Stellar Nucleosynthesis and The Periodic Table

Lesson Plan by Jasmeet Dhaliwal and Jason Moore

Learning Goals:

 Students will know the subatomic particles (proton, neutron, electron).

 Students will know that an atom’s identity (number) is equal to the number of protons.
 Students will know that atomic mass is determined by the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons.
 Students will know the proton-proton chain reaction that leads to the formation of helium during
hydrogen fusion in stars.
 Students will know that the chemical elements from hydrogen to iron can be formed in stars through
stellar fusion.
 Students will be able to explain the formation of elements through the alpha ladder.
 Students will know that the chemical elements heavier than iron are formed in supernova explosions.
 Students will be able to explain the formation of heavier elements as a series of particle collisions and
subsequent nuclear decay processes.

Students will be able to apply their understanding of the formation of chemical elements to explaining
the organization of the periodic table
Misconceptions Lesson 1

 Warm colors are red, orange and yellow and are therefore hotter.
 Cool colors are green, violet and blue and therefore have lower energy.

Misconceptions Lesson 2

 The stars are smaller than the Sun.

 The Sun is not a star.
 Stars can fall.
 Elements are formed under high pressure in the earth.

Misconceptions Lesson 3

 Atoms can be seen in a microscope.

 Atoms can be divided.
 The identity of an atom depends on what it looks like.
 The atom is the smallest unit of matter.

Misconceptions Lesson 4

 The chemical elements simply exist, and have no specific or known origins.
 Stars like the Sun burn forever and do not change.
 All elements are equally abundant in the solar system.

Misconceptions Lesson 5

 The periodic table is organized in the order of the discovery of the elements.
 All elements produced in the supernova are immediately stable.

Activity Description
This unit involves 5 brief PowerPoint lectures, 5 group-worksheets and 2 main activities that focus on
proton-proton-fusion and alpha fusion. The PowerPoint lectures are to be presented interactively by the
teacher, eliciting questions and answers when appropriate. The group worksheets are follow-ups to the
lectures and are provided in order to reinforce student-learning and facilitate group understanding
(where students help one another). The lesson centers around the two activities, where the students
first model proton-proton fusion and then “build” atomic models using the concept of alpha fusion. In
tandem with the periodic table, these activities will emphasize the structure and identity of the chemical
elements.

 Description of final project or exam

 The students will produce a model of proton-proton fusion using craft supplies. In addition, each pair
of students will build on an initial alpha particle in order to create a final nucleus of iron.
 The supplies for the model-building consist of two different colors of cotton balls, with one color
representing protons (e.g. white) and another for neutrons (e.g. red).
 Using glue and a paper backing, the students should model proton-proton fusion as modeled in Lesson
3, slides 6-9.
 In the next step, they should start with an alpha particle model and continue to add an alpha particle
(2 neutrons and 2 protons) until they have a Fe-52 nucleus.

Teaching Notes

 These lessons require interactive presentation skills and full engagement in student learning
throughout the allotted activity time. While the students are exploring and developing their
knowledge, they will inevitably run into difficulties, which need to be addressed as they arise. The
worksheets are provided to enforce understanding and may be completed in a variety of ways
(i.e. group work, as a class, homework, as a “quiz show”), which is up to the discretion of the
teacher.
Eagle Nebula Pillar
core Fusion

Fusion

Nuclear Reactions in Stars

The energy of the stars comes from nuclear fusion processes. For stars like the sun which have
internal temperatures less than fifteen million Kelvin, the dominant fusion process is proton-
proton fusion. For more massive stars which can achieve higher temperatures, the carbon cycle
fusion becomes the dominant mechanism. For older stars which are collapsing at the center, the
temperature can exceed one hundred million Kelvin and initiate the helium fusion process called
Another class of nuclear reactions is responsible for the nuclear synthesis of elements heavier
than iron.

