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A decade of progress and turning points in the understanding of bio-improved

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 Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gete

A decade of progress and turning points in the understanding of

bio-improved soils: A review
Dimitrios Terzis *, Lyesse Laloui
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland

highlights

• Reference is made to over forty studies produced after 2016.

• A look back on how far research has gone and a look to opportunities and challenges.
• 6 sections cover turning points which improved the understanding of MICP.
• Bio-inspired technologies do push forward the limits of thinking.

article info a b s t r a c t
Article history: Research and practice in the broader fields of civil and geotechnical engineering had long ignored the
Received 30 July 2018 presence of living microorganisms in the subsurface and the way it impacts conventional practices.
Received in revised form 8 January 2019 In the last 10 years, the term ‘‘microbial induced calcite precipitation’’, or that of ‘‘biogrouting’’ have
Accepted 4 March 2019
gained momentum in the scientific literature. They are often presented as the ‘‘next big thing’’ in
Available online xxxx
geotechnical engineering applications that will solve many kinds of problems, ranging from soil erosion
to landslide risk mitigation and liquefaction protection. Are the claimed benefits of the application of
microorganisms in conventional geotechnical problems real? The present review work aims to shape
a complete and comprehensive understanding of the progress reported in the field of bio-mediated
soil improvement. Specific focus is put on pivotal points in this decade-long path which is marked by
proof of fundamental concepts at multiple scales. Among the treated literature, reference is made to
over forty studies produced after 2016. As soil bio-reinforcement makes its steps towards claiming a
spot in mainstream geotechnical practice this review foresees to offer both a look back on how far
research has gone and a look forward by evaluating opportunities and challenges which lie ahead.
© 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Engineering nature-based and nature-inspired solutions
Water, a constituent element of life found below the earth’s
surface, attracted the interest of researchers and engineers, as
early as the fundamental theories of modern geotechnical en-
gineering were established. However, whilst eighty per cent of
Earth’s total dry biomass is found below its surface,1 the role
of microorganisms in subterranean engineering applications re-
mained, until recently, relatively underexplored. Before moving
our focus to soil bio-improvement, it is pertinent to consider
that some of these microorganisms carry the oldest and most
fascinating mechanisms and genetic sequences that nature had
millions of years of evolution to bring to perfection.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dimitrios.terzis@epfl.ch (D. Terzis).
The major role of bacteria in applications has been addressed
in various fields ranging from agriculture, to enhance crop nu-
trition, or protect crops against pathogens,2 to electricity or light
production, wastewater treatment and environmental remedia-
tion. Starting from the aquatic environment, specific bacterial
strains have been identified and attracted the interest of re-
searchers due to their ability to produce electricity. The first
relevant ideas appeared as early as 1911.3 Decades later, progress
has been reported and a specific type of bacteria has been iden-
tified, such as strains of Shewanella Oneidensis, which are able
to conduct electrical current by using metals as intakes.4,5 Re-
cent applications mobilize such strains as potential agents for
wastewater treatment6 and electricity production.7
However, many of the implemented technologies which mo-
bilize unicellular organisms often require genetic modifications
to be done. Limitations thus emerge as far as their exploitation
is concerned since current regulations do not allow modified

