comfort applications. 1.2
Commercial. 15.1
Deadband control, 6.6
DecompOSition, 12.3
Deferred expendi tures, 14.5
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I 19.1
INDEX I
Degradation. 12.3. 12.4
Degree days. 13.4
Degree of saturation. 3.2
Equations. discounting, 14.5
interest, 14.5
Equipment. 1.1 , 5.1
Forced circulation heater. 12.4
Fouling. 5.1
Freeze protection. 9.4
.1
Dehumidification . 3.5 design . 12.3 Frost, 3.4
Demineralized water. 9.4
Depreciation . 14.4. 1412
allowances. 14.11
types of. 5.2
Equity fun ds. 14.1 3
Equivalent. annual payment. 14.6 .
Frosting, 6.6, 7.4
Fuel allocations. 14.16
Fuel oil. properties of. 13.6
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desicant. 6.6 present. 14.6 fuel savings. 13.2
Device, configuration. 4.4
monitoring. 16.6
Devices. sensibte heat. 4.3
value, 14.6
Evaluation. 14.1
after-tax. 14.12
computing , 13.3
Fundamentals of energy transfer, 2.1
Fundamentals of heat recovery, 4.1
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total heat. 4.3 energy recovery. 14.1 Funds. borrowed. 14.13
Dew point. 3.1
Diagram. cost flow, 14.6
Direct drive. 6.2
key factors, 14.13
partial methods of. 14.1
uncertainties. 14.13
equity. 14.13
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Disassembly. 16.7 Gaseous cross contaminants. 10.2
Evaporation, 4. 1. B.2
Discount factors. 14.5
Discount rates, 14.5. 14.9
Discounting equations. 14.5
Evaporative cooler. dry air, 11.1
Evaporative cooling . 3.5. 11.1 . 11.2
Evaporator, B.l
Gaseous/vaporous contaminan ts, 1.3
Gases. analyses of. 13.7
Gaskets. 12.5
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Glossary, lB.l
Discounting of costs. 14.5 Exchanger. heat pipe. 5.3
Glycol solutions, 9.1 , 9.4. 12.1
Drive access. 16.2
Dry~air cooler. construction, 11.1
cross contamina tion. 11 .3
thermosiphon , 5.3
Exchangers. dry air cooler, 11 .1
finned tube. 5.3
inhibited,9.1
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effectiveness. 11.4 fixed plate, 5.2, 7.1
maintenance. 11.4
performance, 11 .3
transfer process, 11.2
heat pipe, B.l
high temperature. 7.1
low temperature. 7.1
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Halogen salt solution. 10.1
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Dry-air evaporative cooler, 11.1 medium temperature, 7.1 Heat absorption, 2.1
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Dry side air, 11.1 multiple tower. 10.1 , 5.3 heat energy, 2.1
Duct system, 16.1 plate-fin, 7.1 heat flow, 4.1
Ductwork, location, 1.3 pure-plate, 7.1 mechanics. of, 4.1
rotary wheel . 5.2, 6.1 Heat flux. 12.3. 12.4. 12.5
run around coil , 9.1 Heat. latent, 3.4
thermosiphon , 8.1 Heat pipe exchanger. 5.3, B.l
Existing buildings, 13.1 Heat pipes, 8.1, B.2
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Existing performance records, 13.3 Heat recovery. fu ndamentals of, 4. 1
Early income, 14.5
Ecology. 12.1
Economic life, 14.7
Expansion tank. 9.2. 9.5. 12.6
Expected values, 14.14
Explosive range. 12.2
Heat. sensible. 3.4
Heat transfer. 2. 1
flu ids, 12.1, 12.2
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Economic of energy recovery, 13.1 surface, 2.2
Economic terms. l B. l1 Heater. 12.5
Effectiveness. 4.2. 4.3, 16.4
dry air cooler. 11.4
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forced circulation, 12.4
natural circulation, 12.4
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fi xed plate, 7.3 sorbent solution, 10.3
multiple tower. 10.3 High moisture content, 7.5
