DR.

BADRONNISA YUSUF
nisa@upm.edu.my
03-89466374
017-3475742
Basic Equations
Must satisfy

• Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass)

• Momentum Equation (Newton’s Second law)

• Energy Equation (Conservation of Energy)

Properties of Fluid
Mass Density,  ,(rho)

mass per unit volume

m
 unit kg/m3
V

Typical values : Water at 4o C = 1000 kg/m3

Air at standard pressure (1.013 x 105N/m2) and
at 20oC = 1.20 kg/m3
3
Specific Volume,  (upsilon)
V 1
Volume per unit mass ν= = unit m3/kg
m ρ
Specific Weight,  (gamma)
Weight per unit volume.
Weight depends on gravitational attraction, w= mg

mg
  g unit N/m3
V
Typical values: Water = 9.81 x 103N/m3 ; air = 12.07 N/m3
4
Specific Gravity (relative density), Sg

 subst.  subst.
Sg  Sg 
 HO
H 2O 2
or

no unit

( water= 1000kg/m3,  water= 9.81 x 103N/m3)

5
Dynamic Viscosity,  , (miu)

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its

resistance to flow against deformation.

 = shear stress

 dv/dy = velocity gradient
dv / dy

2 or Poise (10P = 1 kg/ms)

Unit Ns/m
Typical values for water 1.14 x 10-3 Pa.s (Ns/m2)
or 1.14 x 10-2 Poise (1 P = 0.1 Ns/m2)
6
Kinematic Viscosity, , (niu)

is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density


 unit : m2/s


Typical values for water 1.14 x 10-6 m2/s

7
Newtonian / Non Newtonian Fluids
Fluid for which shear stress is directly
proportional to the velocity gradient is
classified as Newtonian Fluids i.e   dv/dy

Plastic
Bingham Plastic

Pseudo Plastic
Newtonian Fluid

Shear
stress, 
Dilatant

Ideal Fluid

dv/dy
8
Continuity Equation
Rate of mass of fluid entering =
Rate of mass of fluid leaving + rate of change
(increase/decrease ) of mass in the control volume

Control Mass
Mass
volume leaving
entering
Continuity Equation
In steady flow, the mass of fluid in control volume is constant.
Rate of mass of fluid entering = Rate of mass of fluid leaving

Applying this principle to steady flow in a streamtube

2
1
v2
v1
A2
2
A1
1
Continuity Equation
1A1v1 = 2A2v2

If the fluid is considered incompressible,

1  2

A1v1 = A2v2 = Q

This is known as continuity equation

Continuity Equation
Continuity equation is a statement of conservation of
mass i.e time rate of change of the system mass = 0

DMsys
=0
Dt

To conserve mass, the time rate of change of mass of the

contents of control volume plus the net rate of mass flow
through the control surface must be equal to 0.

∂ ∂
dV  u idV  0
∂t ∂x i
Continuity Equation
∂ ∂
dV  u idV  0
∂t ∂x i

 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
  u  v   w dV  0
 ∂t ∂x ∂y dz 

This is the final form of continuity equation for 3D, unsteady

and compressible flow, where  is density and u, v, w are
the velocity in x, y and z directions
Continuity Equation
For steady 3D flow, there will be no change of mass with time,

∂
 0 Continuity equation becomes
∂t
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
 u  v   w dV  0
 ∂x ∂y dz 
For incompressible steady 3D flow,  is constant, thus

 ∂u ∂v ∂w 
   dV  0
 ∂x ∂y ∂z
z 
Continuity Equation
For steady 1D flow,
∂ ∂
udV  0 u dxdydz  0
∂x ∂x

 =0
∂m where  = ρuA = ρQ
m

In simplified form
 in = m
m  out ρ1v1A1 = ρ2 v2A2

For incompressible flow v1A1 = v2A 2

Continuity Equation
Application of continuity equation

Determine flows into and out of a junction

2, A2, Q2
1, A1, Q1

3, A 3, Q3
Continuity Equation
Applying continuity principle

1Q1  2Q2  3Q3

For incompressible flow, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ3

Momentum Equation
Momentum = mv = Vv
=  Qt v =  vA v t
=  v2A t

Rate of Momentum =  A v2 =  Q v

Where m = mass, Q = discharge, v = velocity, t =

time, A = Area of flow and V = volume
Newton 2nd Law
The motion of fluid particles is governed by Newton’s Law

Newton’s Law
1. A body will remain at rest or in a state of uniform
motion in a straight line until acted upon by an
external force.
2. The rate of change in momentum of a body is
proportional to the force applied and takes place
in the direction of action of that force.
Momentum Equation
In fluid motion whenever there is change in magnitude
and direction of velocity, there will be a corresponding
change in momentum and according to Newton 2nd Law

The rate of change in momentum of a body is proportional to the

force applied and takes place in the direction of action of that
force.

Consider a streamtube as follows

1 2
v1 v2
A1 A2
Momentum Equation
The rate of change of momentum for steady flow
= 2Qv2 - 1Qv1

if 1 = 2 and according to continuity principle Q1 = Q2

and Newton 2nd Law

Q (v2 - v1) = F
Navier Stokes Equation
 Navier stokes equation are the differential form of Newton’s
second law (rate of change of momentum = total force).

