Socio Eco 12345

United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment
Environment Programme Project Facility
NATIONAL REPORT
on
The Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global, and

Transboundary Significance
in the South China Sea
PHILIPPINES
Mr. Noel Barut

Focal Point for Fisheries
National Fisheries Research and Development Institute
Department of Agriculture
940 Kayumanggi Press Building, Quezon Avenue, Quezon City 1103, Philippines
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES
Table of Contents
1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION..................................................................................................1
1.1 GEOGRAPHIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION...................................................................1
1.2 BIOGEOGRAPHIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES ......................................................................2
1.3 OVERVIEW OF THE FISHERIES SECTOR ....................................................................................2
1.3.1 Total landings by fishing area ....................................................................................5
1.3.2 Fishing effort by gear .................................................................................................5
1.3.3 Economic value of fisheries production ...................................................................10
1.3.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence .........11
2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL, AND TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE ..................11
2.1 RANKING OF IMPORTANCE ....................................................................................................11
2.1.1 Ranking in terms of landings ...................................................................................11
2.1.2 Local market value...................................................................................................12
2.1.3 Status.......................................................................................................................13
2.1.4 Food Security...........................................................................................................13
2.2 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF THE PRIORITY SPECIES ................................................................13
2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes.................................................................................................14
2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species........................................................................................20
2.2.3 Demersal fish species..............................................................................................20
2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates......................................................................21
3. STATUS AND THREATS ...........................................................................................................22
3.1 CURRENT STATUS ...............................................................................................................22
3.1.1 Fisheries Status in terms of CPUE ..........................................................................22
3.1.2 Status of fish stocks based on historical review of fish landings and CPUE...........24
3.2 CURRENT AND POTENTIAL THREATS .....................................................................................25
3.2.1 Current threats .........................................................................................................25
3.2.2 Potential threats .......................................................................................................26
4. HABITATS AND AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED
FISH STOCKS ............................................................................................................................27
4.1 BIOPHYSICAL PROFILE ..........................................................................................................27
4.1.1 Known spawning grounds........................................................................................30
4.1.2 Known nursery areas and feeding grounds.............................................................33
4.1.3 Known fishing grounds ............................................................................................34
4.2 UNKNOWN ISSUES SUCH AS STOCKS WITH UNDEFINED SPAWNING GROUNDS ...........................35
4.3 CURRENT AND POTENTIAL THREATS ......................................................................................35
4.4 RANKING OF HABITATS .........................................................................................................36
4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security .........................................36
4.4.2 Association with high-value species ........................................................................39
4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, or threatened species .....................................40
5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME ........................................................................................40
5.1 LEGAL INSTRUMENTS ...........................................................................................................40
5.2 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS (RESEARCH, MONITORING, CONTROL, AND ENFORCEMENT).....44
5.3 OVERVIEW OF PATTERNS OF RESOURCE OWNERSHIP AND TRADITIONAL UTILIZATION ...............46
5.4 HUMAN AND INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES ................................................................................46
5.5 REVIEW OF STAKEHOLDERS ..................................................................................................47
6. RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................................................................49
6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR GOVERNMENT FOLLOW-UP ACTION ..................................................49
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REGIONAL COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS ..............................................49
7. REFERENCES............................................................................................................................50
ii
NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES 1
1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1.1 Geographic and oceanographic description
The Philippines (Figure 1) is an archipelago with an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of

2,200,000km2, of which 266,000km2 is coastal (12%) and 1,934,000km2 is oceanic (88%). Its shelf
area covers 184,600km2, with the coral reefs spanning 30,000km2. Four major water bodies surround
the archipelago: the Pacific Ocean in the east; the Celebes Sea in the south; the South China Sea
(SCS) in the west; and the Philippine Sea in the north. Its bathymetric features are complex,
consisting of various trenches, submarine ridges, deep-sea basins, island arcs, and plateaus.
The North Pacific Equatorial Current mainly influences the properties and dynamics of eastern
Philippine waters. This current flows from the Pacific Ocean toward the eastern coast of the
archipelago and then splits into a northward branch generating the Kuroshio Current and a southward
branch that deflects eastward across the Pacific Equatorial Counter Current, with a minor stream
forming the Mindanao Current flowing toward the Celebes (or Sulawesi) Sea. On the other hand,
seasonal monsoon winds have the dominant effects on the surface circulation of western Philippine
waters. An eddy reportedly forms on the western side and encloses a warm water patch whose
position shifts with the season; such an eddy is vertically smaller than the eddy that dominates the
water circulation off eastern Luzon (Ronquillo 1975). Eddies in the SCS are predominantly cyclonic in
winter and anticyclonic in summer, with sizes from small to medium scale. During the northeast
monsoon (October to March), a southwesterly flow, originating from a cyclonic pattern of surface
water movements in the SCS, develops along the coast of Luzon and Palawan. In the same season,
Wyrtki (1961) found that surface water masses from the Pacific Ocean are transported into the SCS
through the Luzon Strait, mainly along the western side of the SCS at depths from 400 to 900m. This
condition reverses during the summer season; Western Pacific waters enter the northern SCS
through the Luzon Strait and, after mixing, form distinct water masses. Continental freshwater runoff is
also very significant. The dominant current during the southwest monsoon (April–August) flows in a
northeasterly direction through the Luzon Strait and into the West Philippine Sea (Wyrtki 1961; Barut
et al. 1997).