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001
2352-3808/© 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Please cite this article in press as: Terzis D. and Laloui L., A decade of progress and turning points in the understanding of bio-improved soils: A review, Geomechanics
for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
2 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
organisms to be released into the environment. Their use re-
mains within laboratories and their integration into real-world
problems is doubtful. New types of technology emerge to over-
come such limitations. This refers to technologies which do not
require whole bacterial cells but only a specific protein or enzyme
found inside the cell walls, which can be isolated and extracted
to execute genetic codes and reaction sequences. These latter
applications are often referred to as ‘‘cell-free’’8 technologies
since they do not require whole cells but individual genetic
sequences and proteins found within the cell cluster or exerted
in its surrounding.
Going beyond the direct use of microorganisms or their prod-
ucts in engineering processes, we identify another trend at the
crossroads of biomimicry and synthetic chemistry. Observations
of natural mechanisms have led to the development of new con-
ceptual frameworks to address engineering problems such as, for
example, those referring to self-healing materials9,10 inspired by
wound healing processes in plants and bones, or to development
of performant fibre optics, based on spider silk.11 As another
example, the unique architecture and properties of moth eye,
which are responsible for eliminating light reflection, gave birth
to new concepts integrated in solar panel cells12 for achieving
increased performance and efficiency in solar energy production.
Moving from the aquatic environment and the fields of ma-
terial sciences and biomimicry to the earth’s subsurface, one
can observe that during the past decade, innovative solutions
that incorporate biological agents and mobilize natural pro-
cesses emerge. Amongst such novel approaches and applications
are those that reduce heavy metals and radioactive pollutants,
such as uranium, from soils via bioremediation,13,14 produce
self-healing concrete15–17 for crack repair, and trace fractures in
oil and gas reservoir formations with recent a field application in
Switzerland.18 In the same context, knowledge has been evolving
in the past years around a technique applied to enhance oil
extraction from trapped pores within reservoirs via the use of
microbes. This technique is commonly referred to as Microbial
Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR) and has shown signs of economic
efficiency for the secondary and tertiary phases of oil recovery
from reservoirs.19
Bio-mediated and bio-inspired geo-mechanics opened new
horizons for innovative applications which provide unconven-
tional solutions in geo-engineering problems.20 Some of these
applications remain in a rather hypothetical sphere, such as con-
ceptual designs of systems of foundations and anchors inspired
from tree roots, or excavation systems inspired by the digging
process observed in ant communities.21,22 Others target more
practical applications such as the production of construction ele-
ments out of earth materials. This is the case of bio-bricks, a term
used23,24 to describe bricks manufactured by mobilizing Micro-
bial Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) in prefabricated moulds.
Such approaches for the manufacturing of construction elements
out of geo-materials triggered the curiosity of researchers who
extend these concepts in the framework of future deep-space
human missions where the inherent capacity of microorganisms
to withstand extreme environmental conditions can be used for
building purposes.25–27
Another example relates to the presence of gas bubbles or
the provision of gas bubble generation in saturated sand which
is considered to substantially mitigate liquefaction risks.28,29 To
this purpose, microbiological gas production30,31 is mobilized as
a means of desaturation via production of biogenic gas bubbles
to achieve an overall increase in liquefaction resistance.
Such innovative concepts have an important effect on the
greater geo-engineering field both from a research and industrial
point of view. Firstly, they defy established practices by bringing
into surface alternative mechanisms, with some of them mobi-
lizing processes which are found in nature to serve as examples
Please cite this article in press as: Terzis D. and Laloui L., A decade of progress and turning points in the understanding of bio-improved soils: A review, Geomechanics
for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
of efficiency. Nature itself is the perfect example of achieving
maximum performance at minimum energy needs. The authors
believe that emerging technologies, which have at their core
biological processes, do push forward the limits of thinking which
inevitably will lead to progress, regardless of the individual fate
of each individual mechanism discussed above.
2. Bio-mediated urea hydrolysis and CaCO3 mineralization
The overview on the crossroads between biology and geo-
engineering applications is herein narrowed down to the specific
case of bio-mineralization. Such mechanism is found in the core
of some of the aforementioned applications like those reported
by Achal et al.,23 Jonkers et al.,16 Bernardi et al.24 and Stylo
et al.14 It is pertinent to take into consideration the following
clarification, regarding the use of the terms bio-mineralization
and bio-mediated mineralization. Bio-mineralization stands for
an organism’s capacity to produce and grow mineral structures
within its body as part of bones or tissues. The bio-mineralized
element is composed mainly of calcium and phosphate with
calcium carbonate commonly found in corals or shells of marine
organisms. Bio-mediated mineralization characterizes nucleation
of particles which do not grow within the organism’s body, or on
its tissues, but rather in the surrounding environment. The min-
eralized elements are considered as a byproduct of the organism’s
biological processes, or are due to changes in surrounding envi-
ronmental conditions, such as pH or concentration of chemical
species.
Urea (CH4 N2 O) hydrolysis, or ureolysis, is such a chemical
reaction which generates favourable conditions which lead to
precipitation of solid mineral calcium carbonate. Ureolysis occurs
in natural environments without the presence of organisms or it
can be catalyzed as a result of the metabolic activity of species
due to the presence of the urease enzyme. CaCO3 nuclei are
considered indirect products of urea hydrolysis, which precipitate
in carbonate-rich solutions under increased pH and under the
presence of a calcium source. More precisely, urea hydrolysis
refers to the decomposition of one mole of urea into two moles of
ammonium and one mole of carbonate anion as shown in Eq. (1).
CH4 N2 O + 2H2 O → 2NH4+ + CO23− (1)
Catalysis by the urease enzyme is found to lead to overall
faster completion times32 up to a factor of 1014 . The release of
ammonium into the environment, due to urea hydrolysis, induces
pH increase, which is considered favourable for precipitation of
CaCO3 under the presence of carbonate ions and the introduction
of a calcium source into the system (Eq. (2)).
Ca2+ + CO23− → CaCO3 ↓ (2)
This mechanism of calcium carbonate mineralization is consid-
ered of utmost ecological and geological importance. Biological
mechanisms which trigger and govern this process are associated
with the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in the atmosphere
and its mineralization to calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ). Such is the
case of cyanobacteria33 or plants which are found to capture CO2
from the atmosphere and precipitate it around their roots into
CaCO3 crystals. Canavalia ensiformis (jack bean) for example is
considered such an ureolytic plant which has been studied for its
capacity to precipitate CaCO3 .34,35
CaCO3 is found to precipitate in three main polymorphs:
vaterite, aragonite and the much more stable calcite.36 These
CaCO3 phases exhibit different shapes, geometries and solubility,
with vaterite being spherical and highly soluble and calcite cubic
and less soluble.37,38 Environmental conditions such as tempera-
ture, pH and pressure are considered to affect the precipitating
polymorph as well as transitions to metastable phases.
 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
An aspect of the mechanism of soil bio-improvement, with
controversial interpretations found in the literature, refers to
the role which microorganisms hold in the precipitated CaCO3
polymorph. Whilst the mechanism of MICP is widely appreci-
ated as bio-mediated precipitation, some results indicate that
there exists dependency, at least for the initial polymorph which
precipitates, on the microbial agent responsible for urea hy-
drolysis. A study performed by Wei et al.36 compares CaCO3
precipitation kinetics and morphologies induced by the ureolytic
Sporosarcina, Bacillus and Brevundimonas species. The precipitated
CaCO3 polymorphs are found to depend both on environmental
conditions39,40 and to preferable polymorph precipitation by the
adopted ureolytic gene.41,42
The debate over the suitability of ureolysis-driven calcite pre-
cipitation as soil strengthening technique is intensifying with
respect to ammonium, a side-product of urea hydrolysis. De-
spite the belief that ammonium can be captured and recycled
through loops of recirculating reactants, concerns over residual
ammonium have led to the development of alternative concepts.
Among them we find denitrification using calcium acetate and
calcium nitrate.43,44 Despite successful applications based on den-
itrification being reported, low reaction rates are believed to
represent a major challenge, if not the bottleneck of the process,
which remains to be overcome towards application of denitrifi-
cation in realistic timeframes in conventional construction and
geotechnical problems.
An alternative concept to improve efficiency of future in-
situ applications based on calcite mineralization relates to bio-
stimulation of native calcifying species.45,46 This strategy bypasses
the direct introduction of ureolytic bacteria into the ground by
providing necessary nutrients and conditions for native species
to grow and induce precipitation of calcium carbonate bonds.
An advantage of bio-stimulation is the reduced risk of causing
unwanted clogging of pores due to accumulation of bacterial
cells, since these latter are not injected directly into the ground,
but grow gradually and homogenously due to nutrient-rich en-
vironments. However, preliminary quality control analyses are
required in the area of foreseen applications to identify native
species and to adapt accordingly stimulation strategies which
target the favoured growth and metabolic activity of calcifying
strains against all other native species. A recent study by Gat
et al.47 deals with the effect of MICP on the indigenous bac-
terial population composition of coastal sand samples collected
from a semi-arid environment in Israel, which yielded low initial
ureolytic potential. The study introduces organic carbon to bios-
timulate indigenous, ureolytic species and provides with evidence
of nitrification during the period following application of MICP,
where ammonia oxidation occurs.
3. Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP)
To date, the term cementation has been associated with the in-
troduction of artificially manufactured cementitious mixtures and
industrial fluids in the subsurface. MICP induces a peculiar type
of soil cementation with calcium carbonate acting as cementing
element. The reactive mechanism at its core is urea hydrolysis
with the catalyzing activity of the urease enzyme Eq. (1), which is
found in several bacterial strains.48 Fujita et al.49 firstly reported
on the correlation between the rate of calcium carbonate precipi-
tation and that of urea hydrolysis. Among urease-bearing species,
Sporosarcina pasteurii,50 a bacterium isolated from soils, is found
to yield the highest urea hydrolysis rates.
Moreover, due to their wall electronegativity, S. pasteurii cells
attach on soil grains where they induce urea hydrolysis and
release CO3 2− in their micro-environment. There, precipitation
of CaCO3 occurs under the presence of a calcium source. This
Please cite this article in press as: Terzis D. and Laloui L., A decade of progress and turning points in the understanding of bio-improved soils: A review, Geomechanics
for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
3
process of bacterial attachment on soil grains to ultimately induce
the growth of calcite cubic particles is presented in a schematic
approach in Fig. 1. Apart from this schematic representation,
insight into the real geometries of calcite bonds is provided in
Fig. 251 where cubic particles of CaCO3 are captured via Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM). Hierarchical expansion of the bigger
particle surfaces is observed, with planes found to reproduce
those of individual calcite crystals observed in their vicinity.
Fig. 352 presents an assembly of soil grains bound by calcite
particles, all exhibiting similar sizes and geometries, captured via
SEM.
Depending on the desired final CaCO3 content, the quick over-
all reaction times of MICP can range from several hours to a few
days, thus rendering the technique a feasible solution for modern
engineering applications. Moreover, another advantage of MICP
is the reduced energy requirement for in-situ applications, which
implies reduced overall application costs. This is attributed to the
low viscosity and increased workability of the employed bacterial
and reactive solutions. Lower pressures are required for their
propagation via infiltration through granular media, instead of
mixing highly pressurized fluids with soils. MICP is thus widely
appreciated as a non-intrusive, permeation mechanism which
leaves the initial soil state intact during deposition and growth
of calcite bonds upon introduction of reactive species. The need
of extensive injection repetitions is avoided since MICP offers
the ability to generate flow networks to circulate bacteria and
reactants and thus improve larger soil volumes through few in-
filtration steps. A further sign of the economic efficiency of the
process lies in recirculating the utilized water during infiltration
of the targeted volume. This allows, on one hand, reducing the
volume of water needed for dissolving reactant elements and, on
the other hand, performing quality control tests on the effluent
solutions and capturing produced NH4 + , a by-product which is
widely used as fertilizer in agricultural applications.
To fully understand the overall performance of MICP, one
should account for the improvement in the obtained mechanical
properties of the bio-treated geo-material, in relation to the mass
of products used to achieve the targeted bond content. MICP
is reported to yield cohesion values in the range of hundreds
of kPa51 and values of compressive strength in the absence of
confinement above 10 MPa.53 More importantly, the desired level
of improvement can be determined and controlled according
to the nature of the foreseen geo-engineering application. For
example, MICP can be designed to endow the targeted material
with cohesion values in the range of 50–60 kPa to increase its
resistance against liquefaction. Alternatively, MICP can be im-
plemented for producing materials with strength and stiffness
values close to those of typical concrete, which allows considering
earth materials for structural purposes. The technique’s greatest
advantages are its adaptability and flexibility in the design of
the final soil improvement solutions for tailoring, at will, desired
material properties in a given area of interest.
The technique has been studied in a series of frameworks
which require different levels in calcite bond contents. Below,
a summary of problems considered suitable for implementing
solutions based on MICP is presented with reference to relevant
works:
i. Improve soil mechanical properties for securing the
necessary bearing capacity45,54
ii. Bio-clogging; a term used to describe the clogging of
pores for mitigating leakages in reservoir formations or the
construction of underground barriers55–58
iii. Slope stabilization59,60
iv. Mitigating liquefaction risk61,62
v. Fugitive dust control63
4 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of S. pasteurii cells (black) attaching on soil grains (brown dodecahedra) and inducing the formation and growth of calcite cubic
particles (white); system of grains (top) and porous assembly of soil grains (bottom).132