F= m v/t = m a = V a

total force rate of change of momentum mass x acceleration

• Two types of forces need to be considered

• Body forces – weight
• Surface forces – due to normal stress () and shear stress ()
Navier Stokes Equation
x- direction
∂
u ∂
u ∂
u ∂u ∂P ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
ρ ( +u +v + w ) = - + ρg x + μ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
∂t ∂x ∂y dz ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
y- direction
∂
v ∂
v ∂
v ∂v ∂P ∂2 v ∂2 v ∂2 v
ρ ( +u + v + w ) = - + ρg y + μ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
∂t ∂
x ∂
y dz ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
z- direction
∂
v ∂
w ∂
w ∂w ∂P ∂2 w ∂2 w ∂2 w
ρ ( +u +v +w ) = - + ρg z + μ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
∂t ∂x ∂y dz ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
Navier Stokes Equation
x- direction
∂
vr ∂ v r vθ 2
v r vθ ∂ ∂vr ∂P 1 ∂
ρ ( + vr + - + vz )=- + ρg r + μ(
∂t ∂r r ∂θ r dz ∂r r∂r
v r v r 1 ∂2 v r ∂2 v r
r∂
( )- 2 + 2 + )
∂r r r ∂θ 2
∂
z 2

y- direction

z- direction
Navier Stokes Equation
 In vector notation

∂
V
ρ( + V.∇V ) = ∇P + ρg + μ∇2V
∂t
V = { u, v, w }
∂
u ∂ v ∂ w
∇.V = + + divergence
∂x ∂
y ∂
z

∂
u ∂ u ∂ u gradient
∇u = + +
∂x ∂
y ∂
z
Solution of Navier Stokes eqn
 Navier Stokes equation is non-linear – difficult to solve
and for most practical flow problems it has no direct/exact
solution.

 Exact solution is only available for basics laminar flow in

which the velocity is either steady or unsteady.

 Eg. of basic flows

Poiseuille flow
Coutte flow
Energy Equation
Energy equation can be derived by considering the rate
of change of momentum and the forces acting along the
streamline.

Pressure, P+ P
s Area, A+ A
Velocity, v+ V
Pressure, P
Pside
Area, A
Velocity, v z  z
z
 Pside mg
Energy Equation
By balancing all the forces involved and applying Newton
2nd Law i.e the resultant force is equal to the rate of change
of momentum

- AδP - ρgA δz = ρAvδv

After simplification

1 dP dv dz This is known as
v g 0
 dS ds ds EULER’S equation
Energy Equation
Integrating Euler’s equation along the streamline with
respect to s and dividing by g

P v2
 z constant
g 2g

This is known as Bernoulli’s Equation

Energy Equation
Bernoulli’s equation represent the energy that an element of
fluid posses,

• Potential energy due to height z above datum

• Kinetic energy due to its velocity
• Pressure energy when fluid flowing under
pressure

The equation is expressed in term of energy per unit

weight or Head (H)
Energy Equation
Potential energy = mgz (Nm)
Potential energy per unit weight= z (m)

Kinetic Energy = ½ mv2 (Nm)

Kinetic Energy per unit weight = v2/2g (m)

Pressure energy = PAm/A

Pressure energy per unit weight =P/g
Energy Equation
The total head (energy per unit weight)

P v2
 z
g 2g
Bernoulli’s equation states for a steady flow of a
frictionless fluid along a streamline, the total energy per
unit weight remains constant
2
PP v 2
zzconstant
v
H 
gg 2
 2gg
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Between any two points on a streamline
2 2
P1 v P2 v 2
  z1 
1
  z2
g 2g g 2g

P/ g = Pressure head (m)

V2/2g = Velocity head (m)
z = Potential head (m)
The above equation is formulated based on the
assumption that no energy has been supplied or
loss between the two points.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s equation can be expanded to include these
conditions (energy loss/energy supplied)
Eg: Energy can be supplied by introducing pump. Energy
can be lost due to friction.
2 2
P1 v P2 v 2
  z1  Hp 
1
  z 2  HT   hL
g 2g g 2g
hL = energy loss per unit weight
HT = work done per unit weight
HP = energy supplied per unit weight
Classification of Flow
Steady Uniform Flow
- Conditions do not change with position or time.
- The velocity and cross sectional area of the stream of
fluid are constant at each cross section.
- Streamlines are straight and parallel.

Unsteady Uniform Flow

- Conditions do change with time but do not with
location
Classification of Flow
Steady non uniform flow
- Condition change from point to point, but not with
time.

- The velocity and cross sectional area of the stream

may vary from one section to others, but for each
section they will not vary with time.
REAL FLUID AND IDEAL FLUID
Real Fluid
- When real fluid flows past a boundary, the fluid will
have the same velocity as the boundary.
- The velocity of successive layer of fluid will increase
as it move away from the boundary. This change of
velocity occurs in the region known as Boundary
Layer.
- The point will reach in which the velocity will not be
affected by the drag exerted by the boundary – free
stream.
REAL FLUID AND IDEAL FLUID
Ideal Fluid
- Outside the Boundary Layer the effect of shear
stress due to boundary can be ignored
- The fluid can be treated as an Ideal Fluid.

Boundary layer is a region next to the boundary of a surface in

which the fluid has had its velocity changed due to the presence
of shearing resistance provide by boundary roughness
The thickness of boundary layer is defined as distance from the
boundary to the point away from the boundary at which the
velocity equal to 99% of the free stream velocity.
DISCHARGE/FLOW RATE
The total quantity of fluid flowing in unit time past any
particular cross section is called discharge or rate of
flow.
In an ideal fluid, in which there is no friction, the velocity,
u would be the same every point of the cross section, the
discharge is given as

Q = Au
Where A = is the flow area
u = velocity
DISCHARGE/FLOW RATE
In real fluid, in the presence of friction, the velocity
varies across the cross section, the discharge is in term
of mean velocity

Q = Av

Where v = average velocity

A = flow area