The marine environment of the Philippines is typically tropical, with relatively warm and less saline
waters. Sea surface temperature varies between 24 and 30ºC, depending on the season but with
mean values varying slightly between 27 and 28ºC. Mean annual range in the temperature of waters
west of Luzon is around 5ºC. Salinity variations are relatively narrow; in the west-northwest part of the
Philippines, sea surface salinity ranges from 33.7 to 34.6 psu (Rojana-anawat et al. 2000). The South
China Sea portion exhibits a marked reduction in surface salinity during the southwest monsoon as
the western part of the archipelago experiences the rainy season. Temperature decreases with depth
by 0.03ºC/m from the surface to 200 m depth. The thermocline layer, ranging from 12 to 15ºC, occurs
at 150m depth on the western side (Rojana-anawat et al. 2000), which is thinner and shallower than
the thermocline formation on the eastern side of the archipelago. Recent estimates of primary
2
productivity in the northern SCS portion ranged from 0.10 to 1.53gC/m /d (Furio and Borja 2000).
Water quality of the western Philippines has shown signs of deterioration. Saramun and Wattayakorn
(2000) found DDPH (dissolved dispersed petroleum hydrocarbons) in the area, at concentrations of
0.03 to 0.47 μg/l and 0.02 to 1.47 μg/l for the nearshore and offshore zones, respectively. The DDPH
were attributed to maritime and shipping activities, as well as oil exploration and production in the
west and northwest area of the Philippines. Several areas along the SCS side of the Philippines are
identified as pollution hotspots (Talaue-McManus 2000). Pollutive effects have been attributed to high
sediment loading and waste disposal, mostly of anthropogenic origin, that may severely affect marine
habitats in the SCS. Various forms of waste come from domestic, industrial, and agricultural sources,
causing the degradation of aquatic environments. The possible eutrophication effect of agricultural
runoff, which may trigger harmful algal blooms, is a major concern. The pollution threat of Manila Bay,
Subic Bay, and Batangas Bay to the waters of the SCS is clear, given the presence of industrial
estates and oil refineries/depots around these bays. Other areas at high risk and exhibiting a strong
sensitivity to pollution include Masinloc Bay (Zambales), Bacuit Bay (Palawan), and Apo Reef
(Mindoro).
2 NATIONAL REPORT ON FISHERIES – PHILIPPINES
1.2 Biogeographic and demographic features
The South China Sea portion of the Philippines is geographically delimited by western Luzon,
Palawan, and Mindoro Occidental, covering administrative regions I and III, and parts of Region IV
and the National Capital Region (NCR). In dealing with aquatic resources in the area, especially
fisheries, data constitute those obtained from the extensive coast and several embayments along
western Luzon, including the Batanes Islands further north, as well as from western Palawan waters
and the northern Mindoro coast (Figures 1 and 14). A review of demographic profile, resource
accounting, and environmental assessment of the area is provided in Talaue-McManus (2000), with
related data on other countries bordering the SCS. The SCS portion of the Philippines, excluding
Batanes Islands, is around 50,000km2, harbouring 16 cities and a total population of 26.3 million
people (from 1996 data in Talaue-McManus 2003). Population density in the same year stands at 472
persons/km2, with a finite growth rate of 2.1%. The area has a watershed spanning 27,500km2, with
five major rivers emptying into the SCS.
Mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrasses abound along the South China Sea side of the archipelago,
but measures of total coverage of these resources for the SCS sub-region are lacking. These vital
resources, which serve prominently as crucial habitats for diverse marine life, have been under severe
stress and the threats of further destruction remain unabated. Nationwide, the total cover of
mangroves in the Philippines has declined by 60%, with only 160,000ha remaining at present. Over a
70-year period, a mean loss rate of 460ha/y translates to around US$1.7 million that is lost to the local
economy. Two-thirds of the mangrove forests around the entire SCS, including those found in other
countries, have been decimated due to human utilisation and intervention. Coral reefs along the SCS
coast of the Philippines exhibit a degradation rate ranging from 10 to 30%, and about 50% of the
remaining stands are at high-risk. Similarly, around 30 to 50% of Philippine seagrass beds have been
severely damaged, with the SCS-wide meadows experiencing the same rates of loss. The rampant
destruction of these resources is mostly attributed to irresponsible resource-use practices, reflecting a
widespread disregard of their crucial ecological roles.
The distribution and condition of mangroves, corals, and seagrasses, along with their associated
fauna and flora, within the Philippine territory of the South China Sea are detailed below. The
transboundary relevance of these resources mainly pertains to the cross-border effects of losses in
biodiversity and fisheries productivity, along with issues associated with the trade of threatened
species (e.g. seahorses and marine turtles) and the sharing of responsibilities for conservation and
management in the region.
1.3 Overview of the fisheries sector
The fisheries sector of the Philippines is composed of culture and capture sub-sectors. Fishing is
classified into municipal or commercial type, depending on the gross tonnage (GT) of the boats used.
Municipal fishing includes activities not requiring the use of boats and those using boats not more
than 3 GT. Commercial fishing involves the use of boats more than 3 GT. The Philippine Fisheries
Code, enacted in 1998, prohibits commercial fishing within municipal waters whose designated
offshore boundary is 15 km from the shoreline. This practically grants the right of access to nearshore
fishing grounds exclusively to municipal fishers, whose population far exceeds that of commercial
fishers. However, with this right comes greater accountability and regulatory control. Municipal fishers
secure licences to fish from local government units (LGUs), whereas commercial fishers obtain
licences from the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), which also issues licences to
fish in international waters.
Figure 1 Philippine Marine Jurisdictional Boundaries.
Table 1 Total fish landings (MT) by region in 1997 to 2001. Regions that interact with the
South China Sea, wholly or partly, are highlighted.