Fig. 2. Particles of CaCO3 captured via SEM revealing hierarchical expansion of planes (arrows) for bigger bond particles, which reproduce the geometries of
neighbouring single crystals (circles); black arrows indicate traces of bacteria encapsulated on the crystals’ contact plane with sand grains.51

Please cite this article in press as: Terzis D. and Laloui L., A decade of progress and turning points in the understanding of bio-improved soils: A review, Geomechanics
for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 3. Calcite particles (arrows) binding sand grains.52
vi. Production of masonry and bio-bricks23,64
vii. Erosion protection65 , targeting slopes and river banks66
viii. Vegetation applications related to soil erosion67
ix. Stabilization of tunnelling walls68
x. Increasing soil thermal conductivity52
xi. Land reclamation69
4. State of the art
The characterization of the behavioural characteristics of the
bio-improved geo-material at laboratory scale is treated here in
detail. Interest is further put on studies which up-scale MICP
to evaluate overall feasibility of the bio-cementation mechanism
towards providing solutions to real-world problems. Next, we
dedicate a section to studies developed around multi-physical
modelling of the complex biological, chemical and hydraulic
phenomena coupled in MICP. Except for notions of multiphysi-
cal modelling, the review extends to incorporate studies which
address the behaviour of bio-improved soil in constitutive mod-
elling frameworks. Finally, works developed around the numeri-
cal study of the bio-improved geo-material are presented with a
focus on the use of the Discrete Element Method (DEM).
4.1. The bio-improved geo-material at laboratory scale
Specimen preparation processes are reported covering vari-
ous set-ups and applied conditions to ultimately produce bio-
improved specimens. The overall challenge in each case is no
other than the homogeneity in the samples’ calcite distribution.
Typically, specimens are produced in cylindrical moulds using
peristaltic pumps to introduce reactive elements either via batch
(stop-flow) or continuous flow. One peculiar preparation method
was conducted by Chou et al.70 who placed sand samples in
permeable moulds within a reservoir and applied continuous agi-
tation for recirculating dissolved elements through the permeable
cloth. Another approach is reported by Keykha et al.71 who used
electrodes for distributing reactants, i.e. dissolved ions of calcium
and urea, throughout sand columns by generating an electric
field to drive carbonate dianions (CO3 2− ) and calcium cations
(Ca2+ ) across the length of the columns. Moreover, a different
approach suggests circulation of bacteria and chemical reactants
within specimens placed in triaxial cells, under confinement, to
Please cite this article in press as: Terzis D. and Laloui L., A decade of progress and turning points in the understanding of bio-improved soils: A review, Geomechanics
for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
5
ultimately obtain samples at the desired dimensions, which can
be subsequently subjected to mechanical loading.72 The advan-
tage of this approach is that complex sample coring is avoided.
This technique allows testing lower bond contents as reported in
the work by Montoya and DeJong.73 Finally, medium scale (0.5
m diameter) tanks are used by Cheng59 as a means of obtaining
larger bio-cemented volumes to core samples for mechanical
testing. Overall, homogenous calcite distribution at laboratory
scale would imply reliable experimental data sets, as far as the
mechanical response is concerned, and would facilitate compari-
son between results produced in various studies. Detecting calcite
distribution remains a challenge with various approaches sug-
gested towards accurate and representative measurements51,74 at
the scale of conventional geotechnical testing.
A principal difference between MICP and traditional cemen-
tation mechanisms for soils is that soil structure remains intact
throughout treatment by infiltration. Therefore, the initial pack-
ing of grains holds a governing role on the formation of the final
lattice of bonds. The effect of initial dry density on the obtained
mechanical response was treated in the work by Chou et al.70
for low calcite contents that yielded peak deviator stresses in the
range below 50 kPa. van Paassen53 reports values of unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) between 1–12 MPa. He concludes
that soils with lower initial relative density require increased
mass of bond contents to reach similar strength with respect
to the same material which was treated via MICP under ini-
tially higher relative densities. A hypothesis is that calcite bonds
precipitate preferably around the contact points of grains. Thus,
denser initial states correspond to larger number of contact points
among particles, as shown schematically in Fig. 4. Attention
should be made on the way the calcite bond content is expressed.
This can be done in terms of volumetric fraction, for example, of
the total soil volume or with respect to the fraction of the solid
phase. It is easily understood that looser initial states correspond
to increased fraction of pores per given soil volume thus bond
contents expressed in terms of fraction of the solid phase can
be considerably higher with respect to denser initial states. In
this direction, Mahawish et al.75 established a correlation be-
tween strength and stiffness of coarse sand with the increase in
the amount of deposited CaCO3 , initial relative density and dry
density.
MICP is widely treated as a cementation mechanism targeting
shallow depths and thus most available results report the me-
chanical behaviour of treated soils in terms of UCS. Fewer results
6 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of contact points and bond (grey) repartition for minimum (left) and maximum (right) relative dry densities; white lines represent
intergranular contacts and idealized intergranular force transmission.
are available for triaxial drained tests under confinement or for
one-dimensional oedometric compression. In this direction, some
relevant work is reported by Feng and Montoya,76,77 Fauriel68 and
Terzis and Laloui.78 Additionally, while the material is considered
to yield tensile strength, few attempts have been made towards
quantifying this parameter. Li et al.79 report results on the effect
of the presence of fibres on the overall tensile strength of sand
stabilized via MICP and van Paassen53 presents results of Brazilian
tensile strength (BTS) tests, with values reaching up to 500 kPa.
As far as the permeability of the material is concerned, results
suggest80–82 that the hydraulic conductivity reduces up to one
order of magnitude. In addition, Kirkland et al.83 performed low-
field nuclear magnetic resonance to detect changes in porosity.
They conclude that the final porosity is in the range of 85% of the
initial value, which was measured prior to application of MICP,
with the rest porous space occupied by calcite. Contrary, clogging
of pores refers to the intentional calcification around the vicinity
of an injection source or within fissures in rock formations. Such
attempt is reported by Cunningham et al.55 for ultimately sealing
fractures and mitigating leakages in well-bores.
A confusing point in the literature relates to the characteriza-
tion of the level of cementation within produced samples. Terms
such as light or heavy cementation appear in several studies and
are associated with bond contents as low as 3%. However, it
is commonly appreciated that contents below 3% fail to endow
materials with the necessary mechanical integrity under uncon-
fined conditions for laboratory experimentation. For example, van
Paassen53 reports the highest range of CaCO3 content found in
literature between 12%–24%. These latter results allowed estab-
lishing a trend between the precipitated mass and the expected
range of strength. Montoya and DeJong73 showed that calcite
contents as low as 1% lead to increase in shear strength, under
undrained conditions, with respect to the untreated material at
loose state. In this same work, the achieved range of calcite
content (1.3%) is characterized by authors as moderate cemen-
tation. It should be noted that tests, in this case, were ran at an
initial confinement of 100 kPa, followed by increase in the mean
effective pressure due to excess pore water pressure generation.
Thus, understanding the specific conditions under which samples
are tested is important towards evaluating the overall calcite
content, and therefore its classification within the low-moderate-
heavy cementation spectrum. Overall, results available in the
literature refer to a variety of CaCO3 contents, ranging from 0.6
and 1.2%84 to 25%.53 Contents that might appear very low, such as
contents lower than 2%, can indeed endow the desired, improved
properties to geo-materials, given the role of confinement in
problems of geo-technical interest.
Please cite this article in press as: Terzis D. and Laloui L., A decade of progress and turning points in the understanding of bio-improved soils: A review, Geomechanics
for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
Common agreement is found among researchers as far as