rotary wheel, 6.4
run-around coil. 9.2
Fan energy 13.12
Fan equations, 17.3, 17.4
Fan replacement, 16.2
High temperature air, 7.3
High temperature e!(changers. 7.1
Humidifi ca tion, 3.4
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thermosiphon . B.3 Fans/rotary wheels. 16.1
values, 6.4 Humidity level. 1.3
Efficiencies. transfer. 5.4
Efficiency of fuel. 13.6
Efficiency. Ihermaltransfer, 9.5
Field testing, 16.1
Finned tube exchangers, 5.3
Fire point, 12.3
Humidity ratio. 3.1
HVAC Equations-Metric Units, 17.2
HVAC Equations-U .S. Units. 17.1
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Fixed plate, construction, 7.1
Electric equations, 17.5 Hydronlc equations. 17.3, 17.4
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cross contamination, 7.1
Energy budgets, 15.3 effectiveness. 7.3 Hygroscopic wheels, 6.1. 6.4
Energy recovery. applications of. 15.3 exchangers. 5.2, 7.1 , 11.2
benefits of, 13.1 maintenance, 7.5
evaluation, 14.1 performance. 7.3
justification of. 13.1
objective, 1.1
Energy recovery process, 4.1
transfer process. 7.1
Flame impingement, 12.4
Flammability, 12.2
Icing, 6.6
Income taxes, 14.11
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Energy transfer equipment. 5.1 Flash point , 12.2 treatment of. 14.1 1
Energy transfer, fundamentals, 2.1
process, 5.4
Enthalpy. 3. 1, 4.1
Flow pattern, 2.2
Fluid life. 9.5
Fluid-Io-air applications, 15.2
Independent projects, 14.15
Industri al, 15.2
Inflation, 14.12
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19.2
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I IN D E X
I Insurance, 1.1
Insti tu ti onal, 15.2
Method, benefit/cosl ratio, 14.10
internal rate of return, 14.10
Payback period. 14.1 , 14.2
Pertecl gas, 2.5
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Interest, equation, 14.5 net annual benefits, 14.9 Pertormance, dry air cooler, 11 .3
periods. 14.5 net annual value, 14.9 fixed plate. 7.3
Intermediate liquid, 8.1 net present value, 14.7, 14.8 mulliple tower, 10.2
Internal rate 01 re turn method. 14.10 return on assets, 14.4 rotary wh eel , 6.3
Invested capital. 14.1 return on investm ent, 14.4 run around coil, 9.2
Investment, 14.1 payback , 14.1 testing, 16.2
alternatives, 14.4 Methods. comprehensive, 14.4 thermosiphon. 8.3
analysis, 14.4 Metric equivalents, 17.8 Performa nce records, existing, 13.3
Investment analysis, special factors, Metric units , 17.7 Period, break even, 14.1
14 .1 1 Micro-organism, 10.2 payback, 14.1, 14.2
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Jusllfication of energy recovery, 13.1
M ultiple to wer, constructi on, 10.1
cross contamination, 10.2
effectiveness, 10.3
Polymers, 12.3
Potential costs, 14.2
Prerequi site project. 14.16
exchangers. 5.3 Presen t equivalent. 14.6
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maintenace, 10.4
Performance, 10.2
transfer process, 10.1
Pressure cleaning. 16.10
Pressure differential, 16.7
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Key factors. evaluation. 14.13 Price index, 14 .13
Knitted sleeve, 11 .1 Mutual exclusive projects, 14.14 Probability analysis, 14.13, 14.14
Procedures, burn-off, 16. 11
cleaning. 16.10
Process, 6.1
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L combination, 3,5
Natural circulation heater, 12.4 energy transfer, 5.4
Labor costs, 13.2 Net annual bene fi ts methods, 14.9 Process-Io-comfort, 1.2, 15.2
Lalent heat, 3.4. 4.1 Net annual value, 14.10 Process-to-comfort applications, 1.2