Nuclear Fusion in Stars

The enormous luminous energy of the stars comes from nuclear fusion processes in their centers.
Depending upon the age and mass of a star, the energy may come from proton-proton fusion,
helium fusion, or the carbon cycle. For brief periods near the end of the luminous lifetime of
stars, heavier elements up to iron may fuse, but since the iron group is at the peak of the binding
energy curve, the fusion of elements more massive than iron would soak up energy rather than
deliver it. While the iron group is the upper limit in terms of energy yield by fusion, heavier
elements are created in the stars by another class of nuclear reactions. This nuclear synthesis of
elements heavier than iron uses energy rather than supplies it.

Formation of the High Mass Elements

(What Happens Inside a Star)

ABSTRACT
Once the universe was created by the Big Bang, the only abundant elements present were hydrogen (H)
and helium (He). These elements were not evenly distributed throughout space, and under the influence
of gravity they began to "clump" to form more concentrated volumes. Evidence of this uneven
distribution can be found in the anisotropies detected in the Cosmic Background Radiation (CMB) by the
COBE satellite in the early 90's. These clumps would eventually form galaxies and stars, and through the
internal processes by which a star "shines" higher mass elements were formed inside the stars. Upon
the death of a star (in a nova or a supernova) these high mass elements, along with even more massive
nuclei created during the nova or supernova, were thrown out into space to eventually become
incorporated into another star or celestial body.

The conditions inside a star that allow the formation of the higher mass elements can
be related to a pushing match between gravity and the energy released by the star.
Gravity creates a force that would cause a star to shrink and collapse, but the energy
released by nuclear reactions within the star flows outward, and produces thermal
pressure that opposes gravity. When these two forces are balanced, the star maintains
a particular size. But when there is some type of imbalance, the star (or some part of
it) will expand or contract in response to the stronger of the two forces.

When the universe was first created, essentially all matter was in the form of two
elements- hydrogen and helium. Their relative abundance (by weight) was 75%
hydrogen and 25% helium. (This means that for every He nucleus there were 12 H
nuclei/protons) They were not evenly distributed throughout space. This is critical,
because this uneven distribution allowed gravity to act in the areas of higher
concentration to initiate the "clumping" of matter. If everything were evenly spread out,
nothing would have happened, for each atom would have been attracted evenly from all
directions, and would have remained where it was relative to neighboring atoms. As a
result of slight discrepancies in the distribution of matter, gravity was able to initiate
the collapse of huge volumes of H and He into more concentrated areas of gas. These
areas eventually would evolve to form galaxies. Within these areas, there was a second
level of more concentrated clumping of H and He that would form stars, where the
higher mass elements would be created.

In these more concentrated areas, as the clouds of H and He (called nebulas) collapsed,
the atoms were speeding up as they were pulled toward the center by gravity. This
caused two things to happen. First, the increase in the velocity of the atoms resulted in
an increase in the temperature of the material. At some point, the temperature became
high enough so that the material began to glow. Second, the atoms were becoming
packed more tightly, increasing the density, and the frequency of collisions between
atoms. As this happened, the mass of H and He became more spherical. At this stage
the mass of H and He is called a protostar.

The temperature inside a star is not uniform. The central region (called the core) is the
hottest, with the temperature decreasing as you move out toward the surface of the
star. At some point, the temperature became high enough in the core of the protostar
to form a phase of matter called a PLASMA. In a plasma, the electrons become
separated from the nuclei, so instead of individual atoms, you have a "sea" of nuclei
and electrons. This allows the nuclei of the atoms to interact with each other, which
would not happen if each atom possessed its own electron cloud.