the effect of treatment conditions on the obtained fabric and
mechanical properties of MICP-treated soils is concerned. More
precisely, among such parameters reported in the literature are
environmental conditions, concentrations of biological and chem-
ical elements, the speed and direction of the imposed reactive
flow field. Because of varying treatment conditions the geome-
tries and overall spatial distribution of CaCO3 bonds are found
to be affected. More precisely, Al Qabany and Soga85 reported
increasing UCS for increasing dry density of MICP-cemented spec-
imens. Results obtained in this latter work attempt to highlight
the role of chemical factors in the geometrical and spatial dis-
tribution of crystals and associate this role with the obtained
engineering properties of the material. Somewhat surprisingly,
for the larger crystals observed after injection of 1 mol/litre (M)
of CaCl2 , no increase in UCS was reported for any calcite content.
Indeed, these samples were reported not to exhibit homogenous
cementation and the cemented volume was limited to the vicinity
of the injection point. Such evidence suggests that there exists
a series of factors, determined based on the decision-making
around the provided treatment, which reflects to distinctive ge-
ometries and distribution of the bond lattice. These geometries
lead to varying post-treatment mechanical response, regardless
of the base material chosen for treatment. More studies81,86,87
have attempted to further capture the effect of treatment condi-
tions on the overall MICP efficiency by providing with qualitative
descriptions of observed precipitate behaviours. The effect of
environmental factors was investigated on the bio-cementation
of coarse sand by Mahawish et al.88 who found that the optimal
conditions for the bio-cementation of their adopted base material
is reactant concentration of 1 mol/L at 20 ◦ C.
Cheng et al.80 introduced a simple way for performing in-
jections by allowing reactants to flow into columns through
infiltration from the surface. Results showed significant variation
of the obtained UCS values for samples of the same calcite con-
tent. Calcite was found to be more efficiently distributed and lead
to increased UCS for conditions where soil is partially saturated
with reactant solutions during treatment. This is attributed to
liquid menisci that form around the grains and maintain reactants
– and thus precipitated nuclei – around the crucial grain-to-grain
contact points. This was the first study to demonstrate that CaCO3
crystals, which were formed under lower degrees of saturation,
exhibited more efficient distribution around the areas of desired
crystal deposition, i.e. contact points among grains. Such distinc-
tive particle deposition is considered to contribute to increased
strength of the cemented samples for lower calcite contents. A
schematic representation of this hypothesis is presented in Fig. 5.
 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of bonds precipitating within the liquid phase for 100% saturation conditions (left) and within liquid menisci at lower degree of
saturation (right).
No further results are available in the literature regarding the
effect of the degree of saturation during MICP-treatment on the
post-treatment mechanical response. This might be attributed to
the complex control of the degree of saturation in granular ma-
terials with poor water retention capacity. However, the finding
itself, based on the hypothesis of more efficient bond distribution
yielded due to liquid menisci, serves as another example of the
importance of controlling external factors which hold strong ef-
fect on the obtained mechanical response. Results obtained from
UCS tests in the same study by Cheng et al.80 show that for
partially saturated conditions (Sr = 20%) same level of strength
(in the range of 3 MPa) is reached at only one third of the total
bond content required for specimens which were MICP-treated
under fully saturated conditions.
Considering the above, there exists a series of external factors
that need to be meticulously chosen and controlled in order
to achieve efficient application of MICP. However, the role of
intrinsic properties of the base material subjected to MICP on
the properties of the calcite lattice remains to be understood.
While most studies refer to sandy soils treated under MICP, less
is known about the effect of grain size distribution or that of
fine content of the base material, with most recent the contri-
bution from Zamani and Montoya89 on the undrained monotonic
shear response of MICP-treated silty sands. Along similar lines,
Nafisi and Montoya74 proposed a framework which accounts for
the particle size effect on bio-cementation of sands. Gomez and
DeJong90 compared various types of sands with fine contents
up to 13% subjected to MICP while Cardoso et al.91 investigated
the role of clay contents reaching 28% on the MICP process. All
the above works highlight the critical role the base materials’
intrinsic properties hold in the resulted mechanical response
and bio-improved fabric. In a similar attempt to provide with
quantified data on the evolution of the mechanical properties and
of the micro-structure of bio-improved soils, Terzis and Laloui78,92
compare the behaviour of two types of sand of different grain
size distribution which were subjected to MICP under identical
external treatment conditions. Samples yielded overall calcite
contents between 7%–8%. Results are summarized in Figs. 6 and 7,
and reveal that medium-grained sand yields considerably higher
peak strength under drained conventional triaxial compression
and under unconfined compressive strength tests, despite similar
response of the two materials in their untreated state (Fig. 6).
Therefore, it becomes clear that the average calcite content
cannot serve as the sole indicator of the expected, improved me-
chanical behaviour of the bio-treated state. This is critical towards
interpreting literature results of bio-treated soils, such as those
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for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
7
summarized in Table 1, which were produced under different set-
ups, targeting different calcite ranges and using various quantities
to capture and describe the improved mechanical response.
More precisely, Table 1 summarizes a series of key findings
reported in the literature in representative studies during the last
decade. This summary illustrates the range of calcite contents
achieved and the variety of conditions tested to characterize
mechanical and physical properties of bio-improved soils.
From the studies presented in Table 1, specific focus is put
on strength and stiffness, cohesion and friction properties as well
as on hydraulic conductivity.65,80,85 Comparison is also done with
other cemented materials, such as gypsum-cemented sands.93 For
calcite contents above 3%, UCS values are commonly reported,
since samples maintain their integrity without the application
of confining pressure. Contents up to 27%54 endow sands with
properties that resemble those of building materials. However, as
previously discussed in this paper, MICP is herein studied from a
geotechnical perspective and therefore the role of confinement
needs to be understood in relation with the targeted calcite con-
tent. Contents as low as 2% can therefore be sufficient to improve
mechanical properties, to satisfy safety factors and to meet the
required bearing capacity limits.
The role of confinement is further understood in Fig. 6, which
presents the response of two different base materials under three
confining pressures (30, 100, 200 kPa). Maximum peak deviatoric
stress reaches shy of 2800 kPa for medium-grained sand under
200 kPa of confinement. Duraisamy93 reports experimental data
on triaxial drained tests for MICP-treated sand of calcite contents
up to 7.3%, with peak deviatoric stress reaching 2600 kPa under
50 kPa of confinement. It should be noted that this latter work
adopts sand of a mean diameter (D50 ) equal to 0.39 mm as base
material. Similar sand is adopted by Terzis and Laloui78 which
yields peak deviatoric stress equal to 2500 kPa under 30 kPa of
confinement (Fig. 6). Both studies conclude that the effect of bio-
cementation is more pronounced for lower values of confinement.
As another example of this key finding, Table 1 reports a range of
1437–1870 kPa for the peak deviatoric stress yielded by samples
of 4.2% calcite content under confinements of 50 kPa and 500 kPa
respectively.
A comprehensive summary of six studies presenting experi-
mental results on the UCS of bio-improved sands was presented
in the review work by El Mountassir et al.94 Fig. 8 is enriched
with recent data from Mahawish et al.95 on coarse-grained bio-
cemented sand. A distinctive trend is established by Terzis and
Laloui92 as far as the evolution of UCS of medium-grained sand
(D50 = 0.39 mm) is concerned, compared to fine sand (D50 =
8 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. Mechanical response for untreated (dashed) and MICP-treated (solid) fine- (grey) and medium-grained (black) sand; (top) deviatoric stress versus axial strain;
(bottom) normalized specific volume versus axial strain.

