Fatigue & Fracture of

Engineering Materials & Structures

doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2695.2009.01404.x

Mean stress effects in strain–life fatigue

N. E. DOWLING
Materials Science and Engineering Department, and Engineering Science and Mechanics Department ( Jointly Appointed), Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA

Received in final form 2 September 2009

A B S T R A C T A mean stress equation can be incorporated into the strain–life curve in a manner that is
consistent with the stress-based use of the same equation. Doing so for the Walker mean
stress relationship gives excellent results for a number of strain–life data sets with non-
zero mean stresses, including data on steels, one titanium alloy and aluminium alloys. This
approach has a number of advantages: All data at all mean stresses can be combined into a
single fitting procedure to determine the constants for the stress–life curve, which values
also apply to the elastic strain term of the strain–life curve. The Walker parameter γ that
also arises from this fitting is related to the sensitivity of the material to mean stress, giving
this approach a versatility that is not possessed by other common mean stress methods.
Where non-zero mean stress data are not available to obtain γ from fitting, an equation
based on existing fitted values can be used to make estimates for steels. For precipitation-
hardened aluminium alloys in the 2000 and 7000 series, an estimate of γ = 0.5 may be
applied, so that the method becomes similar to that of Smith, Watson and Topper. For
other metals, a default estimate of γ = 0.5 is suggested. For life estimates using the strain-
based approach, it is recommended that the Walker mean stress method, incorporated
into the strain–life curve, should be employed as an alternative to other methods, or
perhaps to even replace them entirely.

Keywords fatigue of materials; mean stress effects; Morrow equation; Smith–Watson–

Topper equation; strain–life curve; Walker equation.

NOMENCLATURE b = exponent constant for a stress–life curve

bw = exponent constant for a Walker method stress–life fit
b2 = exponent constant for the short-life portion of a two-segment stress–life curve
c = exponent constant for a plastic strain versus life curve
cw = exponent constant for a plastic strain versus Walker–equivalent–life curve
d = intercept constant for multiple linear regression
E = elastic modulus
H  = intercept constant for a stress amplitude versus plastic strain amplitude curve
m1 , m2 = slope constants for multiple linear regression
n = exponent constant for a stress amplitude versus plastic strain amplitude curve
N ∗ = life for a given ε a for the σm = 0 case
N f = fatigue life; cycles to failure
N i = cycle number for the intersection point for a two-segment stress–life curve
∗
Nmf = value of N ∗ from the Morrow fracture method
Nmi = value of N ∗ from the Morrow intercept method
∗
∗
Nswt = value of N ∗ from the SWT method

Correspondence: N. E. Dowling. E-mail: ndowling@vt.edu

1004 
c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
 MEAN STRESS EFFECTS IN STRAIN–LIFE FATIGUE 1005

Nw∗ = value of N ∗ from the Walker method; Walker equivalent life

N 2 = cycle number for partitioning stress–life data into two fitting regions, N2 ≈ Ni
R = stress ratio, R = σmin /σmax
Rε = strain ratio, Rε = εmin /εmax
ε = strain range, ε = 2εa
ε p = plastic strain range, ε p = 2εpa
σ = stress range, σ = 2σa
ε a = strain amplitude
ε ai = strain amplitude at N i for cases with a two-segment stress–life curve
ε ar = strain amplitude for the σm = 0 case
ε f = intercept constant at 1/2 cycle for a plastic strain versus life curve

εfw = intercept constant at 1/2 cycle for a plastic strain versus
Walker–equivalent–life curve
ε m = mean strain
ε pa = plastic strain amplitude
γ = fitting constant for the Walker method
σ a = stress amplitude
σ ar = stress amplitude for the σm = 0 case; equivalent completely reversed stress
amplitude
σ f = intercept constant at 1/2 cycle for a stress–life curve
σ̃fB = true fracture strength, corrected

σfw = intercept constant at 1/2 cycle for a Walker method stress–life fit
σf2 = intercept constant at 1/2 cycle for the short-life portion of a two-segment
stress–life curve
σ m = mean stress
σ max = maximum stress
σ min = minimum stress
σ o = offset yield strength, 0.2%
σ u = ultimate tensile strength

INTRODUCTION that arise from Fig. 1 are

Fatigue life estimates employing a strain-based approach σmax
σa = (1 − R) (a)
necessarily include the effect of mean stress. This paper 2
(1)
discusses methods of incorporating the variable of mean σmax
σm = (1 + R). (b)
stress into strain–life equations, and a number of sets of 2
test data are compared with strain–life equations gener- Analogous nomenclature and definitions are also applied
alized using the Walker mean stress method. Emphasis to strain: εa is strain amplitude, ε = 2εa is strain range,
is placed on the Walker method, as previous work1,2 in a εm is mean strain, and Rε = εmin /εmax is the strain ratio.
stress–life context has shown that it is superior to other
common methods of handling mean stress effects.
σmax
σ
σm σa
Definitions
Δσ
It is useful to present some definitions and equations that 0
will be needed. The nomenclature employed for a cycli-
cally varying stress is defined in Fig. 1, where σmax and σmin t σa
are the maximum and minimum stresses, respectively, σa σmin
is stress amplitude, σm is mean stress, and σ = 2σa is the
stress range. The stress ratio R = σmin /σmax is also em- Fig. 1 Constant amplitude cyclic stressing and definitions of stress
ployed. Some useful relationships among these quantities variables.