The temperature and density continued to increase until they reached what is called the
"flash point." Up until this moment, all the collisions between nuclei were like marbles
bouncing off each other. Each nucleus, having a positive charge, would only get so
close to another nucleus before being pushed away by the electrostatic repulsion
between both nuclei. Once the conditions reached the flash point, some of these
collisions occurred in a manner (with the sufficient velocity and geometry) to allow the
nuclei to get close enough to interact with each other. This allowed the STRONG
NUCLEAR FORCE (strong force) to bind these smaller nuclei together, forming a more
massive nucleus. This process is called FUSION. In the process of fusing nuclei
together, tremendous amounts of energy are released, and this energy is what causes
the star to "shine." The flash point conditions vary depending on what types of nuclei
are fusing. The lighter the nuclei (and therefore the smaller the electric charge), the
lower the flash point temperature and density are because there is less energy needed
to bring the nuclei close enough for the strong force to bind them (this will become
more important later). So, with the original mixture of H and He, the flash point that
was reached first is that for H. When H undergoes fusion, the overall process involves
four H nuclei (protons) coming together to form a He nucleus, two positrons, and two
neutrinos, with the release of energy. This energy takes the form of gamma rays, and
the kinetic energy of the products. (The positrons produced quickly annihilate with
surrounding electrons to release more gamma rays.) In either form, the energy goes
into heating up the core. (This can be referred to as "hydrogen burning", but it is
nothing like the "burning" we talk about here on earth.)

There are a number of possible pathways for H fusion, but the primary reaction
mechanisms are believed to be the PROTON-PROTON CHAIN (p-p chain), or the
CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN CYCLE (CNO cycle). Which mechanism is utilized depends
on the conditions in the core of a particular star. The proton-proton chain occurs under
milder conditions (lower temperature and pressure) than the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen
cycle.

Regardless of which process occurs, once fusion of H has begun in the core of the star,
what is happening is that H is being converted to He, and this is accompanied by a
release of energy. During most of a star's lifetime this is the primary fusion reaction
that powers the star. The outward flow of energy (thermal pressure) released balances
the collapsing force of gravity, and this stabilizes the star's size.

As time passes the fusion process causes He to

accumulate in the core. The increase in the number
of He nuclei begins to interfere with the H nuclei
collisions and causes a reduction in the rate of H
fusion (sometimes called "helium poisoning"). This
reduces the thermal pressure, and the star will begin
to contract.
 The more massive He nuclei are drawn to the
center of the core by gravity. As the He nuclei move
toward the center of the core, the temperature and
density in that region increases. With the formation
of this central He core, the H fusion continues. This
occurs in a layer surrounding the He core, where the
He concentration is lower. This layer is referred to
as a "shell." The rate of hydrogen burning is boosted
due to the increase in temperature of the He core.

The He core continues to contract under the

influence of gravity and draw in the He forming in
the hydrogen shell. If the temperature reaches
100,000,000 K (which depends on the initial mass of
the protostar), He burning can begin. This is where the He nuclei are able to undergo
fusion. This results in the formation of carbon nuclei through a series of reactions called
the TRIPLE ALPHA PROCESS. The release of energy through the triple alpha process
combines with the increased energy produced in the H shell to boost the thermal
pressure of the core to the point where it overcomes gravity, and the size of the overall
star increases. The increase in the surface area grows at a faster rate than the increase
in released energy, so the surface actually cools even though the star is giving off more
energy. This causes the star to glow red, and the star is referred to as a red giant. (Just
to give you an idea of size, when our sun reaches the red giant stage, it will extend
almost to where the earth is, having already vaporized Mercury and Venus.)

At this point the star has a central core of He being fused into C, surrounded by a shell
that has H being turned into He. As the C nuclei are produced, they are pulled toward
the center, just as the He nuclei were earlier, and a C core is created. For an average-
sized star, this is as far as it goes because of the mass of the star. There is not enough
gravitational force (due to the lack of mass) in the star to allow the temperature and
density to reach levels where C nuclei can fuse into heavier nuclei.

If a star had sufficient mass, though, eventually enough C would accumulate so that
the temperature and density reach a point where C nuclei could be fused into Neon
nuclei. This carbon burning core would be surrounded by two outer shells, the
innermost burning He, and the outermost burning H. This pattern of the central core
collapsing and increasing temperature continues until a further round of fusion occurs
and more shells form. How many shells are eventually formed is dependent on the
initial mass of the collapsing nebula. This is because the main force that produces
conditions suitable for fusion to happen is gravity, and the mass of the star determines
the force of gravity. If enough mass accumulates in a forming core, gravity will be able
to create enough force to raise the temperature and density to levels where the next
series of fusion reactions can take place. Therefore, the larger the mass of the
protostar, the greater its ability to form more shells during the lifetime of the star. This
will also reduce the lifetime of the star since the increases in temperature also increase
the fusion rates in the core and the surrounding shells, thus using up fuel even faster.
Further cores/shells involve neon being converted to oxygen, oxygen fusing to silicon,
and finally, silicon going to Ni (this product is radioactive and decays to form iron).
Stars that reach this stage are called red supergiants. This is the limit to what a star
can do (the reason why is mentioned later). In a fully developed star the shells would
look like this:

As the fusion process continues, the concentration of Fe increases in the core of the
star, the core contracts, and the temperature increases again. When the temperature
reaches a point where Fe can undergo nuclear reactions, the resulting reactions are
different than the ones that have previously taken place. Fe nuclei are the most stable
of all atomic nuclei. Because of this, when they undergo nuclear reactions, they don't
release energy, but absorb it. Therefore, there is no release of energy to balance the
force of gravity. In fact, there is actually a decrease in the internal pressure that works
with gravity to make the collapse of the core more intense. In this collapse, the Fe
nuclei in the central portion of the core are broken down into alpha particles, protons,
and neutrons and are compressed even further. However, they cannot be infinitely
compressed. Eventually, the outer layers of material rebound off the compressed core
and are thrown outward. This situation can be likened to a rubber ball on the ground
that is struck with a hammer. Initially the hammer can compress the rubber ball
because of its force, but eventually it is stopped by the density and pressure of the
rubber ball reaching its limit, and is thrown back violently by the recoiling rubber ball,
which itself will bounce off the surface because of this recoil. In the star, the outer
layers of the core are like the hammer, and the core is the rubber ball. Following the
collapse of the inner core, the outer layers of the star are pulled toward the center. This
sets the stage for a tremendous collision between the recoiling core layers and the
collapsing outermost layers. Under the extreme conditions of this collision, two things
happen that lead to the formation of the heaviest elements. First, the temperature
reaches levels that cannot be attained by even the most massive stars. This gives the
nuclei present large kinetic energies, making them very reactive. Second, because of
the breaking apart of the iron nuclei in the central core, there is a high concentration of
neutrons (called the neutron flux) that are ejected from the core during the supernova.
These neutrons are captured by surrounding nuclei, and then decay to a proton by
emitting an electron and an antineutrino. Each captured neutron will cause the atomic

number of that nucleus to go up by one upon its decay.

With the large neutron flux created during a supernova, this neutron capture/decay
sequence can be repeated many times, adding protons to form increasingly more
massive nuclei. These conditions exist for only a short time, but long enough to form
the highest mass nuclei.

Because of this "rebound explosion," all the outer layers of the star, enriched with the
higher mass nuclei, are blown off into space, and this material will later make its way
into other nebulas to become incorporated into other stars (where the same cycle of
events will be repeated). Each cycle uses up more of the H and He from the early
universe and creates greater amounts of the higher mass elements.
Equilibrium of the sun:

A protostar is not considered a star until it gets its energy from nuclear fusion instead of gravitational
contraction. Gravitational contraction is the process of a cloud's gravity overcoming its internal pressure
and causing a collapse. The core temperature of an object must reach a minimum temperature before
the atoms inside will fuse.

Minimum temperature for:

 Hydrogen to fuse into helium: 10 million °Kelvin

 3 helium nuclei to fuse into carbon: 100 million °Kelvin

The rate of fusion increases until the amount of energy produced in the core equals the amount of
energy radiated from the surface. The perfect balance between energy produced and energy released
stops the protostar from collapsing further.

MASSES OF NEWBORN STARS

The number of low-mass stars is much higher than the number of high-mass stars.

 Minimum mass of newborn star: 0.08 times the mass of the Sun
 Maximum mass of newborn star: 150 times the mass of the Sun
 .

Post-Main Sequence Stars

What happens when a main sequence star runs out of hydrogen in its core? The answers to this take us
along the next stage of stellar evolution. As with most stages in a star's life, the exact post-main sequence
is primarily dependent on its mass. We will start by looking at what happens to a a one-solar mass star like
our Sun and then explore what happens to higher-mass stars

An artist's impression of a red supergiant engulfing a Jupiter-like planet as it expands

One-Solar Post-Main Sequence Evolution.

Stars such as our Sun move off the main sequence and up the red giant branch (RGB), fusing hydrogen
into helium in hydrogen shell burning. A very short helium flash sees the start of helium core fusion and the
star moves along the horizontal branch (HB). Once shell temperature is sufficient, helium shell burning
starts and the star moves up into the asymptotic giant branch (AGB).

Moving Off the Main Sequence - Red Giant Branch

A star remains on the main sequence as long as there is hydrogen in its core that it can fuse into helium.
So far we have assumed that a star on the main sequence maintains a constant energy output. In fact, as
a main sequence star ages its luminosity increases slightly, resulting in it expanding and its outer layer
cooling. This explains why the main sequence is a broad band rather than a narrow line - stars move up
and to the right on this band as they age.
Eventually the hydrogen fuel in the core runs out and fusion stops, shutting off the outward radiation
pressure. Inward gravitational attraction causes the helium core to contract, converting gravitational
potential energy into thermal energy. Although fusion is no longer taking place in the core, the rise in
temperature heats up the shell of hydrogen surrounding the core until it is hot enough to start hydrogen
fusion, producing more energy than when it was a main sequence star. This so-called shell-burning causes
some interesting effects.

The new, increased radiation pressure actually causes the outer layers of the star to expand to maintain
the pressure gradient. As the gas expands it cools, just as a spray can feels colder after use as the gas has
been released. This expansion and cooling causes the effective temperature to drop. Convection transports
the energy to the outer layers of the star from the shell-burning region. The star's luminosity eventually
increases by a factor of 1000 × or so. During this stage of expansion, the star will move up and to the right
on the HR diagram along the Red Giant Branch (RGB). A G (V)-class star may end up as a high-K or low-
M luminosity class III giant.
A red giant displays extremes of density. The outer envelope is grossly extended and thus at a density
below that of a vacuum on Earth. It is only weakly held by gravitational force to the rest of the star and
easily ejected. Mass loss from a giant is typically about 10-7 solar masses per year, compared with only 10-
17 solar masses per year currently for the Sun. Whilst the envelope is tenuous and cool, the contracted

helium core is incredibly dense. It is only about one-third its original size. Electrons within the core form a
degenerate electron gas, they are packed tightly together in a volume governed only by the uncertainty
principle. In this state it no longer behaves as an ideal gas.
When the Sun becomes a red giant its radius will be approximately 0.5 AU, that is about 100 × its current size

Helium "Burning" and the Helium Flash

Hydrogen fusion in the shell produces more helium. This gets dumped onto the core, adding to its mass,
causing it to heat up even more. When the core temperature reaches 100 million K, the helium nuclei now
have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the strong coulombic repulsion and fuse together, forming
carbon-12 in a two-stage process. As three helium nuclei, also known as alpha particles, are used it is
called the triple alpha process. Subsequent fusion with another helium nucleus produces oxygen-16 nuclei.
This process is the main source of the carbon and oxygen found in the Universe, including that in our
bodies.

The triple alpha process for post-main sequence stars. Two helium nuclei (alpha-particles) fuse to form a beryllium-8
nucleus. This is unstable and normally decays back into two H-4e nuclei within a fraction of a second but given the
high number of He-4 nuclei in the core will sometimes collide with one before it has had a chance to decay. This
produces a carbon-12 nucleus and releases a gamma photon. The C-12 nucleus in turn may fuse with another He-4
nucleus to produce oxygen-16 and a gamma photon. Neon-20 may also be formed by oxygen nuclei fusing with
helium but only negligible amounts are produced.
In stars with mass less than about 2-3 solar masses the triple alpha process initiates in a matter of minutes
or hours. Once the temperature is hot enough for helium fusion in one part of the core, the reaction quickly
spreads throughout it due to the behaviour of the electron degenerate gas. This sudden onset of helium
core fusion (or "burning") is called the helium flash.

Post-main sequence evolutionary tracks for 1, 5 and 10 solar mass stars.

The Horizontal Branch

The energy released by the helium flash raises the core temperature to the point where it is no longer
degenerate. It thus starts to behave again as an ideal gas so can expand and cool. Energy transfers result
in a hotter outer layer of the star but a smaller overall size. The rise in effective temperature and decrease
in surface area are such that the luminosity remains roughly constant. Such a star tracks across to the left
along the horizontal branch on the HR diagram. HB stars have helium core-burning and hydrogen shell-
burning.
A solar-mass star has sufficient helium fuel for core-burning to last for about 100 million years.
The Asymptotic Giant Branch
Eventually all the helium in the core has fused into carbon and oxygen and so the core contracts again.
Carbon and oxygen nuclei have more protons in them than helium does so the coulombic repulsion is
greater. The temperature needed to fuse these into heavier nuclei must be even greater than the 100 million
K needed for He fusion. In stars of 8 solar masses or less there is insufficient gravitational energy to
generate the temperatures required. No more core fusion can thus take place. The core contraction does
however generate sufficient heat for the surrounding layer of helium to start fusing, that is helium shell
burning starts. Energy from the helium-burning in turn heats up surrounding unused hydrogen which also
starts shell burning.
The giant star expands again, possibly up to 1.5 AU, equivalent to the orbit of Mars. It is now an asymptotic
giant branch star (AGB), occupying the upper-right portion of the HR diagram. A one-solar mass AGB may
have a luminosity 10,000 × that of our current Sun. Mira (ο Ceti) is an example of an AGB star.

Outer layers of AGB stars are only weakly held by gravity. The helium-burning shell is not dense enough
to be degenerate so helium flashes occur with a runaway temperature rise. The resulting increased reaction
rate generates a large energy release or thermal pulse for a couple of hundred years. During this phase
nuclei within the helium-burning shell can be synthesised into heavier nuclei through the capture of neutrons
and radioactive beta decay. This so-called s-process (s for slow, in comparison with the rapid, r-process
that occurs in more massive stars) produces elements as heavy as bismuth with 83 protons. AGB stars
may produce a thermal pulse every 10,000 - 100,000 years.
Large convection currents in AGB stars carry material produced in the thin helium-burning shell up to the
surface. These heavier nuclei are detected in the star's spectrum which thus provides an insight on what is
happening deep within the star. As with RGB stars, the radiation pressure tends to blow away much of the
tenuously-held outer layer. The rate of mass loss is an order of magnitude higher though starting at about
10-6 solar masses per year. As the star evolves up the AGB branch, pulsations increase the rate of mass
loss up to about 10-4 solar masses per year.
The ejected material comprises a mixture of elements including carbon and oxygen dredged up from within
the star. Carbon-rich molecules form dust and soot particles that tend to shroud the actual star. As the cloud
expands it cools but the dust absorbs and re-emits the radiation from the star at longer wavelengths. AGBs
are thus often more luminous in the infrared than visible wavebands. The expanding cloud can also be
observed at radio wavebands.
AGBs such as Mira are intrinsic variable stars with periods of months or a few years. They can vary by up
to 10 magnitudes. Mira's radius differs by a factor of two during its oscillations.
What happens to solar-mass stars once fusion is completed is discussed on the next page.

High-Mass Post-Main Sequence Evolution.

Evolution of high-mass stars off the main sequence is an involved process and one still not fully understood.
Such stars are rare and have very short lifespans relative to lower-mass stars. Supergiants such as
Betelgeuse, Deneb, Rigel and Antares are some of the most prominent stars in our sky and visible over
vast distances due to their extreme luminosities. This section provides a basic outline of the stages.
High-mass stars consume their core hydrogen at prodigious rates so may only survive on the main
sequence for millions rather than billions of years. Once this fuel is used up, the core contracts due to
gravity and heats up. This triggers helium-burning in the core. Unlike lower-mass stars, this helium fusion
(triple-alpha process) starts gradually rather than in a helium flash. In moving off the main sequence, the
effective temperature of the star drops as its outer layers expand. The decrease in temperature balances
the increased radius so that the overall luminosity remains essentially constant. Evolutionary tracks for
these massive stars thus move horizontally across the supergiant region of the HR diagram as shown on
the diagram above. The energy liberated by helium fusion in the core raises the temperature of the
surrounding hydrogen shell so that it too begins fusing.
The size of these supergiants is enormous. Betelgeuse, thought to be between 13 and 17 solar masses, is
so large that its envelope would extend beyond the orbit of Jupiter if it replaced our Sun. Its angular size is
so large that it can be directly imaged by the HST.

Credit: Andrea Dupree (Harvard-Smithsonian CfA), Ronald Gilliland (STScI), NASA and ESA

Betelgeuse is a red supergiant. The bright yellow spot at the bottom of the star is thought to be a hotspot due to a
massive convection cell.

In stars of 5 solar masses or higher, radiation pressure rather than gas pressure is the dominant force in
withstanding collapse. The mass is large enough that the gravity acting on the core after helium-burning is
sufficient to produce temperatures of 3 × 10 8 K where fusion of carbon with helium to produce oxygen
dominates. A star of 8 solar masses or more can go on to synthesise even heavier elements in the core.
Gravitational core contraction after all the core helium is used up generates a temperature of about 5 × 10 8
K at which point carbon nuclei fuse together to produce sodium, neon and magnesium. Production of
magnesium releases a gamma photon, that of sodium releases a proton and neon produces a helium
nucleus. Once all the core carbon is consumed, further collapse pushes temperatures to about 10 9 K. At
this temperature, reactions that release gamma photons, such as 16O + 4He → 20Ne + γ, may be reversed
by a process called photodisintegration. Helium nuclei released via this process can fuse with other neon
nuclei to produce magnesium.
Once the neon is used up, core contraction increases the temperature to 2 × 10 9 K where two oxygen nuclei
fuse to form silicon. This in turn may undergo photodisintegration to form magnesium and helium nuclei
that then fuse with other silicon nuclei to produce sulfur. Similar stages of reactions see sulfur produce
argon and argon synthesise calcium. Eventually elements such as chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt and
nickel may be produced. Ultimately the silicon in the core is converted, as silicon-burning, into iron with final
core temperature reaching about 7 × 109 K. The core region of a supergiant thus resembles the layers of
an onion with a dense iron core surrounding by shells of silicon and sulfur, oxygen and carbon, helium and
an outer shell of hydrogen as shown in the diagram below.

The onion-like layers inside a supergiant in the final stages of its life. Successive layers correspond to the
different elements produced by fusion, with a dense core of iron at the centre.
Nucleosynthesis of elements above helium is less efficient so that each successive reaction produces less
energy per unit mass of fuel. This means that the reactions occur at greater rates so that radiation pressure
balances gravity. Whilst a massive star may spend a few million years on the main sequence, its helium
core-burning phase may be a few hundred thousand years. The carbon burning phase lasts a few hundred
years, neon-burning phase a year, oxygen-burning half a year and the silicon-burning only a day.
These massive stars evolve extremely rapidly once they move off the main sequence. Statistically they are
very low in numbers as they are less likely to form than lower-mass stars and their lifetimes are so short
anyway. As we shall see in a later section, they also make dramatic exits.

Low-Mass Post-Main Sequence Evolution

As discussed previously, low mass stars consume their core hydrogen at much lower rates than stars such
as our Sun. Their main sequence lifespans are tens to hundreds of billions of years. Once they have
consumed their core hydrogen, gravitational core collapse causes the core to heat up. For stars with less
than 0.5 solar masses however, their is insufficient mass to generate the temperatures need for the helium
in the core to start fusing. A brief period of hydrogen-shell burning sees its luminosity rise as with higher-
mass stars. Unable to release energy from helium fusion, H-shell burning does not last long. The star's
luminosity quickly decreases and the star cools down. Its evolutionary track crosses back across the main
sequence and down.