Fig. 7. Unconfined compressive strength for fine- and medium-grained MICP-treated specimens (a); evolution of the Young’s modulus for fine- and medium-grained
bio-improved sand with respect to increasing bond content (b).

0.19 mm), which is found to validate the trend of the rest of the
literature works.
Recent literature studies report results from undrained triaxial
shear tests. Cui et al.96 performed tests for bio-improved samples
which reached 11.87% in calcite content. Results reveal a peak
deviatoric stress of 2750 kPa for the maximum calcite content
achieved (11.87%) and an effective cohesion which reaches just
below 450 kPa.
Moving beyond conventional geo-technical testing, we notice
that the bio-improved geo-material offers research challenges
related to micro-mechanical testing. Montoya and Feng97 inves-
tigated particle crushing between calcite grains in contact and
bond-breakage evolution during shearing to determine whether
MICP bonds experience cohesive or adhesive failure. They per-
formed surface energy measurements and studied particle-bond-
particle deformation patterns coupled with electron microscopy
to conclude that the failure mechanism is rather of cohesive
nature. Microscale experimentations do not limit to the study of
mechanics. Transport phenomena can capture real-time data and
reveal critical information on the involved mechanisms which
result to the formation of precipitates. In such an attempt, Singh
et al.98 provided with a micromodel of a porous medium to study
the precipitation evolution at the micro-scale using the bacterial
strain Pseudomonas stutzeri.99 The above approaches, bring the
research focus to the smallest scale possible, studying particle-
to-particle or cell-to-particle phenomena and can serve towards
robust upscaling of microscopic phenomena which were treated,
until recently, through a series of hypotheses.
4.2. The challenge of up-scaling
Several field-scale applications have been reported that tar-
get the bio-cementation of larger volumes of fine-grained sandy
soils,54 or stabilization of sands to mitigate fugitive dust45,63,100
and apply MICP to field experiments in gravels.101 All these stud-
ies provided crucial findings related to the overall feasibility of
MICP at large experimental scale, such as the distribution of cal-
cite content over a large soil volume, and further revealed several
challenges for the application of an efficient and reproducible soil
improvement process that was based on MICP.

