CHAPTER- 3

OVERVIEW OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

Geology is the science and study of the physical matter that constitutes the Earth and
the processes which act on the earth matter. The geological processes like
earthquake, volcanic activity, erosion, weathering, deposition etc. continuously act on
earth surfaces. These geological processes lead to formation and destruction of the
rock, which preserves the majority of the geological history. Rocks present on earth
are three major types:

a) Igneous,
b) Sedimentary, and
c) Metamorphic.

When a rock crystallizes from melt (magma and/or lava), it is an igneous rock, (e.g.,
Granite, Gabbro, Basalt, Rhyolite etc.) This rock can be weathered and eroded, and
then redeposited and lithified into a Sedimentary rock (e.g., Sandstone, Shale,
Limestone etc.) or be turned into a Metamorphic rock (e.g., Gneiss, Schist, Slate,
Phyllite etc.) Due to heat and pressure that change the mineral content of the rock
and give it a characteristic fabric, the sedimentary rock can then be subsequently
turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure, and the metamorphic rock
can be weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, becoming a sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock
may also undergo additional metamorphism. All three types of rocks may be re-
melted; when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock
may once again crystallize, thus giving rise to a rock cycle,

Commercial quantities of hydrocarbons are associated with sedimentary basins and

for hydrocarbon exploration sedimentary rocks have special significance. The
sedimentary rocks are deposited into a large depression on earth surface broadly
resembling a bowl or basin and are known as Sedimentary Basins. Therefore a
Sedimentary basin may be defined as a large depression in which sediments
accumulate rapidly during a particular span of time; it has significantly great
thickness of sediments. .

18
Generally after the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can
be deformed and/or metamorphosed. Deformation typically occurs as a result of
horizontal shortening, horizontal extension, or side-to-side motion. When rock units
are placed under horizontal
compression, they shorten and
become thicker. Because rock units,
other than muds, do not significantly
change in volume, this is
accomplished in two primary ways:
through faulting and folding. In the
shallow crust, where brittle
deformation can occur, thrust faults
form, which cause deeper rock to move
on top of shallower rock. Because
deeper rock is often older, this can result in older rocks moving on top of
younger ones. Movement along faults
can result in folding, either because the
faults are not planar, or because the
rock layers are dragged along, forming
drag folds, as slip occurs are along
the fault. Deeper in the Earth, rocks
behave plastically, and fold instead of
faulting. The rock units within the

STRIKE SLIP
(Lateral fault)
FAULT SCARP
C

HORST

REVERSE FAULT A
B NORMAL FAULT GRABEN

19
sedimentary basins gets folded and faulted and these folded and faulted strata forms
trap for hydrocarbon and other economically important minerals. Geological
concepts are applied for exploration of petroleum and are generally referred as
Petroleum Geology.

Petroleum: The term Petroleum is coined from two Latin words "Petra" meaning rock
and "Oleum" meaning oil. It is a generic name for hydrocarbons including cude oil,
condensate, natural gas and their products. Petroleum is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons (hydrogen + carbon) compounds with minor amount of Nitrogen,
Oxygen and Sulphur as impurities.

The occurrence of petroleum is widespread but very uneven. The majority of

Petroleum occurrences are reported from sedimentary rocks but a few occurrences
are reported from igneous and metamorphic rocks as well. Occurrences of
petroleum are reported from rocks of all ages. Some petroleum occurrences are
visible as outprop at the surface of the ground. However for producing commercial
quantities of the hydrocarbon subsurface occurrence are important, exploited only by
drilling. Almost all of the world's commercial supply of oil and gas is produced from
subsurface deposits.

Origin of Petroleum: Theories of the origin of petroleum are based on the

primary source material i.e., organic or inorganic. Early ideas leaned toward the
inorganic sources, whereas the modern theories assume that the primary source
material was organic.