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
1006 N. E. DOWLING
σ, Stress
E This is a form of the familiar Ramberg–Osgood equation.
Δσ
0 ε, Strain
Δεp Δσ / E
Δε
Fig. 2 Stable stress–strain hysteresis loop.
In strain–life tests, a stress–strain hysteresis loop
recorded near half of the fatigue life is employed to
determine stable values of stress range σ , strain range
ε, and plastic strain range ε p , as illustrated in Fig. 2.
These ranges are usually converted to amplitude quan-
tities, that is, half ranges. For stress, strain, and plastic
strain, respectively, the amplitudes are
σa = σ /2, εa = ε/2, εpa = ε p /2.
If the hysteresis loop is not at least approximately sym-
metrical about zero stress, then the stable mean stress
σm = (σmax + σmin )/2 is also determined.
Cyclic stress–strain and strain–life curves
For a series of tests at different strain levels on a given ma-
terial, curve fitting using these amplitudes and the fatigue
life N f provides a stable (half-life) cyclic stress–strain curve
and a strain–life curve. To obtain the cyclic stress–strain
curve, it is useful to note that σa /E is the elastic strain
amplitude, where E is the elastic modulus. Further, the
total strain amplitude εa is given by the sum of its elastic
and plastic components
σa
εa = + εpa .
E this relationship can now be stated as
Using stress amplitudes σa and plastic strain amplitudes
εpa from the stable stress–strain hysteresis loops, a power
relationship fit is performed
n
σa = H  εpa .
Here, H  and n are evaluated by least-squares regression.
Solving for the plastic strain amplitude in Eq. (4) and ap-
plying Eq. (3) then gives the desired relationship between
the amplitudes of stress and total strain
σa  σa 1/n
εa = + . (5)
E H
To fit the strain–life curve, we employ stress ampli-
tudes σa and plastic strain amplitudes εpa from the stable
stress–strain hysteresis loops, along with the correspond-
ing cyclic fatigue life N f for each test. Separate power
relationships are fitted to stress versus life and to plastic
strain versus life
σa = σ f (2N f )b , εpa = ε f (2N f )c . (a, b) (6)
In these fits, note that the life N f should be the inde-
pendent variable. Applying Eq. (3) then gives the desired
strain–life curve
σ f
εa = (2N f )b + ε f (2N f )c . (7)
E
Usually, only data for completely reversed (zero mean
stress) tests are employed, so that the fitting constants σ f ,
b, ε f and c are considered to represent materials prop-
erties for the zero mean stress case. Equation (7) is the
commonly accepted form for the strain–life relationship.
Eliminating N f between Eqs (6a) and (b) and compar-
ison with Eq. (4) leads to the estimates n = b/c and
H  = σ f /ε f b/c . However, the result may differ consid-
erably from an actual Eq. (4) fit to the cyclic stress–strain
(2) data, so that these estimates are not used here.
In the remainder of this paper, we will first review mean
stress effects in stress–life fatigue. Then we will con-
sider generalizing the strain–life equation to include mean
stress effects. Next, a number of sets of test data will be
compared with the strain–life equation generalized using
the Walker mean stress method. Comparisons with other
methods are then considered, followed by concluding
remarks.
MEAN STRESS EFFECTS IN
STRESS–LIFE FATIGUE
Let us define the special case of stress amplitude where
the mean stress is zero as σar , the completely reversed stress
amplitude. Because the fitting constants σ f and b for
Eq. (6a) are obtained from tests with zero mean stress,
(3)
σar = σ f (2N f )b . (8)
To obtain the estimated fatigue life N f for cases of non-
zero mean stress, an additional equation
(4)
σar = f (σa , σm ) (9)
is needed to calculate σar for use with Eq. (8). In this
context, σar can be thought of as an equivalent completely

c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
 MEAN STRESS EFFECTS IN STRAIN–LIFE FATIGUE 1007

reversed stress amplitude. Some of the more widely applied Because σmax = σm + σa , Eqs (12) and (13) also provide a
mean stress methods, expressed as particular equations relationship σar = f (σa , σm ). Values of γ for Eq. (13) are
σar = f (σa , σm ), will now be given. usually in the range 0.4 to 0.8. If γ = 0.5, Eq. (13) is seen
to reduce to Eq. (12), and the Walker and SWT equations
Mean stress methods become the same. The quantity (1− γ ) can be thought of
The ubiquitous Goodman relationship,3 as employed by as a measure of the material’s sensitivity to mean stress.
J. O. Smith,4 includes the ultimate tensile strength, σu , Hence, a metal with γ = 0.4 is quite sensitive to mean
stress, and one with γ = 0.8 is relatively insensitive.
σa In applying Eqs (10) to (13), note that tensile mean
σar = . (10)
1 − σm /σu stresses have a positive algebraic sign, and compressive
On a plot of σa /σar versus σm , this relationship gives a ones a negative sign. Also, for any given stress amplitude,
straight line passing through the two points (σa /σar , σm ) = each of Eqs (10) to (13) has a mathematical form that
(1, 0) and (0, σu ), which plot is often called a Goodman causes the value of σar to increase as mean stress increases
diagram. from negative values through zero to positive values. In
Morrow5 proposed employing the same form, but with turn, estimates of fatigue life N f as from Eq. (8) decrease.
σu replaced by the true fracture strength σ̃fB , as corrected Also, Eqs (12) and (13) are mathematically indeterminate
according to Bridgman.6 An alternate equation that is if the mean stress is compressive to such a degree that
often used is obtained by similarly employing the fitting σmax < 0, that is, if the stress never extends into tension.
constant σ f , so that the two forms are In such cases, the interpretations σar = 0 and infinite life
are appropriate.
σa σa Numerous additional equations for estimating mean
σar =  , σar =  . (a, b) (11)
1 − σm σ̃fB 1 − σm σ f stress effects have been proposed, with some others being
discussed by Nihei et al.10 and by Chu.11
For Eqs (6a) and (8), note that σ f is the stress intercept
at N f = 0.5 cycles. Interpreting a tension test as a fatigue Comparison of methods
test with this life implies the estimate σ f = σ̃fB , which
logic leads to Eq. (11b). The σ f = σ̃fB estimate is often Relationships σar = f (σa , σm ) can be compared with test
quite good for steels, as shown by Landgraf,7 but may be data on amplitude–mean plots, such as the Goodman di-
very inaccurate for aluminium alloys.2 agram. Alternatively, values of σar corresponding to the
Smith, Watson, and Topper8 proposed that the life is stresses applied in fatigue tests can be plotted versus the
determined by the geometric mean of the maximum stress resulting experimental fatigue lives N f , as shown for one
and the stress amplitude set of data in Fig. 3. Then the degree to which the result-
ing data points consolidate with the line of Eq. (8) gives
√
σar = σmax σa (a) an indication of the success of the mean stress relationship
 employed to determine the σar values.
1− R
σar = σmax (b) In previous work,2 a number of sets of fatigue data
2 (12) that included mean stress effects were analysed. In

2
σar = σa . (c)
1− R 1000

Form (b) and (c) are equivalent to (a) and are obtained
from (a) by substitutions based on Eq. (1a). This method
has the advantage of simplicity and of not depending on
σar , MPa

any material constant. For brevity, we will call this the

SWT method. Mean Strain
The equation of Walker9 is similar but involves an addi- 0
tional materials property, here denoted γ . Three corre- 0.015 42CrMo4 Steel
sponding equivalent forms are -0.015 σu = 1111 MPa γ = 0.778
Fit
1−γ γ
σar = σmax σa (a) 100
 γ 10 2 103 104 105 106
1− R
σar = σmax (b) N f , Cycles
2 (13)
 1−γ
2 Fig. 3 Equivalent completely reversed stress amplitude versus life
σar = σa . (c)
1− R for the Walker method for 42CrMo4 steel.