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for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx 9

Table 1
Overview of key findings reported in the literature on mechanical and physical properties of bio-improved soils.
Source CaCO3 (%) range Strength Stiffness quantities Other Remarks
reported
van Paassen et al.54 12–27 0.7–12 MPa (UCS 1300–13 000 MPa c′ = 280–540 kPa 100 m3 experiment
and triaxial) (Eur ) ϕ ′ = 39–58◦ (fine sand)
Cheng59 4.5–11.5 (coarse) Up to 2067 kPa – – 2 m column
0–27.5 (fine) (UCS coarse) up to injection
3700 kPa (UCS fine)
Cheng et al.80 1–14 150–2300 kPa (UCS) 20–180 MPa (E) k-valueb in the same MICP under various
order of magnitude degrees of saturation
Al Qabany and 0–8 Up to 3000 kPa – One order of Same base
Soga85 (UCS) magnitude reduction material/different
in k-value treatment conditions
Feng and Montoya77 1.4/3/5.3 280–800 kPa (qmax , – c′ = 5–59 kPa ϕ ′ = Injections directly in
loose/moderate/heavya σ3′ = 100 kPa) 33–41◦ triaxial cell
Lin et al.72 1–2.5 400 kPa Up to 250 MPa (Ei , – Two types of sand
(σ3′ = 100 kPa) tangent (Janbu, adopted 20/30 and
1968)) 50/70
Duraisamy93 0.26–9.34 50–950 kPa (UCS) Up to 1350 MPa qmax = Comparison with
(small-strain shear 1437/1870 kPa for gypsum cemented
modulus Gmax ) σ ’3 = 50/500 kPa samples
and CaCO3 = 4.2%
Jiang and Soga65 0–1.4 – – One order of Application for
magnitude reduction erosion control in
in k- value gravels
(10−4 m/s)
Terzis and Laloui92 3%–10% Up to 11.3 MPa E up to 1950 MPa Quantified Two types of sand
(UCS) microscopic data adopted: D50 = 0.19
mm and D50 = 0.39
mm
- Results not available.
a
Characterization of the level of cementation.
b
Hydraulic conductivity.

Fig. 8. UCS evolution with respect to CaCO3 content.

Source: adapted and enriched with repsect to94 ,
including results from129–131 .

More precisely, van Paassen53 performs MICP treatment in
1 m3 and 100 m3 experiments. The resulted volume allowed
for coring samples which are considered to exhibit homogenous
calcite distribution at laboratory scale. Results reveal UCS values
above 10 MPa and values of Young’s modulus up to 13 GPa.
This latter test was duplicated under similar conditions and with
the same base material by Filet et al.102 with results for UCS
remaining in the range around 500 kPa. At a subsequent attempt,
van Paassen101 applies MICP in field conditions, to an area with
gravels, targeting the stabilization of the soil substrate prior to ex-
cavation and installation of a pipeline. This application confirmed
the presence of mineralized CaCO3 ; however, no bio-cemented
samples were further obtained for testing. Gomez et al.63 per-
formed MICP via surface percolation in an in-situ application