20
Inorganic hypotheses for origin of Petroleum

a) Cosmic origins: Carbon and hydrogen combined during consolidation of the

Earth. Also carbonaceous chondrites and space dust contain hydrocarbons.
If this had happened the occurrence of petroleum would have been more
universal and not confined predominantly to the sedimentary rocks.

b) Reactions of metal carbides within the Earth: Formation of hydrocarbons

from metal carbides and following reactions are considered:

FeC2 + 2H2O = C2H2 (acetylene) + Fe(OH)2

AI4C3 + 12 H2O = 3CH4 + 4AI (OH)3 Fischer - Tropsch reaction:
CO2 + H2 = CO + H2O then CO + 3H2 = CH4 + H2O
There is no evidence that metal carbides exist in the mantle.

c) Hydrocarbons in igneous rocks as evidence: Hydrocarbons including

bitumen can be found in igneous rocks as vesicles and inclusions in
alkaline igneous rocks and as thermal aureoles around basic intrusions in
sediments. This can be explained by distillation of kerogen in surrounding
sediments due to heat of the intrusion and petroleum may be incorporated in
the igneous rocks as they cool. Occurrence of petroleum in weathered and
fractured igneous rocks can be explained by the migration into the rocks
from a sedimentary organic source.

d) Mantle degassing: Polymerisation of inorganic gasses such as methane that

are produced in the mantle. It is difficult to produce the range of
complex
hydrocarbons by polymerisation.

Main problems with inorganic theories of petroleum genesis;

• Poor correlation between petroleum and volcanism.

• Paucity of Precambrian oil.
• Petroleum is "optically active" with L and D isomers which is linked to
organic origin.
• Presence of homologous series.
• Geological association with sedimentary basins.

Organic Origin of Petroleum: Crude oil was formed over millions of years from tiny
aquatic plants and animals called planktons and other marine life that lived in
21
ancient water bodies mainly seas. When marine life dies they fall to the sea bed
and are trapped under many layers of sand and mud. Over millions of years, as the
sediments and organic debris buried within the sediments into thousands of feet
thickness. Bacteria take oxygen from the trapped organic residues and gradually
break down the matter into substances rich in carbon and hydrogen. The extreme
overburden pressure squeezes the clays into hard shales. Organic matter
transforms to hydrocarbon within the deep, un-witnessed realm of immense force.

22
Petroleum System

When we explore for hydrocarbons, we need to establish a Petroleum System which

has the following key components.

i) Source Rock
ii) Migration (Timing)
iii) Reservoir Rock
iv) Seal
v) Trap

Appropriate timing of formation of these elements and the process of generation,

migration and entrapment are necessary for hydrocarbon to accumulate and be
preserved. Exploration plays and prospects are typically developed in the basins or
regions in which a complete petroleum system has some likelihood of existing.

Source Rock: It is a fine grained sedimentary rock (Shale) rich in organic matter
which has expelled hydrocarbon in the past. It contain sufficient amount of organic
matter. When a source rock starts generating oil and gas then it is said to be
mature.When the Organic matter is heated with time, the chains of hydrocarbons
break away from the Kerogen and form waxy and viscous crude oil. At greater depth,
the temperature is high and the pressure of overlying sediments and water column is
also high. This helps the chains of hydrocarbons to become shorter and these results
in lighter oil and gas to separate out.

Kerogen Origin Organic Constituents

Type
Algal Algae of marine, lacustrine. boghead Mostly algal components: of exinite
coal environments (alginite); some amorphous material
derived from algae
Mixed Decomposition in reducing Amorphous particles derived mostly
Marine environments, mostly marine from phytoplankton, zooplankton,
and higher organisms; also some
macerals from these groups
Coaly Debris of continental vegetation Mostly vitrinite; some exinite (not
(wood, spores, leaf cuticle wax, resin, algal) and amorphous
plant tissue) decomposition products
Inert Fossil charcoal and other oxidized Mostly inertinite; some amorphous
material of continental vegetation decomposition products