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
1008 N. E. DOWLING

particular, 28 sets of data were analysed, 18 for steels, various mean stresses all together, with γ being obtained
one for a titanium alloy and 9 for aluminium alloys. Each as part of the fitting process.
set of data was compared with each of Eqs (10) to (13), To perform such a fit, start by substituting the σar ex-
with both amplitude–mean plots and σar versus N f plots pression of Eq. (13b) into Eq. (8). Then solve for 2N f ,
being examined. For the σar versus N f plots, the standard and next take the logarithm of both sides of the resulting
deviations of the stress–direction scatter about the Eq. (8) expression, which yields
lines were calculated as a means of quantitatively compar-  
1 γ 1− R 1
ing the various methods. The conclusions of this previous log (2N f ) = log σmax + log − log σ f .
study are as follows: b b 2 b
(15)
1 The Goodman method employing the ultimate tensile Then apply a multiple linear regression
strength σu is highly inaccurate and should not be em-
y = m1 x1 + m2 x2 + d , (16)
ployed where life estimates are desired in fatigue analysis.
2 The Morrow equation with the true fracture strength where
σ̃fB is reasonably accurate in most cases. However, true
y = log (2N f ), x1 = log σmax
fracture strengths are often unavailable and then must be  
estimated. 1− R (17)
x2 = log .
3 The Morrow method with the intercept constant σ f is 2
also reasonably accurate for steels, but often gives grossly
Fitting provides values of m1 , m2 and d, which in turn
non-conservative life estimates for aluminium alloys.
permit the desired constants σ f , b and γ to be determined
4 The SWT method provides good results in most cases,
and for aluminium alloys it is somewhat more accurate 1 m2
b= , γ = bm2 =
than the Morrow σ̃fB equation. The SWT method has the m1 m1 (18)
advantage of simplicity and is a good choice for general σ f = 10−db = 10−d /m1 .
use.
5 Where data are available for fitting the adjustable param- To distinguish values of σ f and b obtained by this pro-
eter γ , the Walker method gives superior results. cedure from those obtained by mere fitting of zero mean
6 Values of γ decrease with ultimate tensile strength stress data, subscripts w for Walker are added, so that

σu . For hardened aluminium alloys, values are around the resulting three constants are denoted σfw , b w and γ .
γ = 0.5, but may be as high as 0.65 for relatively low- Hence, the fitted stress–life curve is
strength aluminium alloys. For steels, values range from 
around 0.8 for low σu down to around 0.4 for high σu and σar = σfw (2N f )b w (19)
can be estimated from with σar given by Eq. (13) and the fitted γ .
γ = −0.0002000 σu + 0.8818 (σu in MPa) (14)

STRAIN–LIFE EQUATIONS WITH

In additional work on high-strength aluminium alloys,12
the above conclusions were found to also apply to two
additional sets of data.
As a result of the above conclusions, this paper will em-
phasize the Walker method and its incorporation into the
strain–life equation. Before considering strain–life equa-
tions, it is useful to summarize the method of fitting test
data to evaluate the Walker parameter γ , which now
follows.
Fitting the Walker equation
To make a fatigue life estimate using any one of the Good-
man, Morrow, or SWT relationships, the σar value from
one of Eqs (10) to (12) is employed with Eq. (8), which
is based on fitting only the test data for completely re-
versed (σm = 0) loading. In contrast, the Walker relation-
ship provides an opportunity to fit fatigue life data at
MEAN STRESS
A mean stress equation of the form σar = f (σa , σm ), such
as any one of Eqs (10) to (13), can be incorporated into the
strain–life relationship in a manner that is mathematically
consistent with its stress–life application. Details and some
appropriate discussion follow.
Incorporating mean stress effects into
strain–life equations
To include mean stress effects in the strain–life relation-
ship, first combine Eqs (8) and (9) as follows:
f (σa , σm )
σar = f (σa , σm ) = σa = σ f (2N f )b . (20)
σa
Then solve for the stress amplitude σa that is in the nu-
merator after the second equals sign, and manipulate the


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 MEAN STRESS EFFECTS IN STRAIN–LIFE FATIGUE 1009

remaining stress quantities to be within brackets with N f , Eq. (22) gives

allowing us to define an equivalent life N ∗  
σm 1/b
 1/b
b
∗
Nmf = N f 1 − . (25)
 σa σ̃fB
σa = σ f 2N f = σ f (2N∗ )b . (21)
f (σa , σm ) Note that subscripts mf are added to N ∗ to specify the
An explicit expression for N ∗ is thus Morrow equation based on the true fracture strength.
Where σ f ≈ σ̃fB might be a good approximation, as for
 1/b
∗ σa steels, Eq. (11b) applies, so that
N = Nf . (22)
f (σa , σm )  1/b
∗ σm
Hence, one can determine the life N ∗ that is expected for Nmi = N f 1 −  . (26)
σf
a given stress amplitude σa under zero mean stress, and
then solve Eq. (22) to obtain the life N f as affected by a The added subscripts now indicate Morrow and intercept.
non-zero mean stress For the Walker relationship, the form of Eq. (13c) and
 −1/b Eq. (22) give
σa
N f = N∗ . (23)  
f (σa , σm ) 1 − R (1−γ )/b
∗
Nw = N f , (27)
The effect on life should be the same regardless of whether 2
one employs a stress–life or a strain–life curve. This per-
where subscript w of course specifies Walker. Letting
mits Eq. (7) to be generalized to
γ = 0.5 gives us the special case for the stress-based SWT
σ f relationship, Eq. (12),
εa = (2N∗ )b + ε f (2N ∗ )c , (24)  
E 1 − R 1/(2b)
∗
where N ∗ is the life calculated from the strain amplitude Nswt = Nf . (28)
2
εa as if the mean stress were zero, and then N f as affected
by the non-zero mean stress is obtained from Eq. (23). Any of Eqs (25) to (28) can of course be substituted
Also, on a strain–life plot, data plotted as εa versus the into Eq. (24) to obtain a single strain–life equation that
equivalent life N ∗ are expected all fall together along the includes the additional variable of mean stress or stress
curve for zero mean stress, Eq. (7). This is demonstrated ratio R. For example, for the Morrow form of Eq. (11b),
in Fig. 4 for the same set of steel data as in Fig. 3, where the result, after some manipulation, is
the particular f (σa , σm ) is in this case based on the Walker    c /b
σ f σm  σm
expression, Eq. (13). εa = 1 −  (2N f ) + ε f 1 − 
b
(2N f )c .
E σf σf
(29)
Particular cases
Similarly, for the Walker relationship of Eq. (13), after
Now let us consider particular cases of σar = f (σa , σm ).
some manipulation, we have
For the Morrow form of Eq. (11a), substitution into
 