Region 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
CAR 1,417 1,650 3,318 3,279 3,570

I 41,308 48,871 52,972 60,805 63,617
II 21,542 22,187 30,475 35,202 38,417
III 121,752 112,333 116,138 136,810 181,364
NCR 215,114 220,395 165,517 147,959 146,487
IV 607,184 588,866 613,107 643,315 619,858
V 119,352 113,282 111,947 115,065 150,514
VI 320,961 309,174 337,070 356,998 357,596
VII 153,970 152,332 159,243 164,545 191,531
VIII 73,707 72,312 76,200 78,728 91,318
IX 392,526 409,750 405,181 407,220 398,083
X 56,949 57,539 63,746 67,738 84,187
XI 41,996 41,141 44,481 45,170 49,180
XII 100,256 142,805 180,927 188,323 192,508
ARMM 455,893 468,790 482,907 453,912 505,096
CARAGA 69,629 68,093 80,543 88,263 93,204
Total 2,793,556 2,829,520 2,923,772 2,993,332 3,166,530
COMMERCIAL MUNICIPAL TOTAL

2,250,000
2,000,000
1,750,000
Landings MT
1,500,000
1,250,000
1,000,000
750,000
500,000
250,000
-
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Year
Figure 2 Total marine fish landings (MT) of the Philippines by sector in 1980 to 2002.
1.3.1 Total landings by fishing area

Fisheries constitute an important component of the agricultural sector in the Philippines. Total fish
landings increased steadily from 1980 to 2002, with the commercial yield increasing from 488,478 MT
in 1980 to 1,042,193 MT in 2002 (Figure 2). In contrast, total municipal landings declined from the
early 1990s until 1998, but peaked slightly from 1999 to 2002 (Figure 2). The total marine fish
landings by administrative region are presented in Table 1. Fish landings from Regions I and III,
including parts of Region IV and the NCR, constitute the catches from the SCS area (Figures 3 and
4). Figure 5 shows the different fishing grounds, which in Philippine waters are designated into
statistical areas, including the SCS sub-region. The landing sites monitored by the National Stock
Assessment Program are also indicated.
The SCS is one of the most important fishing grounds in the country. Although continuous fishing
takes place during the first semester of each year, the volume of fish catch contributes significantly to
total fish production. During the second semester, inclement weather associated with the southwest
monsoon hinders commercial fishing, thus commercial operations occur during periods of calm
weather conditions while municipal fishing takes place throughout the year. There are no direct
records of landings from the SCS portion of the Philippines. To provide a rough picture of fisheries
exploitation in the area, marine landings of Regions I and III, as well as those of Manila Bay and West
Palawan, in 1992 to 1995 are shown in Table 2. Although records of landed catch for Regions I and III
exist only until 2001, data for Manila Bay and West Palawan are available only until 1995.
Capture fisheries production in the SCS area during 1992 to 1995, ranged from 12 to 17% of total
annual production in the Philippines, and was much higher than the 1996 value of 120,592 MT/y
reported by Talaue-McManus (2000). As shown in Table 2, the commercial sub-sector made the
greatest contribution to total marine landings from the SCS, mostly from activities in the West
Palawan area. This reflects the relative superiority of commercial fishing technology (e.g. purse seines
and ringnets). Municipal landings, however, surpassed the commercial landings in West Luzon,
except in Manila Bay, possibly due to a large difference in the number of fishers.
Table 2 Philippine marine landings (MT) from the South China Sea area in 1992 to 1995.
Values in parenthesis indicate the share (%) of commercial and municipal sub-
sectors, respectively.
Year Region I Region III Manila Bay* West Palawan Total (SCS area) Nationwide
1995 23,172 (16/84) 28,607 (21/79) 22,836 (100/na) 162,420 (81/19) 229,786 (68/32) 1,889,226 (49/51)
1994 23,686 (10/90) 17,888 (31/69) 30,386 (100/na) 198,448 (82/18) 260,762 (73/27) 1,838,325 (46/54)
1993 25,364 (10/90) 23,853 (39/61) 38,417 (100/na) 191,110 (79/21) 266,549 (71/29) 1,851,906 (45/55)
1992 21,726 (6/94) 21,908 (37/63) 36,695 (68/32) 234,676 (80/20) 315,005 (71/29) 1,820,275 (43/57)
*
- Municipal landings in 1992 to 1994 not available (na) for Manila Bay.
Commercial fish landings by the major fishing gears are presented in Figure 6. At the national level
and in terms of total production, purse seine is the most important commercial fishing gear,
contributing 47 to 58% of the total marine fish landings in 1992 to 1995, followed by ringnet that
contributed 14 to 21% (Figure 6). In the case of municipal landings by gear type during the same
period, gillnet accounted for 31 to 33% of the total, followed by line gears (hook and line, handline)
with 18 to 24% (Figure 7). To extract the same data for the SCS-wide fisheries, a ratio and proportion
scheme was employed with the assumption that the gear types used and the percent composition of
each gear are the same for the nationwide and SCS-wide scales. The gears used specifically within
the SCS sub-region must be verified in the future. Considering the limitations of the data used in
Figures 6 and 7, there is an apparent increase in the landings from purse seines and ringnets for the
commercial sub-sector, and gillnets and hook and line for the municipal sub-sector from the SCS
area. The dominant municipal gears are relatively size and species selective, and conceivably more
suited to the rough sea conditions and the hard ground relief on the SCS side of the archipelago.
1.3.2 Fishing effort by gear
So far, the available records on fishing effort in the SCS area only pertain to registered commercial
fishing vessels from Regions I and III (Table 3), without indicating the kind of fishing gears used.
Concerning the latter, preliminary inventory indicates that the major gears used in the SCS area are
ringnets, purse seines, modified Danish seines, gill nets, handlines, bagnets, and pushnets. Similar
data on municipal vessels for the SCS area are unavailable since their registration/licensing are the
responsibility of the respective local government units. Table 3 therefore underestimates the nominal
effort for the SCS sub-region; fishing boats from Region IV and the NCR must also be taken into
account. Attempt to disaggregate the fishing effort cannot be made without any baseline data on total
vessels and gears from the localities constituting the SCS sub-region. This highlights the need for an
improved and expanded collection of catch and effort statistics specific to the area.
56,000 Commercial Municipal Total
48,000
40,000
Landings MT
32,000
24,000
16,000
8,000
-
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Year
Figure 3 Marine fish landings from western Philippine waters (Regions I and III).