Kerogen is the organic matter found in source rock and is the fraction of large

23
chemical aggregates in sedimentary organic matter that is insoluble in solvents
(in contrast, the fraction that is soluble in organic solvents is .called bitumen).
Kerogen is frequently used to analyze the quality of source rock. ,

Oil Window : Temperature range between 60°C and 175°C is commonl y called the
oil window - the principle zone of oil formation. It begins with burial depth of 1 to 2
km. and ends at the depth of 3 to 4 km in most areas, depending on factors such
as the geo-thermal gradient. The first oil generated is heavy and rich in aromatic,
as burial and temperature increases; oil becomes lighter and more paraffinic. At
temperature above 175°C generation of petroleum cea ses and gas formation
becomes dominant. Source rocks become over-mature. However some methane
can still be created, even at this very high temperature. Time is also an important
factor in the generation of hydrocarbons which takes millions of years to generate
from organic matter. Younger sediments need higher temperature to generate oil.

Min Max
Diagenesis

Biogenic Methane
Im m ature Zone

0
60
Increasing Depth and Tem perature

0.5 2
Tem perature ( O C )

Catagenesis
Oil W indow
Depth (km )

0
2.0 4 100 Oil

0
6 175 Wet Gas
3.5
O
Gas W indow

225
5.0 8
M etagenesis

Dry Gas

0
315
Hydrocarbon generated

Depth, Temperature and time factors in hydrocarbon formation

24
Migration: As the source rock is buried deep in the earth, the overburden
pressure compacts the source rock, the hydrocarbons generated in the source rock
is squeezed out. The generation of hydrocarbons causes an enormous increase in
volume that fractures the source rocks. The Hydrocarbons migrate through these
fractures. There are different ways by which the hydrocarbon is thought to have
migrated from source rock:

i) Solution: The solubility of hydrocarbons in water is very low, usually less than 50
ppm. Exceptions are methane, benzene and toulene which may have solubilities
of 500 to 2000 ppm at reservoir conditions. Solubility is enhanced by increasing
temperature, but within the oil window temperatures are too low to make any
difference.

ii) Micelles: are molecules that behave like soap, attaching themselves to a
hydrocarbon molecule on one end and to an OH- at the other end. These could
increase the amount of hydrocarbons transported by water. However, micelles are
not found in rocks in sufficiently large quantities to explain most hydrocarbon
accumulations.

iii) Gas Phase Migration: Compressed gas can dissolve liquid hydrocarbons. For
example at 5000 psi (conditions found at about 10,000 feet) methane and decane
(C1 and G10) form a single gas phase. Migration of hydrocarbons dissolved in the

25
gas phase can facilitate the movement of hydrocarbons through the source rock, as
the gas phase migrates into shallower regions where temperature is lower; the liquid
hydrocarbons come out of solution. However, the gas/oil ratio of most oil fields is too
low for the gas to be the only means of transporting the oil out of the source rock.
Also at the onset of generation most the kerogen produces little gas, most gas is
generated late during the maturation history.

iv) Oil Phase Migration: Most hydrocarbons probably are expelled from the
source rock as liquids. The expulsion of the oil out of the source rock is a dynamic
process driven by the oil generation itself. Good source rocks have TOC (total
organic content) ranging from 3 to 10%. At low TOC the kerogen may occupy a
position within the matrix porosity of the rock, at high TOC the kerogen can form
connected bands within the rock. Then the kerogen is bearing part of the litho static
load.

As the organic matter transforms into oil this load-bearing kerogen turns into liquid.
The fluid pressure of the oil within the black shales can become high enough to
produce micro fractures in the rock. Once the micro fractures form, the oil is
squeezed out and the source rock collapses. Thus primary migration can be viewed
as a second episode of compaction. Micro fractures of this type can be seen in most
productive source rocks and they are often filled with remnants of oil.

Primary Migration is
the process by which
hydrocarbons are
expelled from the source
rock into an adjacent
permeable carrier bed.