σ f 1 − R (1−γ )
εa = (2N f )b
E 2
0.1  
42CrMo4 Steel Mean Strain 1 − R c (1−γ )/b
+ ε f (2N f )c . (30)
σu = 1111 MPa 0 2
εa , Strain Amplitude

0.015
-0.015
Fit Discussion
0.01
From Eq. (24), it is seen that Eq. (23) is applied to
both terms of the strain–life equation. The resulting spe-
cific expressions for the strain–life curve, such as Eqs
γ = 0.778
(29) and (30), differ from some previous proposals in
0.001
the mathematical form of the plastic strain term. Equa-
102 103 104 105 106 107 tion (30) is also unique due to the material constant γ
*
N w , Walker Equivalent Cycles
being included.
From the derivation above, it is clear that the original
Fig. 4 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for 42CrMo4 presentation of the Morrow equation5 in terms of stress,
steel. as in Eq. (11b), is consistent with Eq. (29). However, a


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
1010 N. E. DOWLING

different form is often used,13 which we will call this the alloys, and within each category the materials are ordered
modified Morrow equation according to the ultimate tensile strength σu .

σ f σm
εa = 1 −  (2N f )b + ε f (2N f )c . (31)
E σf
Obviously, Eqs (29) and (31) differ by the mean stress
expression being absent in the plastic strain term of the
latter.
Where large cyclic plastic strains occur locally at a stress
raiser, causing the plastic strain term to be dominant,
mean stresses are limited to relatively small values by the
plasticity behaviour and by mean stress relaxation. Hence,
the difference between Eqs (29) and (31) may not have a
large effect on life estimates. For situations where most
of the fatigue damage is associated with relatively low
stress levels, either is expected to give reasonable results
in cases where the Eq. (11b) form works well in a stress–life
context, as for steels, but not for aluminium alloys.
In the original work on the SWT equation,8 the follow-
ing extension to cases involving cyclic plasticity is given:
 2
σf
σmax εa = (2N f )2b + σ f ε f (2N f )b+c . (32)
E
Equation (32) can be expressed as a strain–life equation
by employing Eq. (12b) along with σmax εa = σar εar , with
εar given by Eq. (7). The result is
    
1 − R 1/2 σ f
εa = (2N f )b + ε f (2N f )c . (33)
2 E
This expression differs from the γ = 0.5 special case of
Eq. (30) as to the mean stress effect on the plastic strain
term, while being consistent for the elastic strain term.
Following the same logic as for the Eq. (29) versus (31)
comparison above, Eqs (30) and (32) are expected to give
similar results where most of the fatigue damage is asso-
ciated with relatively low stress levels, but only where γ
is around 0.5. Equation (32) should not be applied where
γ differs markedly from 0.5.
COMPARISONS WITH TEST DATA
Of the 28 sets of data analysed previously,2 18 included
strain-controlled tests at relatively short lives, and also
measured values of non-zero mean stress, so that these
can be further analysed to obtain strain–life curves with
the mean stress effect included. The materials and lit-
erature sources are given in Table 1, along with tensile
properties and constants for the cyclic stress–strain curve
in the form of Eq. (5). In some cases, constants for Eq. (5)
as given in the literature source seemed to represent the
data well, and so these were adopted. In other cases, new
fits using Eq. (4) were done. Note that the data in Table 1
are grouped by steels, one titanium alloy, and aluminium
Comments on the data sets
Most of the data sets involved only strain-controlled tests.
In some of these, non-zero values of mean strain εm were
employed, and the resulting biased stress–strain behaviour
caused non-zero mean stresses to occur. In other cases,
constant values of strain ratio Rε were applied to achieve
a range of non-zero mean stresses. Even for completely re-
versed tests, corresponding to εm = 0 and Rε = −1, small
values of mean stress often occur, and these are considered
in the analysis where values are reported.
Six of the 18 data sets included force-controlled tests,
that is, stress-controlled tests, with constant values of
mean stress or of stress ratio R. Strain amplitudes were
not always reported for such tests, so that any missing
εa values were calculated from stress amplitudes σa using
Eq. (5). Also, plastic strain amplitudes εpa were specifi-
cally reported in some data sets, but not in others, and not
in the data obtained from the handbooks of Baumel and
Seeger15 and of Boller and Seeger.20 As εpa values were
required for some of the data fitting, these were estimated
where necessary from the reported εa and σa values using
Eq. (3) in the form
σa
εpa = εa − . (34)
E
For new fits of the cyclic stress–strain curve using
Eq. (4), small values of εpa were sometimes observed to
depart from the trend of the other data, compromising
the fit. This was especially true for εpa values estimated
from Eq. (34). Such points were omitted, and the fit was
confined to the larger εpa values, so that Eq. (5) would bet-
ter represented the overall εa versus σa trend. An example
is given in Fig. 5, where (a) shows the σa versus εpa fit,
and (b) the resulting cyclic stress–strain curve, σa versus
εa , with both data and the Eq. (5) curve shown.
For some data sets, the samples were subjected to sev-
eral cycles of initial overstrain at a level around ±1 to
±2% strain. This follows the logic of Topper and cowork-
ers,22,23 who show that such overstrains are useful in
advancing the fatigue damage process, giving behaviour
similar to that during service loading with occasional se-
vere cycles. These cases are identified by a footnote in
Table 1.
In stress-controlled tests, if the stress amplitude is suffi-
ciently large to cause considerable cyclic plasticity, then
unstable cycle-dependent creep (ratcheting) behaviour
may occur, and the failure may shift to a ductile necking
mechanism, as in a tension test, that is not representative
of fatigue behaviour. However, for the six sets of data in-
volved, the stress amplitudes for the non-zero mean stress
tests were in most cases well below the 0.2% offset yield

c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
 MEAN STRESS EFFECTS IN STRAIN–LIFE FATIGUE 1011