300,000 Commercial Municipal Total

270,000
240,000
210,000
Landings MT
180,000
150,000
120,000
90,000
60,000
30,000
-
1992 1993 1994 1995
Year
Figure 4 Marine fish landing from western Philippine waters (Manila Bay and West Palawan).
22.00
21.00
20.00
19.00
18.00
17.00
16.00
15.00
14.00
13.00
12.00
11.00
10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
114.00 115.00 116.00 117.00 118.00 119.00 120.00 121.00 122.00 123.00 124.00 125.00 126.00 127.00 128.00
Figure 5 Map of the Philippines showing the different statistical fishing areas (enclosed by
lines) and sampling sites per administrative region (arrowheads).
500,000
450,000
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
-
1992 1993 1994 1995
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
-
1992 1993 1994 1995
Purse Seine Ring Net Trawl Danish Seine

Bag Net Hook & Line Others
Figure. 6 Commercial marine fish landings (MT) by major fishing gear for the entire
Philippines (upper panel) and the SCS sub-region (lower panel) in 1992 to 1995. SCS
sub-region constitutes landings from Regions I and III, Manila Bay, and West
Palawan waters. Gear type and composition (%) per gear assumed the same for the
nationwide and SCS-wide scales.
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
-
1992 1993 1994 1995
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
-
1992 1993 1994 1995
Gill Net Hook & Line Beach Seine Fish Corral

Ring Net Baby Trawl Spear Long Line
Danish Seine Fish Pot Bag Net Crab Lift Net
Purse Seine Others
Figure 7 Municipal marine fish landings (MT) by major fishing gear for the entire Philippines
(upper panel) and the SCS sub-region (lower panel) in 1992 to 1995. SCS sub-region
constitutes landings from Regions I and III, Manila Bay, and West Palawan waters.
Gear type and composition (%) per gear were assumed the same for the nationwide
and SCS-wide scales.
Table 3 Total Number and Gross Tonnage (GT) of Commercial Fishing Vessels In Regions I
and III from1990 to 2002. Na – Not available.
Region I Region III Total

Year
Number Total GT Number Total GT Number Total GT
1990 3 41 27 628 30 668

1991 na na na na na na
1992 67 1,366 50 808 117 2,174
1993 na Na na na na na
1994 59 1,229 298 4,815 357 6,044
1995 59 1,229 298 4,815 357 6,044
1996 59 1,229 298 4,815 357 6,044
1997 73 1,286 35 981 108 2,268
1998 60 1,232 32 866 92 2,089
1999 113 1,833 40 1,081 153 2,914
2000 113 1,833 40 1,081 153 2,914
2001 113 1,833 40 1,081 153 2,914
2002 113 1,833 40 1,081 153 2,914
1.3.3 Economic value of fisheries production
Fisheries contribution to total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2002 was 2.2% at current prices and
4.0% at constant prices. Philippine GDP in 2002 was US$356 billion. On the other hand, the
contribution of the fisheries sector to the Gross Value Added (GVA) in agriculture, fishery, and forestry
by industry group for 2002 is shown in Table 4. Fisheries GVA amounts to PhP90,180 million (15.2%)
at current prices, whereas PhP41,772 million (20.3%) at constant prices. Nationwide, the total value of
fisheries production, both sub-sectors and aquaculture included, increased steadily from PhP70,215
million in 1993 to PhP113,244 million in 2002 (Table 5). For the SCS sub-region, the economic value
of landings was estimated using the average contribution of each sub-sector to total capture fisheries
production, i.e. excluding aquaculture, in 1992 to1995. The four-year average contribution of the SCS
municipal sub-sector and commercial sub-sector to nationwide total production was 7.8% and 22.5%,
respectively. Thus, municipal and commercial landings from the SCS sub-region in 1993 were valued
at PhP1,718 million and PhP4,055 million, respectively (Table 5). In 2002, the value of the SCS
landings increased to PhP2,976 million and PhP8,928 million for the municipal and commercial sub-
sectors, respectively. By aggregation, the total value of marine landings from the SCS sub-region
increased from PhP5,773 million in 1993 to PhP11,904 million in 2002 (Table 5).
Regarding the balance of trade, national fishery exports in 2002 (182,032 MT valued at US$506
million) were higher than in 2001 (159,069 MT valued at US$459 million). The volume of fisheries
imports for both years was higher than the volume of exports. Nevertheless, there was a positive
balance of trade for both years in terms of value (Table 6).
Table 4 Agriculture, fisheries, and forestry contribution to the Gross Value Added (GVA) by
industry group. Prices are in PhP million.
% to
% to Agricultural At Constant
Industry Group At Current Prices Agricultural
Sector Prices
Sector
Agricultural crops (Palay, corn,
343,295 58.0 105,163 51.0
coconut, etc.)
Livestock 78,983 13.3 26,580 12.9
Poultry 50,960 8.6 23,611 11.5
Agricultural activities 27,920 4.7 8,737 4.2
Fishery 90,180 15.2 41,772 20.3
Forestry 803 0.1 335 0.2
TOTAL 592,141 100 206,198 100
Table 5 Value (PhP million) of nationwide and SCS-wide (landings from Regions I and III,
Manila Bay, and West Palawan) fish production in 1993 to 2002. P–preliminary.