Secondary Migration is
the movement of
hydrocarbons along a
"carrier bed" from the
source to trap. Migration
mostly takes place as one or more separate hydrocarbons phases (gas or liquid
depending on pressure and temperature conditions). There is also minor dissolution
in water of methane and short chain hydrocarbons. Migration can be local or can
26
occur along distances of 100s of km in large sedimentary basin.

Driving Forces :

• Buoyancy acts vertically and is proportional to the density difference between

water and the hydrocarbon so it is stronger for gas than heavier oil.

• Hydrodynamic flow - water potential deflect the direction of oil migration, the
effect is usually minor except in over pressured zones (primary migration).

Resisting Forces:

• Capillary pressure opposes movement of fluid from coarse-grain to fine-grain

rock; also the capillary pressure of the water in the reservoir resists the movement
of oil.

Entrapment: After migration the next most important stage is the entrapment of oil
and gas. This result in the concentration of oil and gas below the cap rock, at the
highest part of the reservoir rock, as oil and gas tend to move upwards. Usually less
than 1% is able to undergo migration out of the source bed to accumulate within a
porous and permeable reservoir. The majority of petroleum will leak out to the surface
due to lack of good impermeable seal or cap rock.

Reservoirs: Reservoirs contain porous rocks which allow flow through the pore
spaces, i.e. they are permeable. Sedimentary rocks are most common reservoir
rocks such as Sandstone and Limestone.

Porosity of a rock is the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume. In
hydrocarbon reservoirs, the pore
volume is the space available for oil,
gas and water storage. Porosity is
generally expressed as a
percentage of bulk volume

What is a good porosity ?

0-5% - Negligible
5-10% - Poor
0-15% - Fair
15-20% - Good
>20% - Very good

Practical cut off for oil:

Sandstone ~8%

27
Limestone ~5%
For gas the cut off is lower
Permeability : A measure of the ease with which a fluid can flow through a
material. It is expressed in darcies or milidarcies. It is measured in laboratories.

Relative Permeability (KA): ln a rock that contains more than one fluid, relative
permeability is the percentage of the total permeability of the rock to that fluid.

Effective Permeability (Ke): In a rock that contains more than one fluid, the
permeability of the rock to any one
of the fluids is known as the
effective permeability for that fluid.

What is good permeability?

<1 millidarcy - Poor
1-10 md - Fair
10-100 md - Good
100-1000 md - Very good

Seal (Cap): An impermeable rock that acts as a barrier to further migration of

hydrocarbon liquids. Rocks that form a barrier or cap above and around reservoir
rock forming a trap such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the reservoir. The
permeability of a seal capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to
10-8 darcies, commonly. Shale, mudstone, anhydrite and salt act as cap or seal.

Traps : A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and sealed by

a relatively impermeable formation through which hydrocarbons will not migrate,
Mainly three kindly of traps are found to hold hydrocarbons

• Structural Traps
• Stratigraphic Traps
• Combination Traps

28
Structural Traps : are formed due to post depositional tectonic processes like
folding and faulting, they are formed by the deformation of the reservoir rock. There
are generally two kinds of Structural traps.

Gas Oil Water Impermeable Shale Sandstone (Reservoir)

STRUCTURAL TRAPS

1. Traps which are formed due to folding such as Anticline. Anticline is folds
which are convex upwards, and act as traps for entrapment of hydrocarbons.

2. Traps which are formed due to faulting.

Fault traps are formed if the porous permeable reservoir rocks are faulted
against impermeable beds, the fault plane acts as seal. Both Normal and
Reverse fault act as traps.

Stratigraphic Traps:

Gas Oil Water Impermeable Shale Sandstone (Reservoir)

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
29
Stratigraphic traps are formed due to:

• Variation in stratigraphy.
• Variation in the lithology of the reservoir rock.
• Variation in local porosity and permeability.
• Upward termination of reservoir rock.
• Fluvial channel sands and Deltaic sand bars are good examples of stratigraphic
traps, e.g. Unconformity
• Lens and Pinch-out

Combination Traps: has two or three elements

- A stratigraphic element causing the edge of permeability of the reservoir rock.