Table 1 Materials, tensile properties and cyclic stress–strain curve constants

Cyclic σ -ε curve
Yield Ultimate Fracture Red. areaf

σo σu σ̃fB (Elong.) H E
Materiala Sourceb MPa MPa MPa % MPa n MPa

SAE 1015 St 8, 14 228 415 726 67.9 1349 0.282 207 000
GSMnNi63 Stc,d 15 312 501 846 (26) 926 0.151 203 000
Ck 45 St 15 531 790 1271 60 1079 0.133 210 500
49MnVS3 St 15 566 840 1152 44 1396 0.159 210 200
17MnCrMo33 St 15 833 929 1446 58 1248 0.1170 214 000
CC 450 SS, H1150d 16 678 1015 1360 (23.2) 1280 0.0621 191 000
CC 450 SS, Soln And 16 1041 1065 1410 (12.2) 1326 0.0800 190 000
50CrMo4 St, El Pol 15 970 1086 1609 48.6 1568 0.130 205 000
42CrMo4 St 15 998 1111 1525 60 1368 0.104 211 400
AISI 4340 Stc 17 1103 1172 1634 56 1655 0.1310 207 000
CC 450 SS, H900d 16 1354 1405 1750 (15.3) 2123 0.0885 202 000
SAE 1045 St, 705 HB 18 1827 2082 2131 2 4238 0.1017 199 955
SAE 1045 St, 55 HRC 19 1731 2165 2690 38 3082 0.075 205 000
SAE 1045 St, 595 HB 18 1841 2248 2717 40.5 3246 0.0918 206 700
Ti-6Al-4V c,e 15 1006 1034 1271 (14.5) 1703 0.127 120 400
Al Mg4.5Mn, Cld Rlc,e 15, 20 298 363 476 (13) 567.7 0.0827 71 500
2024-T4 Alc 21, 22 303 476 631 35 868 0.1160 73 100
2024-T3 Alc,e 15 378 486 578 (17.3) 590.1 0.0404 74 500

a Abbreviations: St = steel, SS = stainless steel, Al = aluminium alloy, HB = Brinell hardness, HRC = Rockwell hardness, El Pol =
electropolished, Soln An = solution annealed, H900, etc. = heat treatment conditions, Cld Rl = cold rolled.
b Numbers refer to the list of References at the end of the paper.
c Samples initially overstrained before fatigue testing.
d True fracture strength estimated from σ + 345 MPa.
u
e True fracture strengths estimated by scaling data on similar material.
f Reduction in area is listed, or if not available, elongation is listed.

strength of the cyclic stress–strain curve, Eq. (5). The only Fitting of strain amplitude versus
exceptions are for SAE 1015 steel, where the stress am- Walker–equivalent–life curves
plitudes for three tests are near the cyclic yield level, two
Strain amplitude versus Walker–equivalent–life curves as
slightly below and one slightly above, and for 50CrMo4
in Fig. 4 were fitted for all of the data sets. Such curves
steel, where one stress amplitude was slightly below the
correspond to Eq. (24) and are given more precisely by
cyclic yield level. No anomalous behaviour in life seems

to have resulted for SAE 1015 steel. The data point for σfw ∗ b w ∗ c w

εa = 2Nw + εfw 2Nw (a)
this 50CrMo4 steel test result lies considerably below the E
curve on a Fig. 4 type strain–life plot, but no correspond-  
∗ 1 − R (1−γ )/b w
ing anomaly is apparent on a Fig. 3 type stress–life plot,2 Nw = N f . (b) (35)
2
and so there is some unknown discrepancy. Hence, ratch-

eting behaviour appears to have little or no effect in the The constants σfw , b w and γ are obtained by stress–life
data analysis reported here. fitting according to Eqs (15) to (19), as described earlier.
Some of the data sets had a small number of points at lives These values are given in Table 2 and are the same as
around or beyond N f = 106 cycles that departed from the in the previous paper.2 The equation for Nw∗ above is
trend of the data at shorter lives, and there were sometimes the same as Eq. (27), but is repeated to show specifically
tests that were stopped without failure (runouts). Data of that b w is employed. Note that the first (elastic strain)
these types are not included in the analysis. Also, in some term of (a) is consistent with the logic of Eqs (20) to (22).
data sets, one or a few data points were omitted at very The form shown can be verified by substituting σar from
short lives, that is, around N f < 50 cycles, and especially Eq. (13c) into Eq. (19), solving for σa , and then dividing
N f < 10 cycles, where these seemed to exhibit anomalous by E to obtain the elastic strain amplitude, σa /E.
behaviour, perhaps caused by buckling. Table 2 gives the The second term of Eq. (35) is analogous to Eq. (6b) and
cyclic range of the data analysed for each data set, along corresponds to the plastic strain amplitude, εpa , which
with fitting constants that will be discussed next. is added to the elastic strain amplitude according to


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
1012 N. E. DOWLING

1000 inaccurate, and even if accurate, they may be affected by

< 0.0004 a transition in behaviour that should not be allowed to
σa , Stress Amplitude, MPa

not in fit compromise the overall fit at higher strain levels.

The elastic strain line corresponding to the stress–life fit
for this material, Fig. 3, is also shown in Fig. 6. Note that
the excluded points are below this elastic line by around
(a) a factor of 10 or more in strain, so that the elastic strain
term of Eq. (35a) is dominant in this region. Hence, the
exact fitting of the excluded points has little effect on
2024-T4 Al, Prestrained the overall strain–life curve of Fig. 4, whereas fitting of
100 the points at high strain has a large effect. Note that the
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 same considerations involving small values of plastic strain
εpa , Plastic Strain Amplitude also apply in fitting the cyclic stress–strain curve, further
explaining why points need to be similarly excluded, as in
700
Fig. 5(a).
600 Strain amplitude versus Walker–equivalent–life curves
σa , Stress Amplitude, MPa

fitted as just described are shown along with test data

50 0 in Figs 7–20 for the remaining steels and the titanium
400
alloy. These fits each represent the associated data well,
as indicated by most data points correlating closely with
300 (b) the fitted curve.

200 Special fitting procedure for aluminium alloys

100
2024-T4 Al, Prestrained
0 which is shown for one case in Fig. 21. The rather distinct
0.00 0.02 0.04
εa , Strain Amplitude
Fig. 5 Cyclic stress–strain curve for 2024-T4 aluminium, showing
(a) stress amplitude versus plastic strain amplitude data and fit, and
(b) the resulting stress amplitude versus total strain amplitude curve.
Eq. (3)

∗ c w
εpa = εfw 2Nw .