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Laws of thermodynamics. 2.1 method, 14.9 Process-to-process, 15.2
Life-cycle costing, 13.10, 14.8 Net bene fi ts, 14.7
Process-to-process applications, 1.1
Liquid, intermediate, 8.1 Net present value, 14.7, 14.10 Product improvement, 13.3
$Orben!,10.1 method, 14.7, 14.8 Profitability, measure of, 14.1
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Lithium chloride, 10, 1 New buildings, 13.1 Project, independent, 14.15
Log mean temperature difference, 2.2 Non-hygroscopic wheels, 6. 1 prerequisite, 14.16
Low temperature exchanger, 7,1 Null cycle, 10.4 single investment, 14.14
Projects, mandated, 14.16
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mutual exclusive
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o Properties of air, 2.3
Operating costs. 13.12 Properties o f fuel oil , 13.6
Maintenance, 16.1, 16.6 Protection, burst, 9.4
Opportunities, 15.1
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Maintenance cos ts, 13.11 corrosion, 9.4
Organic, 12.1
Maintenance, dry air cooler. 11.4 freeze , 9.4
Organic fluids , 9.5, 12.2
fixed plale, 7.5 Psychrometric ch art, 3.1, 3. 7
Orientation, 5.5
mulliple tower, 10.4 u se of, 3.1
O riented media, 6,3
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reduced , 13.2 Psychrometric readings, 16.3
O riginal book value, 14.4
rotary wheel, 6.7 Psychrometrics, 2.3
Oxidatlon, 9.3
run-around coil, 9.3 Pump, 16.1
thermosiphon, 8,7 Pump head, 12.5
Mandated projects, 14.16 Pump seats, 12.5
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Market potential, 15.1 Purchasing power, 14,12
Measure of profi tability, 14.1 Parallel flow, 2.2, 4.4 Pure-plate heat exchanger, 7,1
Measurements, airtlow, 16.4 Partial method of evaluation, 14.1 Purge sechon, 6.3
Mechanics of heat flow, 4.1 Partial techniques, 14.1 Purging, 6.3
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19.3
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I ND EX I
Radiation, 2.1
A Sensible heat devices, 4.3
Sensible heat wheels, 6.1
Sensitivity analysis, 14.13.14.14
maintenance, 8.7
performance. 8.3
sealed tube. B.2
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Ranges. temperature. 5.4 Simple pay back. 13.9 Tilt. control, 8.6
Ratings. 5.5 Simple rate of return, 13.9 regulation, 8.6
RatIOs. benetil-Io-cost, 14 .8 Single investment project. 14.14 Total heat, 3. 1
Readings. psychometric, 16.3 Solution, halogen salt. 10.1 devices. 4.3
Real terms. 14.12
Reassembly, 16.9
Recommendations, cleaning. 16.9
Recovery. 14.1
Sorbent liquid, 10.1
Sorbent solution, 10.1 , 10.3
heater, 10.3
wheels, 6.1
Towers, contrac tor. 10.1
Toxicity. 12.1
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Special tactors-investment analysis, 14.1 Transfer efficiencies, 5.4
Reduced maintenance, 13.2
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Specific humidity, 3.1 Transfer equipment. 5.1
Refractory . 12.5 SpecifiC volume. 3.2 Transfer media, 6.1
Refrigerant. 8.2 Speed drive. 6.2 Transfer process. dry air cooler. 11.2
Relative humidity. 3.2 Spiral-finned tube. 9.1 fixed plate. 7.2
Repair. 16.8 multiple tower, 10.1
Replacement. 16.8
Residential. 15.2
Retrolit, 15.2
Spray cleaning, 16.10
Spray towers, 16.1
Spraying, 10.1
rotary wheel, 6.2
run-around coil. 9.2
thermosiphon. 8.2
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Standard air. 2.5
Retro fit work, 7.4 Standard atmospheric pressure. 2.5 Transfer ratio, 16.4