- A structural element causing the deformation that combines with the stratigraphic
element to complete rock portion of the trap
- A down dip flow of formation water increasing the trapping effect.
Examples: eroded anticlines, traps associated with salt dome,

30
Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

Producing oil and gas needs energy. Usually some of this required energy is
supplied by nature. The hydrocarbon fluids are under pressure because of their
depth. The gas and water in petroleum reservoirs under pressure are the two main
sources that help move the oil to the well bore and sometimes up to the surface and
are referred to as reservoir drive mechanism. Depending on the original characteristics
of hydrocarbon reservoirs, the type of driving energy is different Type of drive
mechanism is defined according to the dominant force. Early recognition of drive
mechanism is required essentially as the strategy of field development depends on it.

The moment a well taps the petroleum reservoir, energy beings to be released. An
area of lower pressure begins to form around the well, a fluid potential gradient is
established and fluid begins to form around the well. If the amount of available
reservoir energy is small, the reservoir pressure declines. If the reservoir energy supply
is large, great volumes of oil & gas will be produced before there is appreciable loss in
the reservoir pressure. Most pools contain several kinds of energy sources, no one
kind will pre dominate for complete life of the pool, but each functions in the well
proportion to its ability to maintain a pressure gradient toward the well. Production
efficiencies - depend largely on the kinds of reservoir energy present. The most
efficient production is obtained when the drop in reservoir pressure is the lowest per
unit of oil and /or gas produced at the surface.

Based on the energy sources which are inferred to drive reservoir the following types of
drive mechanisms are recognized:

• Solution gas drive mechanism.

• Gas cap drive mechanism
• Water drive mechanism
• Gravity drive mechanism &
• Combination drive mechanism

Solution gas drive mechanism:

Dominant if only dissolved gas energy is available. Mostly in those pools which are
isolated and sealed, (such as lenses, fault blocks or cemented sands). When well
flowed, dissolved gas energy is freed by the expansion of the gas released from
solution as pressure drop, as gas expands, it moves in the direction of lower fluid

31
potential gradient, dragging the oil along
with it. Once gas starts to flow
pressure drops faster and more
amount of gas is formed from lighter
hydrocarbons. Due to rapid pressure
decline, reservoir pressure goes
below saturation pressure, (free gas
comes out of solution as bubbles)
resulting in phase separation within the reservoir. Structurally higher wells show
increasing GOR and some wells start producing gas only. Formation of secondary
gas cap, size keeps on increasing with production, (gas may continue to be produced
along with oil and collect at the top of the reservoir and became a secondary free
gas cap.)Reasons of low recovery are wastage of available gas energy, increase in
oil viscosity due to gas removal and pressure reduction and thus leading to oil
immobility. As reservoir pressure decline, the production rate also declines it is
also called as dissolved gas or depletion drive, (GOR=Gas Oil Ratio)

Diagnostic features of solution gas drive

• No Oil Water Contact or Gas Oil Contact on well logs.

• Fast pressure decline with production.
• Gas Oil Ratio first low, then rises to maximum and then drop
• Recoveries of oil: 5-30 % range.

Least efficient drive mechanism is highly undesirable. Shutting in the well does not
replenish the energy.

Gas Cap Drive: the presence of an

original free-gas cap above the oil
pool shows there is an excess of gas
beyond that necessary to saturate oil
at reservoir temperature & pressure.
All possible ratios of gas cap size to
oil zone are possible and this ratio
greatly influences the recovery factor.
Energy is supplied by dissolved gas
as well as compressed overlying gas. Oil flows towards lower parts of the pool.
32
Displacement of oil is by expanding gas accompanied by gravity effects. Solution
gas released rises up and replenishes the gas cap there by reducing the pressure
decline rate.

Diagnostic features:

• Slow decline of reservoir pressure.