For fitting to obtain the constants εfw and c w , values of Nw∗
are first calculated from Eq. (35b) using b w and γ from the
stress–life fit. Then a linear-least-squares fit is performed
with log (2Nw∗ ) as the dependent variable and log εpa as the
independent variable. Values of the constants for Eq. (36)
for each data set are also given in Table 2, as is a level of
plastic strain below which points were excluded from the
fit.
An example of data and fitting to Eq. (36) is shown in
Fig. 6, where the data set involved is the same one as for
Figs 3 and 4. The values of εpa , which were in this case
estimated from Eq. (34), begin to scatter excessively for
εpa < 0.0005, so that points below this level were excluded
from the fit. Note that small values of plastic strain am-
 
plitude estimated from Eq. (34) are basically meaningless,
as the calculation involves subtracting two nearly equal
quantities that both contain experimental error. Even
measured values of small plastic strain are likely to be
For the three aluminium alloys, the stress–life curves ex-
hibit a transition to a shallow slope at intermediate lives,
0.06 0.08 transition between the two regions occurs at a life that we
will denote as N f = Ni . For each of the three aluminium
alloys, virtually all of the data at mean stresses that dif-
fer significantly from zero are confined to the longer life
regions, N f ≥ Ni . This is the case because the N f ≤ Ni
regions involve sufficiently high strains that mean stresses
relax close to zero in strain-controlled tests, or unsta-
ble cyclic creep behaviour (ratcheting) occurs in stress-
controlled tests. Hence, it is not useful or even feasible
(36)
to try to determine a specific value of γ for the N f ≤ Ni
region, and the γ obtained for N f ≥ Ni is used at all lives.
In the longer life region, the multiple regression pro-
cedure of Eqs (15) to (19) is performed as before. The
transition was handled by choosing a number of cycles
N 2 as the apparent separation between the two regions,
and performing the multiple regression for N f > N2 . The
data for N f < N2 were then fitted separately, with the fit-
ting constants being identified by adding a subscript 2
σar = σf2 (2N f )b 2 . (37)
To determine Ni , the number of cycles for the intersection
point of the two fits, substitute σar from Eq. (19) into
Eq. (37) and solve for N f = Ni . The result is
log σfw /σf2
log (2Ni ) =
b2 − bw (38)
1 log (2Ni )
Ni = 10 .
2


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
 MEAN STRESS EFFECTS IN STRAIN–LIFE FATIGUE 1013

Table 2 Range of cyclic data and fitting constants for stress versus life and plastic strain versus life fits

Range of data Stress versus life (Walker) fit Plastic strain versus life fit

Min Max σfw , MPa bw γ Fit range
Material Sourcea cycles cycles (σf2 , MPa) (b2 ) (N i , cycles) 
εfw cw εpa ≥

SAE 1015 St 8, 14 52 1 241 000 990 −0.1336 0.7352 0.4391 −0.5127 0.0006
GSMnNi63 St 15 15 1 900 000 739 −0.0925 0.8113 0.1268 −0.5407 0.00025
Ck 45 St 15 217 620 000 1217 −0.0936 0.6949 0.4635 −0.5251 0.00055
49MnVS3 St 15 246 1 710 000 1263 −0.0899 0.8492 0.4659 −0.5471 0.00046
17MnCrMo33 St 15 23 2 840 000 1275 −0.0752 0.6575 1.1165 −0.6534 0.00055
CC 450 SS, H1150 16 157 72 950 1453 −0.0668 0.6253 0.4660 −0.7251 0.00009
CC 450 SS, Soln An 16 231 94 613 2046 −0.1078 0.7051 1.1543 −0.7834 0.00002
50CrMo4 St, El Pol 15 52 380 000 1588 −0.0899 0.7776 0.8877 −0.6474 0.0004
42CrMo4 St 15 248 520 000 1505 −0.0810 0.7781 0.6510 −0.6040 0.0005
AISI 4340 St 17 222 901 430 1963 −0.1077 0.6497 1.8656 −0.7597 0.0001
CC 450 SS, H900 16 223 90 941 2839 −0.1083 0.4758 0.1869 −0.6516 0.00003
SAE 1045 St, 705 HB 18 2.5 161 250 2370 −0.0728 0.4839 0.00153 −0.4210 0.0002
SAE 1045 St, 55 HRC 19 26 750 791 3762 −0.1147 0.4286 0.0759 −0.5951 0.00007
SAE 1045 St, 595 HB 18 20 572 000 3034 −0.0985 0.5245 0.2035 −0.8525 0.0002
Ti-6Al-4V 15 214 1 100 000 2452 −0.1379 0.5431 2.863 −0.8655 0.00022
Al Mg4.5Mn, Cld Rl 15, 20 9 2 000 000 1045 −0.1394 0.6681 0.4722 −0.7623 0.00037
(542) (−0.0657) (3695)
2024-T4 Al 21, 22 5 1 836 000 2499 −0.1969 0.5031 0.3882 −0.6823 0.0004
(746) (−0.0693) (6510)
2024-T3 Al 15 77 2 700 000 1611 −0.1529 0.5655 1.4650 −0.8904 0.00066
(667) (−0.0516) (3017)

a Numbers refer to the list of References at the end of the paper.

0.1
εpa , Plastic Strain Amplitude

0.1
42CrMo4 Steel, σu = 1111 MPa
SAE 1015 Steel
plastic
γ = 0.735
εa , Strain Amplitude

0.01
elastic 0.01
0
0.001
34.5
< 0.0005 69
not in fit 0.001 103
0.0001 -34.5
-69
Mean Stress, MPa
Fit
0.00001 0.0001
102 103 104 105 106 107 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
Nw
* , Walker Equivalent Cycles
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 6 Plastic strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for Fig. 7 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for SAE 1015
42CrMo4 steel. steel.

Values of both sets of stress–life fitting constants and Eq. (37)

of Ni are given in Table 2 for the three aluminium σf2 b 2 ∗ c w
alloys. εa = 2Nw∗ 
+ εfw 2Nw (a)
There was no similar transition in the εpa versus Nw∗ E
 (1−γ )/b 2
trend, so that the Eq. (36) fit is done as before. Thus, 1− R (39)
Nw∗ = N f (b)
the strain–life curve given by Eq. (35) applies, but now 2
only for Nw∗ ≥ Ni , that is, for εa ≤ εai , where εai is
(Nw∗ ≤ Ni , εa ≥ εai ). (c)
the strain value calculated by substituting Nw∗ = Ni into
Eq. (35a). Then for Nw∗ ≤ Ni , that is, for εa ≥ εai , a Of course, the stress–life transition causes a corre-
strain–life equation is needed that has the same form as sponding discontinuity in the overall strain amplitude
Eq. (35), but with the stress–life constants being those of versus Walker–equivalent–life curve. This can be seen in


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
1014 N. E. DOWLING

0.1 0.1
Mean Strain 17MnCrMo33 Steel
γ = 0.811 Mean Strain
0 σu = 929 MPa 0

εa , Strain Amplitude
εa , Strain Amplitude

0.006 0.01
0.01 -0.006
0.10
F it
Fit
0.01

0.001
GSMnNi63 Steel
σu = 501 MPa γ = 0.658

0.0001 0.001
10 102 103 104 105 10 6 107 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 8 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for Fig. 11 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for
GSMnNi63 steel. 17MnCrMo33 steel.

