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ENGINEERING SURVEYS

INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF ROADWAY ALIGNMENT

The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned with the
positioning of the physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints. The
basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost
and environmental damage. Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth objective called
“livability”, which is defined as designing roads to foster broader community goals, including
providing access to employment, schools, businesses and residences, accommodate a range of
travel modes such as walking, bicycling, transit, and automobiles, and minimizing fuel use,
emissions and environmental damage.

Geometric roadway design can be broken into three main parts: alignment, profile, and cross-
section. Combined, they provide a three-dimensional layout for a roadway.

The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal tangents and curves.

The profile is the vertical aspect of the road, including crest and sag curves, and the straight lines
connecting them.

The cross-section shows the position and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and sidewalks,
along with their cross slope or banking. Cross sections also show drainage features, pavement
structure and other items outside the category of geometric design.

Roads are designed in conjunction with design guidelines and standards. These are adopted by
national and sub-national authorities. Design guidelines take into account speed, vehicle type,
road grade (slope), view obstructions, and stopping distance. With proper application of
guidelines, along with good engineering judgement, and engineer can design a roadway that is
comfortable, safe, and appealing to the eye.

Horizontal alignment in road design consists of straight sections of road, known as tangents,
connected by circular horizontal curves. Circular curves are defined by radius (tightness) and
deflection angle (extent). The design of a horizontal curve entails the determination of a
minimum radius (based on speed limit), curve length, and objects obstructing the view of the
driver.

Using AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials)


standards, an engineer works to design a road that is safe and comfortable. If a horizontal curve
has a high speed and a small radius, an increased super elevation (bank) is needed in order to
assure safety. If there is an object obstructing the view around a corner or curve, the engineer
must work to ensure that drivers can see far enough to stop to avoid an accident or accelerate to
join traffic.
Simple Curve

Terminologies in Simple Curve

PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.


PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is known as subtangent.
R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown is the midpoint of L.
Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the figure is the midpoint of Lc.
E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of chord.
I = Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection and central angle). It is the angle of
intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by PC and PT at O is also equal to I,
where O is the center of the circular curve
x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.
θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve equal to one
station. In English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one station is equal to
20 m.
Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.
SPIRAL CURVE

Spirals are used to overcome the abrupt change in curvature and superelevation that occurs between
tangent and circular curve. The spiral curve is used to gradually change the curvature and superelevation
of the road, thus called transition curve.

Elements of Spiral Curve


Formulas for Spiral Curves
PARABOLIC CURVE

Elements of Vertical Curve


SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE
UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE

Curves with unequal tangents or a compound curve where one parabola extends from the P.C. to the
point directly below the vertex and a second parabola which extends from this point to the P.T.

L1 = length of the parabolic curve on the left side of the vertex

L2 = length of the parabolic curve on the right side of the vertex

g1 = slope of backward tangent

g2 = slope of forward tangent


SIGHT DISTANCE

-It is the length of roadway ahead visible to the driver. For purpose of design and operation, it is termed
stopping sight distance and passing sight distance.

𝑉2
For summit parabolic curves: S = Vt + 2𝑔(𝑓+𝐺) , V = design velocity, g = 9.81 m/s2,
f = coefficient of friction between tires and pavement, G = grade of road, usually of backward tangent

When S<L

𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿=
100(√2ℎ1 + √2ℎ2 )2

When S>L

200(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )2
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
Where:
L = length of the vertical curve in m
S = sight distance
A = algebraic difference in grades, percent
h1 = height of eye above roadway surface
h2 = height of object above roadway surface
𝐴𝑉 2
For sag parabolic curves: L = , to obtain the maximum velocity
395

When S<L

𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿=
122 + 3.5 𝑆

When S>L

122+3.5𝑆
L = 2𝑆 − 𝐴

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