NATION-WIDE SCS-WIDE*
Year Culture Municipal Commercial Total Municipal Commercial Total
(PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP)
2002 35,404 38,159 39,681 113,244 2,976 8,928 11,904
2001 36,634 34,222 36,089 106,945 2,669 8,120 10,789
2000 32,148 32,595 33,879 98,622 2,542 7,623 10,165
1999 29,046 31,034 32,242 92,322 2,420 7,254 9,674
1998 26,430 28,966 29,737 85,133 2,259 6,691 8,950
1997 27,289 27,393 25,935 80,617 2,137 5,835 7,972
1996 33,347 25,373 24,555 83,275 1,979 5,525 7,504
1995 33,658 26,464 23,065 83,187 2,064 5,190 7,253
1994 35,003 24,475 20,714 80,192 1,909 4,539 6,448
1993 30,163 22,031 18,021 70,215 1,718 4,055 5,773
* The estimator for the SCS-wide sub-sector value was the ratio of SCS-wide landings over the nationwide landings for each
sub-sector from 1992 to1995; estimation was limited to that period due to data limitation in the SCS sub-region. Estimator
values were 0.078 for the municipal sub-sector and 0.225 for the commercial sub-sector.
Table 6 Balance of trade for the fisheries sector in 2001 and 2002.
2002 2001
Category Quantity FOB Value Quantity FOB Value
(MT) (PhP M) (US$ M) (MT) (PhP M) (US$ M)
Fishery Export 182,032 26,178 506 159,069 22,723 459
Fishery Import 218,585 5,073 97 179,994 3,815 76
Trade Balance 36,553 21,105 409 20,925 18,908 383
1.3.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence
The fisheries sector employs around a million people broken down into following: municipal 68%;
aquaculture 26%; and commercial 6%. This constitutes 3 to 4% of the national labor force. Assuming
that a typical family is comprised of 5 to 6 persons, then around 5 to 6 million people are directly
dependent on fisheries. In addition, the fisheries sector indirectly provides employment to those
engaged in fish distribution, marketing, processing, operation of ice plants and cold storage, and
related industries such as net-making, boat-building, and boat-engine sales and repairs.
2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL, AND TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE
2.1 Ranking of Importance
The Regional Working Group on Fisheries identified 13 pelagic and 9 demersal fish species, 10
cephalopods, and 11 crustaceans to be considered in the initial review as species with transboundary
significance (see Tables 1a, 2a, 3a, and 4a of Annex 4 UNEP/GEF/SCS/RWG-F 2/3). The 13 pelagic
species belong to four major groups under the ISSCAAP (International Standard Statistical
Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants) classification system: Selar crumenophthalmus,
Decapterus macrosoma, and D. maruadsi under Group 34 (Jacks, Mullets, Sauries, etc.); Sardinella
spp. and Stolephorus spp. under Group 35 (Herrings, Sardines, Anchovies, etc.); Scomberomorus
commerson, S. guttatus, Auxis thazard, A. rochei, Euthynnus affinis, and Thunnus tonggol under
Group 36 (Tunas); and Rastrelliger kanagurta and R. brachysoma under Group 37 (Mackerels). On
the other hand, the 9 demersal species are lumped under Group 33 (Red fishes, Basses, Congers,
etc.).
2.1.1 Ranking in terms of landings
In the Philippines, the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS) of the Department of Agriculture (DA)
generates the statistics for aquaculture, commercial, and municipal fisheries. Species-specific
information for marine fish is limited to the top 30 species. These 30 species belong to eight groups
under the ISSCAAP system and account for almost 68% of nationwide fish production (Table 7).
Hence, any significant fluctuation in total fish landings, especially of the pelagic species, would
definitely affect the country’s position as a global fish producer. Further, almost half of the top 30
species are in the priority list and they form the bulk of species traditionally harvested/landed in
areas/regions facing the SCS. The proportion of the eight species groups in fish catches from the
SCS area is much higher compared to the national average (Table 8), except for Group 42 (Crabs).
This could be explained by the fact that West Palawan, which is part of Region IV, is a major
contributor to commercial fish production (~19%) in the Philippines.
2.1.2 Local market value
Wholesale and retail prices of selected fish species groups are given in Table 9. Except for Groups 57
(Squids) and 45 (Acetes), price data are available for representative species of all groups. Although
the traditional group with the highest local market value is crabs, only Groups 33 and 37 are the fish
groups typically consumed locally and command a high price. This is possibly attributed to the high
price of some demersal species, e.g. threadfin bream and fusilier in Group 33, compared to the small
pelagics.
Table 7 Average landings (MT) and percentage share to total marine fish production of the
priority species groups.
a b
Share Production Value
ISSCAAP Code
(%) (MT) (PhP million)
Group 33 (Slipmouth, Threadfin bream, Fusilier,
Goatfish, Grouper, Snapper, Siganid, 8.8 195,864 5,254
Parrotfish, Porgies)
Group 34 (Roundscad, Big-eyed scad, Crevalle, Flying
18.0 403,030 10,812
fish, Cavalla, Mullet)
Group 35 (Indian sardine, Fimbriated sardine,
17.3 386,314 10,364
Anchovy, Round herring)
Group 36 (Skipjack, Frigate tuna, Yellowfin tuna,
15.4 344,078 9,231
Eastern little tuna, Spanish mackerel)
Group 37 (Indian mackerel, Indo-Pacific mackerel,
3.9 88,090 2,363
Hairtail)
Group 42 (Blue crab) 1.4 32,326 867
Group 45 (Acetes) 0.7 15,890 426
Group 57 (Squid) 2.2 48,916 1,312
Total 67.8% 1,514,508 40,630
a
Refers to yearly production from 1997 to 2001 as reported by the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS).
b
Refers to the Weighted average value.
Table 8 Percentage share of priority species caught from selected areas/regions facing
the South China Seaa in 1992 and 1995 in comparison with the national average.
ISSCAAP Code Nat’l Average 1992 Catch 1995 Catch
Group 33 (Slipmouths, etc.) 8.77 12.36 12.61
Group 34 (Roundscads, etc.) 18.01 32.95 29.67
Group 35 (Indian sardines, etc.) 17.32 14.34 25.32
Group 36 (Tunas) 15.40 18.51 16.47
Group 37 (Mackerel, etc.) 3.94 9.44 7.40
Group 42 (Blue crab) 1.44 0.56 0.80
Group 45 (Acetes) 0.71 3.90 2.21
Group 57 (Squid) 2.20 3.54 3.19
Total 67.79% 95.61 97.67
a
Refers to landings from Lingayen Gulf, Manila Bay, Batangas Coast, and West Palawan.