0.1 0.1
Ck 45 Steel Mean Strain Strain Ratio
CC 450 SS, H1150
σu = 790 MPa 0 -1
εa , Strain Amplitude

0.012 εa , Strain Amplitude

0
-0.012 0.5
Fit Fit
0.01 0.01

γ = 0.695 γ = 0.625

0.001 0.001
102 103 104 105 106 107 102 103 104 105 106
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 9 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for Ck 45 Fig. 12 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for CC 450,
steel. H1150 stainless steel.

0.1 0.1
49MnVS3 Steel Mean Strain Strain Ratio
CC 450 SS, Soln Ann
σu = 840 MPa 0 -1
εa , Strain Amplitude

εa , Strain Amplitude

0.012 0
-0.012 0.5
Fit Fit
0.01 0.01

γ = 0.849 γ = 0.705
0.001 0.001
102 103 104 105 106 107 102 103 104 105 106
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 10 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for Fig. 13 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for solution
49MnVS3 steel. annealed CC 450 stainless steel.


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
 MEAN STRESS EFFECTS IN STRAIN–LIFE FATIGUE 1015

0.1
0.1
Mean Strain SAE 1045 Steel, HB = 705 Mean Stress, MPa
γ = 0.778
0 σu = 2082 MPa ~0
εa , Strain Amplitude

εa , Strain Amplitude
0.01 690
-0.01 -345
Stress R = 0 Fit
0.01 Stress R = -2 0.01
Fit

50CrMo4 Steel
σu = 1086 MPa
γ = 0.484
0.001 0.001
10 102 10 3 104 105 106 107
1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 14 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for

Fig. 17 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for SAE
50CrMo4 steel.
1045 steel, 705 HB.

0 .1 0.1
AISI 4340 Steel Mean Stress, MPa SAE 1045 Steel, 55 HRC Strain Ratio
σu = 1172 MPa 0 σu = 2165 MPa -1
εa , Strain Amplitude

εa , Strain Amplitude
207 0.5
414 0
621
-2
0 . 01 -207 0.01 Fit
Fit

γ = 0.429
γ = 0.650

0.001 0.001
10 2
10 3 4
10 105
10 6
10 7
10 8
10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 15 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for AISI Fig. 18 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for SAE
4340 steel. 1045 steel, 55 HRC.

0.1
0.1 SAE 1045 Steel, HB = 595 Mean Stress, MPa
CC 450 SS, H900 Strain Ratio σu = 2248 MPa ~0
εa , Strain Amplitude

-1 690
εa , Strain Amplitude

0 -345
0.5 Fit
Fit 0.01
0.01

γ = 0.525
γ = 0.476

0.001 0.001
2
10 10 3
104
105
10 6
10 7
10 8 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 16 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for CC 450, Fig. 19 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for SAE
H900 stainless steel. 1045 steel, 595 HB.


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
1016 N. E. DOWLING

0.1 0.1
Ti-6Al-4V, Prestrained Mean Strain Mean Stress, MPa
σu = 1034 MPa 0 0
εa , Strain Amplitude

εa , Strain Amplitude
0.01 ~ 72
-0.01 140 to 230
Fit ~ 29 0
0.01 0.01 -70 to -135
F it

γ = 0.503
γ = 0.543 2024-T4 Al, Prestrained
0.001 0.001
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1 101 102 103 104 1 05 106 107 108
N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 20 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for titanium Fig. 22 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for
6Al-4V alloy. 2024-T4 aluminium.

1000
2024-T4 Al, Prestrained 0.1
Mean Strain
γ = 0.668
0
γ = 0.503 εa , Strain Amplitude
0.01
-0.01
σ ar , M P a

0 Fit
~ 72 0. 01
140 to 230
~ 290
Al Mg4.5Mn
-70 to -135
Fit 1 σu = 363 MPa
Mean Stress, MPa
Fit 2 Prestrained
100 0.001
1 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
N f , Cycles N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles

Fig. 21 Equivalent completely reversed stress amplitude versus life Fig. 23 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for Al
for the Walker method for 2024-T4 aluminium. Mg4.5Mn alloy, cold rolled.

0.1
Fig. 22, which is the εa versus Nw∗ curve for the same
γ = 0.566 Mean Strain
set of data as in Fig. 21. For the additional two alu-
0
minium alloys, the εa versus Nw∗ curves are shown in
εa , Strain Amplitude

0.008
Figs 23 and 24. -0.008
The discontinuous fits for the three aluminium alloys Fi t
0.01
represent the associated data well, as indicated by most
data points correlating closely with the fitted curve. In
a separate paper,12 similar discontinuous fits using the
2024-T3 Al
Walker–equivalent–life were also found to be required Prestrained
and to work well for two high-strength aluminium alloys,
namely, 7075-T6511 and 7249-T76511 alloys. Moreover, 0.001
this procedure is likely to apply for aluminium alloys in 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
general, as discontinuous behaviour is seen in the com- N *w , Walker Equivalent Cycles
pletely reversed stress–life and strain–life curves for most
Fig. 24 Strain amplitude versus Walker equivalent life for
aluminium alloys.24 2024-T3 aluminium.


c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019

COMPARISONS WITH THE MORROW
AND SWT METHODS
If we consider the N ∗ expressions for the Morrow and
SWT methods of Eqs (25), (26) and (28), equivalent life
plots using Eq. (24) could also be made for each of these.
However, because such an application of these methods
is consistent with their stress-based use, strain–life com-
parisons among them and with the Walker method will
necessarily lead to the same conclusions as in the previous
paper,2 which were summarized earlier in this paper.
Now consider the strain–life forms for the modified
Morrow and SWT methods of Eqs (31) to (33), and note
that only the elastic strain terms of these are consistent
with the corresponding stress-based method. Neverthe-
less, similar trends are expected in the success of these
equations as are seen in the corresponding stress-based
comparisons, especially at relatively long lives where the
elastic strain terms dominate. Direct comparisons be-
tween the recommended Walker strain–life expression
and Eqs (31) to (33) is complicated by the differing math-
ematical forms, but this can be done for any particular
value of mean stress σm or of the stress ratio R. Some
comparisons for constant values of mean stress are given
in Figs 25 and 26.
The curves in Figs 25 and 26 were constructed using ma-
terials constants from Tables 1 and 2. For each of the two
materials indicated, a number of values of strain amplitude
εa were chosen, and corresponding stress amplitudes σa
were calculated from Eq. (5). Then, for a chosen value of
σm for each material, and noting that σmax = σm + σa and
σmin = σm − σa , values of R = σmin /σmax were calculated
that correspond to each εa value. The associated fatigue
lives N f were next determined from Eqs (35a) and (b),
and these are plotted versus εa to form the curves shown.
Note that only the longer life portion of the discontinuous
0.01
Mean Stress, MPa
εa , Strain Amplitude
γ = 0.650
AISI 4340 Steel
σu = 1172 MPa
0.001
103 104 105
N f , Cycles
Fig. 25 Strain amplitude versus cycles to failure for a constant
mean stress value for AISI 4340 steel.