• Stable Gas Oil Ratio of wells away from Gas Oil Contact for fairly long time.
• High Gas Oil Ratio of the wells close to Gas Oil Contact
• Ultimate recoveries between 20-40%

Gas-cap drive possible disadvantages are preferential flow of gas due to its lower
viscosity. If produced too rapidly, by-passing of oil occurs resulting in low recoveries,
thus there are limitations of production rates otherwise.

Water Drive Mechanism: possible

when oil zone underlain by water. They
are two types-edge water and bottom
water drive. Pressure transmitted from
the surrounding aquifer or water at the

edge and bottom of the oil pool.

The water moves in, replaces
produced oil or gas, and pressure
is maintained. If the pressure
remains almost constant with
production due to entrance of new
water then it is active water drive.
Ultimate recoveries in water drive
reservoirs are 45-60% and in active
water drive up to 80%.Water
injection is nothing but creation of
artificial water drive mechanism. It is
most efficient drive mechanism.

33
Water drive mechanism, diagnostic features

• Occurrence of Oil Water Contact on logs.

• No appreciable pressure reduction with production.
• Ultimate recoveries reasonably high (>50%)
• Water cutting in structurally lower wells with production due to upward
movement of Oil Water Contact.
• Stable Gas Oil Ratio values for a long time
• Decline in oil rate only due to increasing water cut.

Combination Drive Mechanism: Both Oil Water Contact and Gas Oil Contact are
seen on logs, with production Gas Oil Contact moves downward and Oil Water
Contact moves upward. It is characterized by production with higher GOR in
structurally higher wells and increased water cut in structurally lower wells.
Reasonably high recovery factors (50-75%)

Gravity Drive Mechanism: Gravity acts as a drive mechanism throughout the

producing life of all the pools. Significant in high relief traps, separation of water, oil and
gas is aided by gravity only. In solution gas drive reservoirs, gravity drive becomes
important in later stages.

Sedimentary Basins of India :

Sedimentary basins refer to a geographical feature exhibiting subsidence and

consequent infilling by sedimentation. On burial they are subjected to increasing
pressure and begin the process of lithification. The sedimentary basins of India, on
land and offshore up to the 200m isobath, have an aerial extent of about 1.79 million
sq. km. In the deep waters beyond the 200m isobath, the sedimentary area has been
estimated to be about 1.35 million sq. km. The total thus works out to 3.14 million sq.
km. So far, 26 major basins have been recognized and they have been divided into
four categories based on their degree of prospectivity as presently known.

Category- I is the petroliferous basins with proved hydrocarbon reserves and where
commercial production has already started. Category–II comprises basins with
occurrence of hydrocarbons but from which no commercial production has been
obtained yet. Category–III comprises basins with no significant oil & gas shows but
which on Geological considerations are considered to be prospective. Category–IV

34
comprises uncertain prospects. It includes the basins which bear an analogy with
hydrocarbon producing basins in the world.

CATEGORY-1 CATEGORY-II CATEGORY-III CATEGORY-IV

CAT

(PROVEN
(IDENTIFIED (PROSPECTIVE (POTENTIALLY
COMMERCIAL
PROSPECTIVITY) BASINS) PROSPECTIVE)
PRODUCTIVITY)

• Cambay • Andaman- • Himalayan • Karewa

• Assam Shelf- Nicobar Foreland • Spiti-Zanskar
Assam Arakan • Kutch • Ganga Satpura-
Fold belt • Mahanadi • Vindhyan • South Rewa-
BASINS

• Mumbai • Kerala- Damodar

Offshore Konkan- • Narmada
• Cauvery Lakshadweep • Decan Syneclise
• Krishna • Bengal • Bhima-Kaladgi
Godavari • Cuddapah
• Rajasthan • Pranhita-Godavari
• Bastar
• Chhattisgarh

Over the last few years, there have been significant forward steps in exploring the
hydrocarbon potential of the sedimentary basins of India. The unexplored area has
come down to 15% which was 50% in 1995-96.

35
SEDIMENTARY BASINS OF INDIA

36