Table 9 Wholesale (W) and retail (R) prices for selected fish species in Philippine peso.
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
ISSCAAP Code
W R W R W R W R W R
a
Group 33 (Demersals ) 45.4 70.3 46.8 72.1 50.9 76.1 54.1 80.7 57.4 85.3
Group 34 (Roundscad) 31.9 45.0 34.4 47.4 40.0 53.4 41.5 54.9 44.4 59.4
Group 35 (Anchovies) 28.1 44.1 31.2 44.9 32.6 46.7 35.8 48.0 36.0 50.2
Group 36 (Frigate tuna) 35.3 46.3 36.4 49.0 42.4 51.3 43.5 52.6 48.0 57.3
Group 37 (I. mackerel) 47.9 60.9 49.3 61.7 53.6 64.8 56.8 67.5 60.2 70.7
Group 42 (Blue Crab) 51.6 74.2 58.4 77.4 61.6 82.2 61.5 88.8 62.4 98.0
a
Average price for threadfin bream, slipmouth, and fusilier.
2.1.3 Status
IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature, presently World Conservation Union)
classifies species into 9 categories: Extinct (EX); Extinct in the Wild (EW); Critically Endangered (CR);
Endangered (EN); Vulnerable (VU); Near Threatened (NT); Least Concern (LC); Data Deficient (DD);
and Not Evaluated (NE). So far, none of the 43 species identified by the Regional Working Group on
Fisheries are listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
2.1.4 Food Security
Local fish production exhibited a steady increase from 1997 to 2001, accounting for 96% of the
national fish supply, while the contribution of food fish imports averaged about 4% (Table 10).
Assuming such rates to remain constant while population increases by 2% and per capita
consumption remains at 2000 level, domestic fish production will have to increase, with necessary
reinforcement by imports.
Table 10 Annual fish supply and consumption (MT) from 1997 to 2001.
Item 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Production 2,136,264 2,144,184 2,227,660 2,286,293 2,380,735
Food Fish Import 118,069 51,893 120,586 120,180 68,388
Apparent Food Use 1,894,210 1,837,612 1,984,944 2,034,235 2,088,499
Per Capita Use (kg) 26.62 25.32 26.81 26.59 26.80
Population 71,145,556 72,581,223 74,045,637 76,498,735 77,925,894
Total Fish Supply 2,254,333 2,196,077 2,348,246 2,406,473 2,449,123
2.2 Biology and ecology of the priority species
About 2,400 fish species have been recorded in the Philippines, but the number occurring along the
western (South China Sea) portion of the country is still unknown. It is therefore likely that the number
occurring in the Philippines, and in other countries in the region, is much larger than that currently
recorded.
The Regional Working Group (Fisheries) has issued a comprehensive list of demersal and pelagic
fish, as well as invertebrates, with defined levels of transboundary significance. Information on the
biology and ecology of the listed species occurring in the Philippines were derived largely from
databases, particularly FISHBASE and CEPHBASE, and from available reports and publications.
Table 11 shows those species in the comprehensive list that have been recorded in the Philippines.
Several species have no records of occurrence in areas along the South China Sea, although they
have been observed at several localities in the country. In such cases, the locality/area where they
have been observed is indicated. Most of the listed species, however, occur in areas bordering the
South China Sea.
Depending on the availability of references, the information includes: a) geographical distribution of

the stock; b) migration pattern; c) size-related aspects of the stock; d) growth parameters; e)
reproductive biology; f) spawning time (season); g) spawning areas; h) nursery grounds (areas); and i)
food and feeding habits.
Most data regarding commonly occurring species pertain to relative abundances in catches and
estimates of population parameters; reproductive biology (particularly spawning areas) and feeding
habits are relatively scarce, although useful insights may be provided by data on related species or
the same species from other fishing grounds in the country or region. Any local (Philippine)
information is therefore vital and incorporated into the sheets. The lack of information is usually
remedied by citing relevant data from the next most similar area. Focus is placed on two major areas,
Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, mainly because of available information. Relevant areas include the
Batanes Islands, Ilocos Coast, Subic Bay and Zambales coast, Batangas–Mindoro waters,
Malampaya area and northern Palawan, and the Kalayaan (Spratlys) Islands Group.
2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes
This group includes the various tuna species. In the Philippines, there are a total of 21 tuna and tuna-
like species, but only six are caught in commercial quantities (PCAMRD 1993). The six species
include the highly migratory Thunnus albacares (yellowfin) and Katsuwonus pelamis (skipjack), which
are normally caught in offshore waters, and Thunnus obesus (big-eyed), Euthynnus affinis (eastern
little), Auxis thazard (frigate), and A. rochei (bullet), which are more frequently caught in inshore
waters.
Tuna spawning grounds are located throughout Philippine waters (Figure 8), including the waters off
West Palawan, Mindoro Strait, and West Luzon. The major spawning ground, however, is the Celebes
Sea in the south. Migration through the Sulu Sea (Figure 9) allows the mixing of stocks between the
Pacific Ocean (via the Celebes Sea) and the SCS.
The prevalence of young tuna (TL<30 cm) in commercial and municipal catches has been a major
concern since the 1980s because it may lead to growth overfishing (Aprieto 1982). Worse, the use of
fish aggregating devices (FADs), locally called “payaos”, tends to enhance cannibalism thus
exacerbating the above situation (PCAMRD 1993). Of the six tuna species mentioned above, only T.
obesus is believed to be facing a high risk of extinction and is thus listed under the vulnerable
category.
