B.

F SKINNER-Operant Conditioning Theory/Behavioral Analysis

I. Overview of Skinner's Behavioral Analysis

Unlike any theory discussed to this point, the radical behaviorism of B. F. Skinner avoids speculations about hypothetical
constructs and concentrates almost exclusively on observable behavior. Besides being a radical behaviorist, Skinner was
also a determinist and an environmentalist; that is, he rejected the notion of free will, and he emphasized the primacy of
environmental influences on behavior.

II. Scientific Behaviorism

Skinner believed that human behavior, like any other natural phenomena, is subject to the laws of science, and that
psychologists should not attribute inner motivations to it. Although he rejected internal states (thoughts, emotions,
desires, etc.) as being outside the realm of science, Skinner did not deny their existence. He simply insisted that they
should not be used to explain behavior.
A. Philosophy of Science
Skinner believed that, because the purpose of science is to predict and control, psychologists should be concerned with
determining the conditions under which human behavior occurs so that they can predict and control it.
B. Characteristics of Science
Skinner held that science has three principle characteristics: (1) its findings are cumulative, (2) it rests on an attitude that
values empirical observation, and (3) it searchers for order and lawful relationships.

III. Conditioning
Skinner recognized two kinds of conditioning: classical and operant.
A. Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning, a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it is capable of
bringing about a previously unconditioned response, now called the conditioned response. For example, Watson and
Rayner conditioned a young boy to fear a white rat (the conditioned stimulus) by associating it with a loud, sudden noise
(an unconditioned stimulus). Eventually, through the process of generalization, the boy learned to fear stimuli that
resembled the white rat.
B. Operant Conditioning
With operant conditioning, reinforcement is used to increase the probability that a given behavior will recur. Three
factors are essential in operant conditioning: (1) the antecedent, or environment in which behavior takes place; (2) the
behavior, or response; and (3) the consequence that follows the behavior. Psychologists and others use shaping to mold
complex human behavior. Different histories of reinforcement result in operant discrimination, meaning that different
organisms will respond differently to the same environmental contingencies. People may also respond similarly to
different environmental stimuli, a process Skinner called stimulus generalization. Anything within the environment that
strengthens a behavior is a reinforcer. Positive reinforcement is any stimulus that when added to a situation increases
the probability that a given behavior will occur. Negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior through the
removal of an aversive stimulus. Both positive and negative reinforcement strengthen behavior. Any event that
decreases a behavior either by presenting an aversive stimulus or by removing a positive one is called punishment. The
effects of punishment are much less predictable than those of reward. Both punishment and reinforcement can result
from either natural consequences or from human imposition. Conditioned reinforcers are those stimuli that are not by
nature satisfying (e.g., money), but that can become so when they are associated with a primary reinforcer, such as
food. Generalized reinforcers are conditioned reinforcers that have become associated with several primary reinforcers.
Reinforcement can follow behavior on either a continuous schedule or on an intermittent schedule.. The tendency of a
previously acquired response to become progressively weakened upon nonreinforcement is called extinction. Such
elimination or weakening of a response is called classical extinction in a classical conditioning model and operant
extinction when the response was acquired through operant conditioning.
IV. The Human Organism
Skinner believed that human behavior is shaped by three forces: (1) natural selection, (2) cultural practices, and (3) the
individual's history of reinforcement, which we discussed above.
A. Natural Selection
As a species, our behavior is shaped by the contingencies of survival; that is, those behaviors (e.g., sex and aggression)
that were beneficial to the human species tended to survive, whereas those that did not tended to drop out.
B. Cultural Evolution
Those societies that evolved certain cultural practices (e.g. tool making and language) tended to survive. Currently, the
lives of nearly all people are shaped, in part, by modern tools (computers, media, various modes of transportation, etc.)
and by their use of language. However, humans do not make cooperative decisions to do what is best for their society,
but those societies whose members behave in a cooperative manner tended to survive.
C. Inner States
Skinner recognized the existence of such inner states as drives and self-awareness, but he rejected the notion that they
can explain behavior. To Skinner, drives refer to the effects of deprivation and satiation and thus are related to the
probability of certain behaviors, but they are not the causes of behavior. Skinner believed that emotions can be
accounted for by the contingencies of survival and the contingencies of reinforcement; but like drives, they do not cause
behavior. Similarly, purpose and intention are not causes of behavior, although they are sensations that exist within the
skin.
D. Complex Behavior
Human behavior is subject to the same principles of operant conditioning as simple animal behavior, but it is much more
complex and difficult to predict or control. Skinner explained creativity as the result of random or accidental behaviors
that happen to be rewarded. Skinner believed that most of our behavior is unconscious or automatic and that not
thinking about certain experiences is reinforcing. Skinner viewed dreams as covert and symbolic forms of behavior that
are subject to the same contingencies of reinforcement as any other behavior.