Return on assets methods, 14,4
Return on Investment, 14.1 , 14.4
method, 14.4
Standard clm, 2.6
Start up. system. 16.1
Transfer surfaces, 2.2
Transfer sustance. 2.1
Treatment of income taxes. 14.11
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Steam cleaning, 16.10
Revenue, after-tax, 14.11 T urndown cycle. 10.4
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Synthetic fluids. 9.5
Revenue-generating , 13.3 System analysis. 3.5 Turndown value. 10.4
Risk. 14.1, 14.13
System costs. 13.12
Rotary wheel, cross contamination. 6.3 System investment analysis. 14.1
construction, 6.1
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System start-up. 16.1
effectiveness, 6.4
exchangers. 5.2. 6.1 Uncertainty. 14.13
maintenance, 6.7 Undiscounled payback method, 14.2
performance. 6.3 Unidirectional, 8.2, 8.4
rotational speed, 6 .6
transfer process, 6.2
Rotation speed. rotary wheel, 6.6
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Taxable revenue. 14.11
Unrecoverable salvage. 14.8
Use of psychrometric chart. 3.1 • I
Taxation. 14 .1
" Aule-oHhumb" indicators. 13.1 Taxes (inflation), 14.13
Run-around coil. 4.5
construction, 9.1
cross contamination, 9.2
Technicallerms, 18.1
Techniques, comprehensive, 14.1
partial,14.1
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Value, net annual , 14.10
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net present. 14.7. 14 .10
effectiveness, 9.2 Temperature. corrections. 2.5 Values, expected, 14.14
exchangers. 9.1
mamtenance. 9.3
performance. 9.2
differences, 2.2
dry bulb, 3.1
ranges, 5.4
Vaporization, 12.aizd. 9.4
Water vapor.12.5
Variables, 6.2, 15.1
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Run-around system, 9.1 saturation, 3.1 Variable speed drives. 6 .6
Run-around transfer process. 9.2 wet bulb, 3.1, 3.3
Testing . 16.2
Testing and adjusting. 16.1
Ventilation load , 15.1
Viscosities. 9.5. 12.5
Visual inspection. 4.1. 2.3
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Testing/performance, 16.2
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Safety precautions. 16.7
Thermal conductivity, 2.1
Therm al cycling, 8.2
Thermal Huids, 5.3
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Water, demineralized, 9.4
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Sample report form. 16.5 Thermal stability. 12.3 Water vapor, 2.3
Saturated air. 2.3 Thermal transfer efficiency, 9.5 Water·wash system, 8.7
Saturation. degree of, 3.2 Thermal transfer fluids, 9.1, 9.4, 10.5, Wet bulb temperature. 3.1, 3.3
effects, 10.3 12.1 Wet-side air, 11.2
line, 3.2 Thermodynamics. 2.1 Wheel access. 16.2
state, 8.3
temperature, 3. 1
Scale deposits, 11.4
laws of, 2.1
Thermosiphon, construction. 8.2
exchanger. 5.3, 8. 1
Wheels, hydroscopic, 6.1
non-hydroscopic, 6.1
Working fluids. 8.2, 8.3
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Sealed partition, 8. 1 loop, 8.1
Sealed tube thermosiphons, 8.2 transfer process, 8.2
Seals, 16.7, 16.8
Seasonably reversib le, 9.1
Sensible heat, 3.4
Thermosiphons, coil loop, 8.3
cross con tamination, 8.3
effectiveness, 8.3
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Yearly net benefits, 14.4
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Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning
Contract<lrs National Association. Inc.
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8224 Old Courthouse Road.
'!ysOnB Cornor, Vienna, Virginia 22lBO
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