c 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 32, 1004–1019
MEAN STRESS EFFECTS IN STRAIN–LIFE FATIGUE 1017
0.01
Mean Stress, MPa 0
143, Walker
εa , Strain Amplitude
143, SWT
143, Mod Mor
~143, Data
γ = 0.503
2024-T4 Al, Prestrained
0.001
103 104 105 106 107
N f , Cycles
Fig. 26 Strain amplitude versus cycles to failure for a constant
mean stress value for 2024-T4 aluminium.
strain–life curve for the aluminium alloy is shown. Curves
for zero mean stress are also included for reference.
To obtain the modified Morrow and SWT curves in
Figs 25 and 26, Eqs (31) and (33) were employed with the
same εa , σm and R values to calculate the N f values needed
for plotting. The constants σ f , b, ε f and c, normally fitted
to only zero mean stress data, are assumed to be the same
 
as σfw , b w , εfw and c w from the Walker-method fitting.
Note that the former values should be similar to the latter,
and the expedient of assuming them to be the same enables
a clearer comparison than if two different sets of constants
were employed.
For the AISI 4340 steel in Fig. 25, some trends are appar-
ent that will occur for any metal: The modified Morrow
and SWT curves show a decreasing influence of mean
stress for decreasing life, whereas the Walker curve con-
tinues to show a strong effect even at short life. At rela-
tively long lives, the SWT and Walker curves will differ
to varying degrees depending on the value of γ , agreeing
only if γ is near 0.5.
For the 2024-T4 aluminium in Fig. 26, γ is near 0.5,
0 and the behaviour over the life range included is domi-
414, Walker nated by the elastic strain terms of the various equations.
414, SWT
Hence, the Walker and SWT curves are close together.
414, Mod Mor
But the modified Morrow equation predicts only a very
414, Data
small mean stress effect that is quite non-conservative
compared to the test data shown. This latter situation is
associated with the previously mentioned difficulty with
using σ f in the mean stress adjustment for aluminium
alloys.
106 107 CONCLUDING REMARKS
From the discussion given, we see that a mean stress equa-
tion can be incorporated into the strain–life curve in a
manner that is consistent with the stress-based use of the
1018 N. E. DOWLING
same equation. Doing so for the Morrow and for the
Smith–Watson–Topper equations gives strain–life rela-
tionships that differ from the most common usage of these
methods with strain–life curves. In particular, the elastic
strain terms are the same, but the handling of mean stress
for the plastic strain terms differ. Because the mean stress
effect is most important where the loading is mostly elas-
tic, this difference by itself may not have a large effect on
life estimates.
Incorporating the Walker mean stress equation into the
strain–life curve gives excellent results for all 18 data sets
examined on steels, one titanium alloy, and aluminium
alloys, and also for two additional data sets on aluminium
alloys, as presented in a separate paper.12 This approach
has a number of advantages: All data at all mean stresses
can be combined into a single fitting procedure to deter-
mine the constants for the stress–life curve, which values
also apply to the elastic strain term of the strain–life curve.
The Walker parameter γ that also arises from this fitting
is related to the sensitivity of the material to mean stress,
giving this approach a versatility that is not possessed by
the other common mean stress methods.
As discussed in the previous paper2 and noted earlier
in this paper, there is a trend of decreasing γ for higher
strength steels and aluminium alloys, indicating an in-
creasing sensitivity to mean stress. Hence, looking at
Eq. (13a), the behaviour of higher strength metals is in-
creasingly determined by the maximum stress σmax , and
less by the stress amplitude σa , indicating more brittle be-
haviour. This behaviour may be related to the analogous
trend seen in the crack growth behaviour of a wide range
of materials, as discussed by Ritchie.25
The use of the Walker parameter γ carries with it the
possible disadvantage of needing data at non-zero mean
stresses to allow its value to be determined. However, suf-
ficient data are available for steels, ranging from quite low
to quite high strength levels, so that γ can be estimated
from Eq. (14). Noting that γ for steels varies from approx-
imately 0.8 down to 0.4, such an estimate is preferable to
using the SWT method, which corresponds to the fixed
value γ = 0.5.
For aluminium alloys, nine data sets have been exam-
ined for precipitation-hardened material in the 2000 and
7000 series.2,12 The γ -values for these scatter near 0.5
and average 0.475, so that an estimate of γ = 0.5 would
appear to suffice for alloys in this class where detailed
data are not available. For relatively low-strength alu-
minium alloys, the average value from two data sets in the
previous paper2 of γ = 0.65 might be used, or γ = 0.5
might be adopted as a value likely to give conservative
life estimates for tensile mean stresses. For other metals,
if non-zero mean stress data are not available for fitting,
then a default estimate of γ = 0.5 is suggested.
Thus, for life estimates using the strain-based approach,
it is recommended that the Walker mean stress method,
incorporated into the strain–life curve, should be em-
ployed as an alternative to other methods, or perhaps to
even replace them entirely.
Acknowledgements
The latter portions of this data analysis study that spanned
several years were supported by the U.S. Naval Air Sys-
tems Command, Patuxent River, MD. Technical di-
rection was provided by Nam D. Phan of NAVAIR
Structures, with the aid of Trung T. Nguyen. Project
administration was handled by Pamela F. Bowen of
Integrated Systems Solutions, Inc., California, MD. Grat-
itude is expressed to these individuals and organiza-
tions for their able assistance. Institutional support was
provided by the Engineering Science and Mechanics
Department, and by the Materials Science and Engineer-
ing Department, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA.
The author wishes to thank several individuals who aided
with useful advice, comments, or data, including: Jamie
T. P. de Castro (Pontifical Catholic University, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil); Ali Fatemi (The University of Toledo,
Toledo, OH); Nagaraja Iyyer (Technical Data Analysis,
Inc., Falls Church, VA); and Chih-Kuang Lin (National
Central University, Chung-Li, Taiwan).
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