Large pelagics typically include other oceanic fish such as Makaira spp. (marlin), Xiphias gladius
(swordfish), Istiophorus platypterus (sailfish), Scomberomorus commerson (Spanish mackerel),
Elopidae (tenpounder), Sphyraenidae (barracuda), Coryphaenidae (dolphinfish), large Caranx spp.
(cavalla), Elagatis bipinnulatus (rainbow runner), and Chanos chanos (milkfish). As a group, these fish
contribute around 7% to total landings of pelagic fish (Pagdilao et al. 1991), but little is known about
their biology or ecology in local waters. Milkfish are extensively cultured in the Philippines, but only
those caught in the wild are included as large pelagics.
Pacific
South
China
Sea Ocean
Sulu
Sea
Celebes
Sea
Figure 8 Tuna spawning grounds in the Philippines (Wade 1951).
South
Pacific
China
Sea
Ocean
Sulu Sea
Celebes Sea
Figure 9 Tuna migration routes to the South China Sea.
Table 11 Species of transboundary significance and their recorded occurrences in waters of the South China Sea side of the Philippines.
SPECIES Common name Occurrence

Aetobatus narinari Spotted eagle ray Manila Bay
Dasyatis kuhlii Blue-spotted stingray Lingayen Gulf; Manila Bay; Cavite
Manta birostris Giant manta ray No information
Taeniura lymma Blue-spotted ribbontail ray Ulugan Bay, Palawan
Alopias pelagicus Pelagic thresher shark No information
Alopias vulpinus Thintail thresher shark No information
Carcharhinus dussumieri Whitecheek shark Dumaguete, Negros Oriental (*)
Carcharhinus limbatus Blacktip shark Pilas Is., Basilan, Sulu Sea (*)
Carcharhinus longimanus Oceanic whitetip shark No information
Carcharhinus melanopterus Blacktip reef shark Manila (market)
Carcharhinus sorrah Spottail shark Cavite
Chiloscyllium indicum Bamboo shark Manila Bay
Chiloscyllium griseum Bamboo shark Sim Sim Laut Is., Sulu Sea (*)
Chiloscyllium plagiosum Bamboo shark Manila Bay; Calapan, Mindoro
Chiloscyllium punctatum Bamboo shark Manila Bay
Rhicodon typus Whale shark Mariveles Bay, Bataan; Manila Bay; Batangas Bay and Bauan, Batangas
Sphyrna lewini Scalloped hammerhead shark No information
Sphyrna zygaena Smooth hammerhead shark Cavite; Taytay, Palawan
Istiophorus platypterus Indo-pacific sailfish
Makaira indica Black marlin
Makaira mazara Indo-pacific blue marlin
Makaira nigricans Atlantic blue marlin
Xiphias gladius Swordfish Manila Bay; Western Philippines
Auxis rochei Bullet tuna Western Philippines
Auxis thazard Frigate tuna Nasugbu and Balayan Bay, Batangas Province, Luzon,
Euthynnus affinis Kawakawa Western Philippines
Katsuwonus pelamis Skipjack tuna Taal and Balayan Bay, Batangas
Thunnus albacares Yellowfin tuna Western Philippines
Thunnus tonggol Longtail tuna Western Philippines
Rastrelliger brachysoma Short mackerel Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay; Calapan, Mindoro
Rastrelliger faughni Island mackerel Visayan Sea (*)
Rastrelliger kannagurta Indian mackerel Nasugbu, Batangas Province, Luzon;
Table 11 cont. Species of transboundary significance and their recorded occurrences in waters of the South China Sea side of the
Philippines.
Scomberoides commersonnianus Talang queenfish No information
Scomberoides lysan Double-spotted queenfish Vigan, Ilocos Sur; Manila Bay; Bolbok, Batangas; Malampaya Sound, Palawan
Scomberoides tala Barred queenfish Manila Bay; Cavite
Scomberomorus commerson Narrow-barred spanish mackerel San Fabian, Pangasinan; Manila Bay
Scomberomorus guttatus Indo-pacific king mackerel Guinlo, Malampaya Sound, Palawan
Scomberomorus lineolatus Streaked seerfish No information
Coryphaena hippurus Common dolphin fish Fortune Is., Nasugbu, Batangas; Naujan, Mindoro; Malampaya Sound, Palawan
Cypselurus spp. Flying fish Batangas; Manila Bay
Alepes djedaba Shrimp scad Samar Sea; San Pedro Bay
Atule mate Yellowtail scad Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay
Decapterus macrosoma Shortfin scad Manila Bay
Decapterus maruadsi Japanese scad Amurang, North Celebes
Decapterus russelli Indian scad Iloilo (*)
Bauang, La Union; Mariveles, Bataan; Balayan Bay, Batangas; Linapacan Island,
Megalaspis cordyla Torpedo scad
Palawan
Selar crumenopthalmus Bigeye scad Bangui, Ilocos Norte; Orion, Bataan; Manila Bay; Calapan, Mindoro
Selaroides leptolepis Yellow-stripe scad Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay
Amblygaster sirm Spotted sardinella No information
Santa Maria, Ilocos; San Fernando, La Union; Lingayen Gulf; Orani and Orion,
Anadontostoma chacunda Chacunda gizzard shad
Bataan; Manila Bay; Cavite; Balayan Bay, Batangas
Chirocentrus dorab Dorab wolf herring Vigan, Ilocos Sur; Rosario, La Union; San Fabian, Pangasinan; Manila Bay; Cavite
Chirocentrus nudus Whitefin wolf herring No information
Basud River and Port Jamelo, Luzon; Sta. Cruz, Marinduque; Panabutan Bay,
Sardinella albella White sardinella
Zamboanga (*)
Sardinella brachysoma Deepbody sardinella Manila Bay, Luzon
Sardinella fimbriata Fringescale sardinella Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay; Nasugbu, Batangas
Sardinella gibbosa Goldstripe sardinella Vigan, Ilocos Sur; Orani and Orion, Bataan; Manila Bay
Encrasicholina devisi Devi's anchovy No information
Encrasicholina heteroloba Shorthead anchovy No information
Encrasicholina punctifer Buccaneer anchovy No information
Stolephorus commersoni Commerson's anchovy Manila Bay
Table 11 cont. Species of transboundary significance and their recorded occurrences in waters of the South China Sea side of the
Philippines.