E. Control of Human Behavior

Ultimately, all of a person's behavior is controlled by the environment. Societies exercise control over their members
through laws, rules, and customs that transcend any one person's means of countercontrol. There are four basic
methods of social control: (1) operant conditioning, including positive and negative reinforcement and punishment; (2)
describing contingencies, or using language to inform people of the consequence of their behaviors; (3) deprivation and
satiation, techniques that increase the likelihood that people will behave in a certain way; and (4) physical restraint,
including the jailing of criminals. Although Skinner denied the existence of free will, he did recognize that people
manipulate variables within their own environment and thus exercise some measure of self-control, which has several
techniques: (1) physical restraint, (2) physical aids, such as tools; (3) changing environmental stimuli; (4) arranging the
environment to allow escape from aversive stimuli; (5) drugs; and (6) doing something else.

V. The Unhealthy Personality

Social control and self-control sometimes produce counteracting strategies and inappropriate behaviors.
A. Counteracting Strategies
People can counteract excessive social control by (1) escaping from it, (2) revolting against it, or (3) passively resisting it.
B. Inappropriate Behaviors
Inappropriate behaviors follow from self-defeating techniques of counteracting social control or from unsuccessful
attempts at self-control
Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology

Overview of Adler's Individual Psychology

An original member of Freud's psychoanalytic group, Alfred Adler broke from that group and advocated a theory of
personality that was nearly diametrically opposed to that of Freud. Whereas Freud's view of humanity was pessimistic
and rooted in biology, Adler's view was optimistic, idealistic, and rooted in family experiences.

III. Introduction to Adlerian Theory

Although Adler's individual psychology is both complex and comprehensive, its main tenets can be stated in simple form.

IV. Striving for Success or Superiority

The sole dynamic force behind people's actions is the striving for success or superiority.
A. The Final Goal
The final goal of either success or superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality and makes all behavior
meaningful.
B. The Striving Force as Compensation
Because people are born with small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and attempt to overcome these feelings through
their natural tendency to move toward completion. The striving force can take one of two courses: personal gain
(superiority) or community benefit (success).
C. Striving for Personal Superiority
Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for other people. Although they
may appear to be interested in other people, their basic motivation is personal benefit.
D. Striving for Success
In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive for the success of all humanity, but they do so without losing their
personal identity.

V. Subjective Perceptions
People's subjective view of the world-not reality-shapes their behavior.
A. Fictionalism
Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because people act as if these
fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology over causality, or explanations of behavior in terms of future goals rather
than past causes.
B. Organ Inferiorities
Adler believed that all humans are "blessed" with organ inferiorities, which stimulate subjective feelings of inferiority
and move people toward perfection or completion.

VI. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality

Adler believed that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpose. When seen in the light of that sole purpose,
seemingly contradictory behaviors can be seen as operating in a self-consistent manner.
A. Organ Dialect
People often use a physical disorder to express style of life, a condition Adler called organ dialect.
B. Conscious and Unconscious
Conscious and unconscious processes are unified and operate to achieve a single goal. The part of our goal that we do
not clearly understood is unconscious; the part of our goal that we fail to fully comprehend is conscious.

VII. Social Interest

Human behavior has value to the extent that it is motivated by social interest, that is, a feeling of oneness with all of
humanity.
A. Origins of Social Interest
Although social interest exists as potentiality in all people, it must be fostered in a social environment. Adler believed
that the parent-child relationship can be so strong that it negates the effects of heredity.
B. Importance of Social Interest
According to Adler, social interest is "the sole criterion of human values," and the worthiness of all one's actions must be
seen by this standard. Without social interest, societies could not exist; individuals in antiquity could not have survived
without cooperating with others to protect themselves from danger. Even today, an infant's helplessness predisposes it
toward a nurturing person.

VIII. Style of Life

The manner of a person's striving is called style of life, a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years of age.
However, Adler believed that healthy individuals are marked by flexible behavior and that they have some limited ability
to change their style of life.

IX. Creative Power

Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment-the building blocks of personality-but ultimately style of
life is shaped by people's creative power, that is, by their ability to freely choose a course of action.

X. Abnormal Development
Creative power is not limited to healthy people; unhealthy individuals also create their own personalities. Thus, each of
us is free to choose either a useful or a useless style of life.
A. General Description
The most important factor in abnormal development is lack of social interest. In addition, people with a useless style of
life tend to (1) set their goals too high, (2) have a dogmatic style of life, and (3) live in their own private world.
B. External Factors in Maladjustment
Adler listed three factors that relate to abnormal development: (1) exaggerated physical deficiencies, which do not by
themselves cause abnormal development, but which may contribute to it by generating subjective and exaggerated
feelings of inferiority; (2) a pampered style of life, which contributes to an overriding drive to establish a permanent
parasitic relationship with the mother or a mother substitute; and (3) a neglected style of life, which leads to distrust of
other people.
C. Safeguarding Tendencies
Both normal and neurotic people create symptoms as a means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. These
safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic style of life and protect a person from public disgrace. The three principal
safeguarding tendencies are (1) excuses, which allow people to preserve their inflated sense of personal worth; (2)
aggression, which may take the form of depreciating others' accomplishments, accusing others of being responsible for
one's own failures, or self-accusation; and (3) withdrawal, which can be expressed by psychologically moving backward,
standing still, hesitating, or constructing obstacles.
D. Masculine Protest
Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the desirability of being manly, a condition Adler called the masculine
protest. The frequently found inferior status of women is not based on physiology but on historical developments and
social learning.
Raymond Catell: Big Five Theory

The "big five" are broad categories of personality traits. While there is a significant body of literature supporting this
five-factor model of personality, researchers don't always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. However, these
five categories are usually described as follows:

1. Extraversion: This trait includes characteristics such as excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and
high amounts of emotional expressiveness.

1. Agreeableness: This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and
other prosocial behaviors.

2. Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse
control and goal-directed behaviors. Those high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of
details.

3. Neuroticism: Individuals high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness,
irritability, and sadness.

4. Openness: This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also
tend to have a broad range of interests.

Hans Eysenck:Biologically Based Factor Theory

Dimensions of Personality

Although many triads exist, Eysenck's methods of measuring personality limited the number bipolar personality types to
only three—extraversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability, and psychoticism/superego function. Each of three bipolar
factors has a strong genetic component.

A. Extraversion

Extraverts are characterized by sociability, impulsiveness, jocularity, liveliness, optimism, and quick-wittedness,
whereas introverts are quiet, passive, unsociable, careful, reserved, thoughtful, pessimistic, peaceful, sober, and
controlled. Eysenck, however, believed that the principal difference between extraverts and introverts is one of cortical
arousal level.

B. Neuroticism

Like extraversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability is largely influenced by genetic factors. People high in

neuroticism have such traits as anxiety, hysteria, and obsessive-compulsive disorders. They frequently have a tendency
to overreact emotionally and to have difficulty returning to a normal state after emotional arousal. They often complain
of physical symptoms such as headache and backache, but they also may be free from psychological symptoms.

C. Psychoticism

The latest and weakest of Eysenck's personality factors is psychoticism/superego. High psychotic scores may
indicate anxiety, hysteria, egocentricism, nonconformance, aggression, impulsiveness, hostility, and obsessive-
compulsive disorders. Both normal and abnormal individuals may score high on the neuroticism scale.

He used a technique called factor analysis. This technique reduces behavior to a number of factors which can be
grouped together under separate headings, called dimensions.

Four temperaments is a proto-psychological theory that suggests that there are four fundamental personality
types,sanguine (optimistic leader-like), choleric (bad-tempered or irritable), melancholic (analytical and quiet),
andphlegmatic (relaxed and peaceful). Most formulations include the possibility of mixtures of the types