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10 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
in Californian desert (USA), where the goal was to cement the
upper crust of the targeted area, for ultimately providing evidence
towards the efficiency of MICP for mitigating fugitive dust. Re-
sults show that a cemented crust was formed of about 2 cm in
depth. Focusing on the impact of environmental factors towards
upscaling MICP, Mortensen et al.103 reported that their biological
treatment shows robust efficiency over various soil types, which
were adopted as base materials, and water compositions referring
to varying concentrations of ammonium chloride and salinity
levels. Such attempts suggest that a crucial step prior to upscaling
is considering the properties of the in-situ base material and per-
form feasibility studies under laboratory conditions. Moreover,
continuous monitoring of the reaction process is necessary, as
a means of obtaining real-time data sets corresponding to key
factors related to the evolution of precipitation and MICP effi-
ciency. Such real-time quality control can take place via collection
and analysis of effluent volumes or via geophysical methods to
monitor density change due to bio-cementation.
These works at the larger experimental scale further reveal
the need of a new approach, as far as the utilization of urease
and the conception of a reproducible application mechanism are
concerned. A common reference between all these attempts is
the need to cultivate bacteria cells at the site of application.
Thus, bioreactors need to be built, with the provision of agitation
systems for incubating bacterial cultures which often becomes a
complicated task. In this direction, a cell-free approach of MICP
has been studied in Terzis and Laloui.92 The main finding is that
urea hydrolysis and calcite precipitation persist in a cell-free en-
vironment, after complete breakdown of rehydrated bacteria that
were prepared in dry-powder form. The use of freeze-dried cells
as inoculum is considered to facilitate in-situ application of MICP
and contribute to overall reproducible soil bio-improvement
applications and subsequent quality control. Similar finding re-
garding the persistence of urease, which maintains its ureolytic
activity in the absence of viable cells, were reported by Mortensen
et al.103 In this study cell lysis occurred due to anoxic conditions
and the enzyme was believed to keep hydrolysing urea, for an
unknown time, till its ultimate degradation.
4.3. Multi-physical modelling
The processes involved in MICP offer researchers with chal-
lenges that are related to multi-physical modelling. How far can
bacteria travel from a given injection source? What is their activ-
ity during continuous recirculation of reactants and what is the
final distribution of calcite along the imposed flow path?
Researchers have attempted to provide answers towards
addressing these uncertainties by bringing notions of reactive-
transport processes together and addressing involved couplings
with the use of analytical methods. This is possible by accounting
for phenomena such as attachment of bacterial cells, their rate
of growth, decay and their efficiency to hydrolyse urea, among
others. Such progress unifies the contributing factors of MICP
and allows for predictive modelling as far as the final mass and
distribution of calcite within porous media are concerned. At a
second stage, the precipitated mass of calcite can be introduced
as a parameter to mechanical constitutive modelling to finally
predict the behavioural characteristics of the material. Fauriel and
Laloui104 developed a numerical tool based on Michaelis–Menten
kinetics for the reaction process. The model was implemented
for two configurations, one that simulates the application of
MICP under a system of existing buildings and a second which
simulates stabilization of the walls of a tunnelling excavation.68
Relevant parameters have been studied in numerical simulations
by Dupraz et al.105 among which variations in pH and calcite
precipitation. Akimana et al.106 coupled reactive modelling with
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for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
X-ray computed tomography as a means of calibrating their nu-
merical transport model and estimating the radial precipitation
of, CaCO3 , extending this way the predictive modelling of MICP
in the three-dimensional space. Recently, Nassar et al.107 pre-
sented a complete modelling approach which uses zero fitting
parameters to simulate and predict bio-stimulation in a 1.7 m
diameter tank. Results showed good agreement with the actual
experiment which was ran in the tank, where 3 injection wells
were employed.
It becomes clear that such modelling attempts require cali-
bration with experimentally measured parameters for a robust
prediction of the final mass of calcite and its spatial distribu-
tion. Such an attempt was provided by Lauchnor et al.108 on
whole cell kinetics of urease hydrolysis using S. pasteurii. This is
possible only in the case of large-scale tests, provided that the
experimental set-up is equipped with the necessary monitoring
systems. Martinez et al.109 provide a similar framework for MICP,
where theoretical prediction of reactive transport and kinetics
of ureolysis are addressed, including mass of precipitated CaCO3
and urease activity. More precisely, obtained parameters were
calibrated against experimentally measured values in a 0.5 m
column test. Results revealed good agreement with theoretically
predicted parameters. However, authors in this latter work agree
that complexity in predictions will increase when parameters
such as bacterial growth or reactive transport in the 3D domain
enter the problem. Similar conclusions are derived in the work by
Barkouki et al.110 where a bio-geo-chemical model is developed
to capture precipitation kinetics and transport phenomena for
the case of batch treatments (stop-flow as mentioned by the
authors) and continuous flow in MICP induced by S. pasteurii.
In this latter work, the imposed flow regime and time allowed
between batches for precipitation to occur are found to affect the
homogeneity in calcite distribution.
As an example of the increased complexity of the actual
phenomena involved in MICP, we consider that as calcification
progresses, bacterial cells get trapped in the precipitated nuclei
and left deprived of oxygen and nutrients. Thus, they do not
contribute to further hydrolysis. Moreover, the presence of gas
bubbles alters considerably flow regimes. As discussed in the
work by Cheng et al.,80 partially saturated conditions can in-
duce more efficient distribution of calcite particles altering the
relationship between calcite content and mechanical response.
The existence of a design approach which quantifies parameters
such as hydrolysis rates, decay of bacteria, as well as crucial
environmental conditions would allow predictive modelling to
take place on a more representative basis with respect to the
physical mechanisms of MICP which have been captured and
reported experimentally.
4.4. Constitutive modelling
The bio-improved geo-material’s peculiar structure would
classify a potential attempt to address its behaviour in a mod-
elling framework in the grey area between rock and soil me-
chanics. The fabric of bio-improved soils does not resemble that
of naturally cemented soils or artificially cemented soils yielded
upon application of jet grouting, for example. This is due to
distinctive geometries of the binding element, i.e. CaCO3 , and
varying trends in bond sizes and spatial distributions reproduced
according to applied treatment conditions.
Fauriel68 implemented a theoretical model to capture the
performance of bio-improved soils by extending the constitutive
concept that was developed for unsaturated aggregated soils by
Koliji et al.111 to account for the effects of bonding and density
change. The main features of this proposed framework are the
incorporation of a hardening variable, to account for the effects
 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
of the apparent overconsolidation due to the density change
upon precipitation and the incorporation of a destructuration
parameter to govern the post-yield softening behaviour of the
geo-material. However, the physical significance of these param-
eters remains unclear and their conception and calibration are
based on a series of back-analysis prediction of experimental
data available in the literature. This model, however, did set the
basis for addressing the behaviour of MICP-treated soils within
the critical-state concept. The main features reproduced are the
elastic response upon initial yielding, post-yield softening and a
residual condition which represents the response of the com-
pletely destructured state. As widely reported by researchers,
bio-improved materials yield brittle failure in the small-strain
region. Though, less is known about the underlying mechanisms
and the contribution of dilatancy in the peak strength.
Cheng et al.80 in their work on MICP under partially saturated
conditions implement a mechanistic model on a simplified ge-
ometry to account for the volumetric fraction of bonds yielded
during application of MICP at various degrees of saturation. A sta-
tistical analysis captures the evolution of bond diameters and the
way they affect changes in porosity. Therefore, physical insight is
provided offering tangible evidence on the geometry of the lattice
of bonds. This work sets the basis for expressing the evolution
of microstructural quantities with respect to the evolution of the
calcite bond content. Despite its simplified approach based on
idealistic geometries of grains, it reflects the principle of bond
growth upon continuous deposition of precipitated nuclei.
Nweke and Pestana112 introduced a strength correlation which
takes into account nonlinearities of failure envelopes observed in
bio-cemented sands. In the suggested approach, the strength of
the bio-improved material is expressed as a function of post-MICP
density, applied confinement and by accounting for the material’s
intrinsic mineralogy.
Similar materials which exhibit bonded structures could in-
spire further progress in modelling the behaviour of MICP-treated
soils. For example, gas-hydrate bearing soils113–115 are studied by
incorporating formulations to account for the different hydrate
particle habits, as a means of expressing structural characteristics
in the adopted modelling approaches based on the critical state
concept. This approach was extended to capture the case of bio-
improved soils in a recent work by Gai and Sánchez116 which
incorporates a critical state yield surface, sub-loading concepts
and also accounts for bond degradation. Efforts to model the
behaviour of microbially-cemented soils resulted in a modelling
formulation proposed by Gajo et al.117 which incorporates micro-
scale inspired parameters. More precisely, cross-scale functions
are introduced to express a relationship between the evolving
microscopic variables and the resulting macroscopic material
behaviour. These parameters refer to the reactive surface area,
cross-sectional area and the number of bonds for materials which
experience dissolution or precipitation. This model was success-
fully validated against experimental data provided by Montoya
and DeJong.73 The same experimental data series were used by
Gai and Sánchez116 to validate their proposed model.
4.5. Numerical modelling
Numerical simulations, especially through implementation of
Discrete Element Method (DEM) codes, have facilitated sig-
nificantly the study of the behaviour of packings of grains
with bonds,118 as well as the statistical analysis of micro-
scopic quantities, such as size of grains, number of contacts and
orientations,119–121 all found to affect the overall mechanical
response of granular materials. The main advantage of such
analyses lies in the ability to reproduce different packings and ge-
ometries of grains and bonds and attribute strength and stiffness
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for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
11
characteristics to different phases of the solid skeleton. Except
for the peak strength further, focus by researchers has been
put on the post-yield behaviour. Such relevant work is reported
by Jiang et al.122 who performed 2D DEM numerical analyses
focusing on the degradation evolution in cemented geo-materials
by providing, in addition, with microscopic interpretation of the
underlying mechanisms.
For the specific case of bio-improved soils, except for multi-
physical modelling where coupled bio-chemical and transport
phenomena are addressed in a unified framework, a series of
works treating their behavioural characteristics is reported using
numerical tools.97,123–125 As concluded by Evans et al.123 the prin-
ciple of parallel bonds, widely applicable in DEM simulations of
granular materials, is not considered representative for the case of
bio-improved soils. This happens due to the vanishing of individ-
ual particles when their strength limit is reached, which implies
that mass conservation is not respected. For larger cementitious
particles, which better reflects the case of bio-improved soils,
Evans et al.123 provide with a more robust design of the 3D
packing geometry. They introduce cementitious bonds in chain
formations and conclude that parameter calibration needs to be
done, with the sizes of bonds considered as crucial parameter
governing the overall response. Recently, Yang et al.125 treat the
case of very low calcite contents in the range of 0.6% in DEM
simulations. The main finding relates to understanding the con-
tribution of inter-particle friction and increasing shear resistance
to the dilation and re-arrangement of the packing structure in
an attempt to interpret the macro-scale response with respect
to particle-scale phenomena. Finally, notions of contact stiffness,
contact mechanics and inter-particle friction126 are incorporated
in such approaches to ultimately express the improved structure
and understand the chain force distribution within the solid
matrix, a term commonly confronted in DEM simulations.
4.6. Insight into the micro-scale
While new understanding around the geometries and spatial
distribution of the CaCO3 crystals within the new improved struc-
ture has been reported, relevant works which became available
until 2016 have provided only with qualitative description of
microstructural properties. What we know so-far about calcite
crystalline bonds is that they develop their structures follow-
ing hierarchical plane expansion, like the ones shown in Fig. 2,
but how large they eventually grow remains undetermined. A
hypothesis adopted by the authors is that increased contact
area between bonds and grains results into lower intergranular
stresses. Among the questions that remain to be answered is
how these bonds increase their diameters and how bond sizes
vary with respect to the intrinsic properties of the base material
and the final overall calcite content. Relevant work towards ad-
dressing these uncertainties was provided recently in Dadda et
al.127,128 and Terzis and Laloui.92 In this latter work, a workflow
is presented which incorporates X-ray micro-computed tomog-
raphy and 3D volume reconstruction to capture and analyse the
critical contact area and a series of micro-scale parameters.
To understand the importance of such findings one should
consider the role of fabric anisotropy in sands. Particle sizes,
shape and orientation influence the behavioural characteristics
of natural sands and are all related to sample preparation. Rel-
evant works explore these effects for various types of sand.119,120
However, an approach to quantify microscale parameters of the
MICP-improved soil fabric remains to be determined. This task
seems challenging because of the fabric anisotropy induced by
the applied bio-treatment conditions to the porous material.
12 D. Terzis and L. Laloui / Geomechanics for Energy and the Environment xxx (xxxx) xxx
5. Towards mainstream engineering applications
Are we ever going to witness a mainstream geo-engineering
application based completely on bio-mediated processes? This
question is continuously involved in the branch of geotechni-
cal engineering studied in the present review. To offer tangible
evidence, and thus treat this question on a less philosophical
and more pragmatic approach, there is need to provide with
a robust description of the processes involved in the problem.
Processes which start from the moment calcifying bacterial cells
flow within the porous medium and mineral deposition oc-
curs, until the formation of the final structure and subsequent
deformation under mechanical loading. Most importantly, an-
swering the above question requires multidisciplinary approach
and cooperation among experts who treat problems of varying
nature.
Common agreement is established among researchers sug-
gesting that current knowledge produced around MICP at lab-
oratory scale provides with the necessary proof-of-concept and
establishes sufficient know-how to set the basis for performing
the ultimate passing towards large-scale, real applications. At-
tempts carried-out so far refer to various injection set-ups and
flow schemes and to different geo-technical problems. Rich data
series reveal, on one hand, the strong potential that lies in MICP
and, on the other hand, limitations and challenges that remain to
be addressed.
To successfully implement MICP in real-field problems a series
of uncertainties needs to be overcome. Among these, we prioritize
the type of biological agent which will be used as a source of
bio-cementation, its state and readiness-to-use. This agent should
allow: (i) performing quality controls in advance, during prepa-
ration of the bio-cementation process and application in-situ;
(ii) reducing the necessary on-site equipment to facilitate overall
MICP in reasonable timeframes and costs and (iii) establishing a
mechanism which is easy-to-replicate and to adapt to different
set-ups instead of requiring major and costly redesigning.
6. Conclusions
We presented an overview of the crossroads between biol-
ogy and engineering by highlighting example applications where
biological or bio-inspired materials and methods have been in-
tegrated in practical solutions in various engineering fields. This
illustrates the broader principle which guides the motivation
behind the present work. This is no other than the funda-
mental, yet complex, idea of getting inspired from nature, to
ultimately provide answers to engineering problems by coupling
technical innovation and economic efficiency with environmental
sustainability.
By focusing on soil bio-improvement we identify uncertain-
ties involved in the sample preparation process which reflect
highly variable mechanical response. This explains the lack of
a unified constitutive framework dedicated to the bio-improved
material, despite recent attempts which have provided with
validation between experimental data series and numerical sim-
ulations. We conclude that without a robust description of the
mechanical properties of the engineered calcite bonds, without
an understanding of evolving fabric parameters in relation with
the treatment process or the base material’s intrinsic properties,
such modelling attempts will inevitably use back-analysis to fit
parameters or highly depend on a series of hypothesis.
To summarize, this review provided groundwork which can
inspire the conception and development of tools to design, imple-
ment and control bio-mediated soil improvement applications. In
light of the studied literature, we classify below three priorities
to be incorporated in the design of future applications based
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for Energy and the Environment (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gete.2019.03.001.
on MICP: (i) complete correlation of the material foreseen to
be improved with the chosen bio-treatment strategy, (ii) stan-
dardized and reproducible treatment methods where strategies
to introduce bio-cementation agents and treat by-products are
meticulously designed and monitored and finally, (iii) a design
method which targets and achieves the mass of calcite bonds to
ultimately meet desired mechanical properties.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their sincere thanks to the Swiss Na-
tional Science Foundation (SNSF) (grant 200021_140246) and
Swiss Federal Commission for Scholarships for Foreign Students
(Swiss Government Excellence Scholarship ESKAS-Nr: 2014·
0276) for their financial support. Additionally the authors would
like to acknowledge the support of the Lombardi Foundation
(Switzerland).
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