Stolephorus indicus Indian anchovy Balayan Bay, Batangas; Puerto Galera, Mondoro
Epinephelus akaara Hongkong grouper No information
Dagupan, Pangasinan; Subic Bay, Zambales; Calapan, Mindoro; Linapacan Is. and
Epinephelus bleekeri Duskytail grouper
Ulugan Bay, Palawan
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus Brown-marbled grouper Manila Bay; Puerto Galera, Mindoro; Ulugan Bay, Palawan
Epinephelus malabaricus Malabar grouper Cavite; Calapan, Mindoro; Cuyo Is., Palawan
Epinephelus sexfasciatus Sixbar grouper Bauang, La Union; Manila Bay; Nasugbu and Lemery, Batangas
Epinephelus tauvina Greasy grouper Cavite, Cavite Province
Plectropomus aereolatus Squaretail coral grouper No information
Plectropomus leopardus Leopard coral grouper Manila Bay; Port Hamilo, Batangas; Bolalo Bay and Endeavor Straits, Palawan
Plectropomus maculatus Spotted coral grouper Verde Is. Passage; Endeavor Strait, Palawan
Lutjanus argentimaculatus Mangrove red snapper Camiguin Is., Batanes; Mariveles, Bataan; Cavite; Pagapas, Batangas
Mariveles, Bataan; Port Jamilo, Batangas; Calapan, Mindoro; Quiminatin and Cuyo
Lutjanus lutjanus Bigeye snapper
Is., Palawan
Lutjanus malabaricus Malabar blood snapper Dagupan, Pangasinan; Manila Bay; Batangas
Lutjanus sanguineus Humphead snapper Manila bay; Balayan Bay, Batangas
Lutjanus sebae Emperor head snapper Linapacan and Cuyo Is., Palawan
Lutjanus vitta Brownstripe red snapper Manila Bay; Cavite
Pristipomoides filamentosus Crimson jobfish Cebu; Dumaguete, Negros Oriental; Balabac Strait (*)
Pristipomoides typus Sharptooth jobfish Manila (market); Nasugbu, Batangas
Port Matalvi, Zambales; Limbones Cove, Cavite; Nasugbu, Pagapas Bay and Port
Caesio cuning Redbelly yellowtail fusilier
Hamilo, Batangas; Taytay, Palawan
Bauang, La Union; Cape Bolinao, Pangasinan; Manila Bay; Balayan Bay, Batangas;
Saurida spp. Lizardfish
Cuyo Is., Palawan
Curimao, Ilocos Norte; San Fernando, La Union; San Fabian, Pangasinan; Orion,
Nemipterus spp. Threadfin breams
Bataan; Manila Bay
Priacanthus macracanthus Red bigeye Tayabas Bay, Quezon (*)
Priacanthus tayenus Purple-spotted bigeye San Fernando and Bauang, La Union; Mansalay, Mindoro
Trichiurus lepturus Largehead hairtail No information
(*) – Indicates areas not bordering the South China Sea.
2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species
Small pelagic is an arbitrary category of various fishes that are generally surface dwelling within
continental shelf waters. Most of these small, fast-growing, and short-lived species belong to 13
families: Scombridae (mackerels), Carangidae (crevalles and other jacks), Clupeidae (herrings and
sardines), Engraulidae (anchovies), Chirocentridae (wolf herring), Trichiuridae (hairtails), Atherinidae
(silversides), Hemiramphidae (halfbeaks), Exocoetidae (flying fish), Mugilidae (mullets), Strongyluridae
(garfish), Megalopidae (tarpon), and Caesionidae (fusiliers) (Dalzell and Ganaden 1987).
As a group, small pelagics comprise 40% of the total fish landings. The dominant groups are anchovies
(Stolephorus spp.), sardines (Sardinella spp.), roundscads (Decapterus spp.), and mackerel
(Rastrelliger spp.). Population parameter estimates for small pelagic stocks from different fishing
grounds are available in Ingles and Pauly (1984), Corpuz et al. (1985), Lavapie et al. (1987), and
several unpublished reports from 1990 to 2000.
A recent review of their general biology and ecology is given in Calvelo (1997). Small pelagic fish
generally attain a maximum weight of not more than 500 g. They are generally short-lived, with lifespan
of two to three years, although the round scads may live to about four years (Calvelo 1997). Many
exhibit inshore-offshore migrations, but most are limited to the neritic zone. Because of the difficulty in
identifying their larvae to the genus or species level, specific spawning locations are unknown. Previous
studies, however, point to such areas as Mindoro Strait and the waters off Manila Bay as likely
spawning grounds for some pelagic fish in the South China Sea (Ronquillo 1975). Most pelagic species
are planktivorous, although some are carnivorous particularly on the young of other species. As
planktivores, they are known to live near the water surface and are therefore strongly influenced by
environmental conditions (PCAMRD 1993). The high seasonal variation in their abundance is attributed
to environmental influences such as monsoons, rainfall, salinity regimes, and plankton biomass.
2.2.3 Demersal fish species
A total of 46 species groups comprise the demersal landings in the Philippines, with the Leiognathidae
(slipmouths) comprising about 15% of the total (Pagdilao et al. 1991). Others groups include the
Nemipteridae (threadfin breams), Mullidae (goatfish), and Synodontidae (lizardfish), which are common
in soft-bottom areas, and Lutjanidae (snappers), Lethrinidae (emperor fish), Siganidae (rabbitfish), and
Serranidae (groupers), which are generally associated with reefs. Also included in this category are the
many species of sharks, skates, and rays (elasmobranchs). