The principle of relativity of

Einstein•Inertial frame:A reference frame in which a freely moving body

(a body that is not acted upon by externalforces) proceeds with a constant
velocity.•There are arbitrarily many inertial frames. They move with a constant
velocity with respect to each other.•Principle of relativity:All laws of nature remain
the same in all inertial frames.•Velocity of propagation of interaction: Interactions in
nature are not instantaneous and there is a finitevelocity of the propagation of
interaction.•Principle of relativity of Einstein:–The velocity of propagation of
interactions is the same in all inertial frames and this finite velocityis exactly equal
toc= 299,792,458 m/sec.(1.1)This defines themeter.–Physical motion has velocties
less than or equal toc.1.1 Events and an invariant intervalAn event is
specified by its space and time coordinate. Motion is a given by a continuous set of
events,[ct,x(t),y(t),z(t)](1.2)in a reference frame.Time cannot be absolute in
relativistic mechanics. To see this, consider two events in one inertial frame,K,that
describe the propagation of interaction:(cti,xi)and(ctf,xf).(1.3)Consider another inertial
frame,K′, which is moving with respect to the first one with a velocity ofvin
thexdirection. The two events in this new frame, if the time is absolute is given
by(ct′i,x′i) = (cti,xi−vti)and(ct′f,x′f) = (ctf,xf−vtf).(1.4)Sincexf−xitf−ti6=x′f−x′it′f−t′i,(1.5)we
conclude that time cannot be absolute.Now consider two events in an inertial
frame,K, that describe the propagation of interaction in the mostgeneral
case:(cti,xi,yi,zi)and(ctf,xf,yf,zf).(1.6)It follows that(xf−xi)2+ (yf−yi)2+
(zf−zi)2=c2(tf−ti)2.(1.7)3
4CHAPTER 1. THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY OF EINSTEINConsider the same
two events in another inertial frame,K′:(ct′i,x′i,y′i,z′i)and(ct′f,x′f,y′f,z′f).(1.8)It follows
that(x′f−x′i)2+ (y′f−y′i)2+ (z′f−z′i)2=c2(t′f−t′i)2.(1.9)Moving away from events that describe
the propagation of interaction,
let(ct1,x1,y1,z1)and(c(t1+dt1),x1+dx1,y1+dy1,z1+dz1)(1.10)be two events that are
separated infinitesimally in an inertial frame,K1. Let us
definec2dτ21=c2dt21−dx21−dy21−dz21.(1.11)If these two events describe a physical
motion, then we know that√dx21+dy21+dz21dt1≤c⇒c2dτ21≥0.(1.12)Furthermore,cdτ1=
0 if the events describe the propagation of interaction. Let these same two
infinitesimallyseparated events in another inertial frame,K2,
be(ct2,x2,y2,z2)and(c(t2+dt2),x2+dx2,y2+dy2,z2+dz2)(1.13)Then,c2dτ22=c2dt22−dx22−dy2
2−dz22.(1.14)We know thatcdτ1= 0 ifcdτ2= 0 andc2dτ21>0 ifc2dτ22>0. Therefore, we
conclude thatc2dτ21=ac2dτ22.(1.15)Assuming homogeneity of space and time, we
conclude thatacannot depend upon (x,y,z,t). Assuming isotropyof space, we
conclude thatacan only depend on the speed,v12, that relates the inertial
frame,K1toK2andwe explicitly show this dependence by
writing,c2dτ21=a(v12)c2dτ22.(1.16)If we have a third intertial frame,K3, then we
havec2dτ21=a(v13)c2dτ23;c2dτ22=a(v23)c2dτ23.(1.17)It follows from Eq. (1.16) and Eq.
(1.17) thata(v13) =a(v12)a(v23).(1.18)Sincev13=|~v13|=|~v12−~v23|,(1.19)it follows that
the the left hand side of Eq. (1.18) depends on the angle between~v12and~v23but the
right handside does not. This can only happen ifais independent of the inertial
reference frame and then Eq. (1.18)implies thata= 1. Therefore, we come to the
important conclusion thatc2dτ2is the square of an invariantinterval. Note that we can
have two events for whichc2dτ2<0.1.2 Timelike, Spacelike and
Lightlike intervalsLet(cta,xa,ya,za)and(ctb,xb,yb,zb)(1.20)denote two events in
the inertial frame,K, and(ct′a,x′a,y′a,z′a)and(ct′b,x′b,y′b,z′b)(1.21)
1.3. DEFINITION OF A MOVING CLOCK5denote the same two events in the inertial
frame,K′. The time separating the two events in the two differentinertial frames
aret=|tb−ta|;t′=|t′b−t′a|,(1.22)and the distance separating the two events in the two
different inertial frames are`=√xb−xa)2+ (yb−ya)2+ (zb−za)2;`′=√x′b−x′a)2+ (y′b−y′a)2+
(z′b−z′a)2.(1.23)The invariant finite interval isc2τ2=c2t2−`2=c2t′2−`′2.(1.24)•Timelike
interval:There exists a frame where the two events occur at the same location in
space, namely,`′= 0, and this is only possible ifc2τ2>0⇒c2t2−`2>0(1.25)in all frames.
In the special inertial frame where`′= 0, the elapsed time between the two events
ist′=τ=√c2t2−`2c.(1.26)•Spacelike interval:There exists a frame where the two events
occur at the same point in time, namely,t′= 0, and this is only possible
ifc2τ2<0⇒c2t2−`2<0(1.27)in all frames. In the special inertial frame wheret′= 0, the
spatial separation between the two points is`′=√−c2τ2=√`2−c2t2.(1.28)•Lightlike
interval:If the two events describe the propagation of information from one location
to another,thenτ= 0 and`=ct.(1.29)•5 points: Problem 1.1:Showabsolute
future,absolute pastandabsolutely separatedevents in thex−tplane. Explain your
diagram in detail.1.3 Definition of a moving clockThe path of a point
particle in an inertial frame is labeled by (ct(τ),x(τ),y(τ),z(τ)). The path is not one
withuniform velocity in general since there could be some force acting on this
particle. The variableτthat labelsthe physical point on the path is defined using the
invariant interval,(dtdτ)2−(dxcdτ)2−(dycdτ)2−(dzcdτ)2= 1.(1.30)Sincec2dτ2is an
invariant interval, the path of the same point particle in another inertial frame will be
labeledby (ct′(τ),x′(τ),y′(τ),z′(τ)) whereτlabels the same physical point. The
variableτthat labels the physicalpoint of the particle along its path is the clock that
moves with the particle.1.4 Lifetime of a point particleConsider a point
particle with a finite lifetime that is moving under the experience of some force in an
inertialframe. The path of the particle is given in one inertial frame by
(ct(τ),x(τ),y(τ),z(τ)) forτ∈[0,T] where0 denotes the birth of the particle and
theTdenotes the death of the particle. Note that the intervalTisinvariant. Using Eq.
(1.30), we can integrate overτfrom 0 toTnoting thatt(0) =tbandt(T) =td. The resultof
integration isT=∫tdtb√(dt)2−1c2((dx)2+ (dy)2+ (dz)2) =∫tdtbdt√1−1c2(v2x(t) +v2y(t)
+v2z(t)).(1.31)Since the integrand is always less than or equal to unity, it follows
thattd−tb≥T,(1.32)
6CHAPTER 1. THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY OF EINSTEINwith the equality
holding if and only if the particle was at rest for the entire lifetime in the inertial frame
of theobserver. ThereforeTis the lifetime of the particle in its rest frame and the
lifetime of the particle as measuredby an observer in an inertial frame where the
particle is moving is greater thanT. This is often referred to astime dilation.•10
points: Problem 1.2:An inertial observer sees a muon being born at rest (lifetime is
2.2μs) andundergo a one dimensional motion with a constant acceleration of 9.8
m/s2for its entire lifetime. Do youthink the observer has made a measurement that
makes physical sense? If so, how long did the observersee the muon live? How far
did the observer see the muon move in its entire lifetime? Is there an upperlimit on
the constant acceleration for the measurement to make physical sense? If so, what
is the value ofthis limiting acceleration? How long will the observer see the muon live
and how far will the observer seethe muon move in its entire lifetime for the limiting
acceleration?1.5 Lorentz transformationLetKandK′be both inertial frames
and let (ct,x,y,z) and (ct′,x′,y′,z′) label the same event inKandK′respectively. A particle
at rest for ever inKframe moves with a velocityvin the positivexdirection in theK′frame
for ever. Given this piece of information, we should be able to find the
relation(ct,x,y,z)→(ct′(ct,x,y,z),x′(ct,x,y,z),y′(ct,x,y,z),z′(ct,x,y,z)),(1.33)for all
events.Since a particle moving with a constant velocity inKshould also move with
constant velocity inK′therelation has to be linear. Furthermore, if the particle was
moving with a constant velocity in thexdirection inK, it will move with a constant
velocity in thexdirection inK′. Therefore, we can conclude thatct′= Λ00ct+ Λ01x;x′=
Λ10ct+ Λ11x;y′=y;z′=z,(1.34)essentially decoupling theyandzcoordinates. The
quantities Λ00,Λ01,Λ10and Λ11can only depend onvandc.The infinitesimal interval has
to be the same in both coordinates:c2dt2−dx2=c2dt′2−dx′2= (cΛ00dt+ Λ01dx)2−(cΛ10dt+
Λ11dx)2.(1.35)This results in the following conditions:Λ200−Λ210= 1;Λ211−Λ201=
1;Λ00Λ01= Λ10Λ11.(1.36)A particle at rest atx= 0 in theKframe has coordinates equal
tot′= Λ00t;x′=cΛ10t⇒x′=cΛ10Λ00t′;Λ00>0.(1.37)Since this particle moves in theK′frame
with a velocity,v, in the positivexdirection, it follows
thatβ≡vc=Λ10Λ00=Λ01Λ11,(1.38)and we have used the third condition in Eq. (1.36) to
obtain the last equality. Using the above relation and thefirst and second conditions
in Eq. (1.36), we arrive atΛ00= Λ11=1√1−β2≡γ(1.39)and we have assume no
reflection in thexdirection. The Lorentz transformation
relatingKandK′is ct′x′y′z′ = γ βγ0 0βγ γ0 0001 0000
1 ctxyz ;⇒ ctxyz = γ−βγ0 0−βγ γ0 0001 0000
1 ct′x′y′z′ (1.40)Consider a particle moving a constant velocity,u=
(ux,uy,uz)(1.41)
1.6. RIGID BODY IN TROUBLE7starting atr0= (x0,y0,z0)(1.42)att= 0 in theKframe.
Therefore,x=x0+uxt;y=y0+uyt;z=z0+uzt(1.43)describes the motion of the particle in
theKframe. Using Eq. (1.40), we
obtaint′=γt+βγc(x0+uxt);x′=βγct+γ(x0+uxt);y′=y0+uyt;z′=z0+uzt.(1.44)Eliminatingtin favor
oft′we find that the particle moves with a constant velocity,u′=11 +vuxc2(ux+v,
uy√1−v2c2, uz√1−v2c2),(1.45)starting atr′0= x0√1−v2c21 +vuxc2, y0−vuyc21 +vuxc2x0,
z0−vuzc21 +vuxc2x0 .(1.46)att′= 0 in theK′frame.•10 points: Problem 1.3:Prove
thatu·u≤c2⇒u′·u′≤c2(1.47)with equality implying equality.•10 points: Problem
1.4:Usegas the acceleration due to gravity for this problem. An inertial observerin
the K frame sees a ball (you can assume it is a point ball!) bounce up and down on
the ground (youcan also assume that no kinetic energy is lost by the ball to the
ground when it hits it). Assume themotion of the ball is entirely in the z-direction and
assume that the ground is located atz= 0. Draw themotion in thez−tplane (use the
horizontal axis forzand the vertical axis fort). K’ is an inertial framemoving with
respect to K in the positivezdirection with a velocityv. Derive the equation of motion
forthe ball in the K’ frame and plots its motion in thez′−t′plane. Will this motion make
physical senseindependent of the maximum height reached by the ball in the K
frame? If not, find the limiting height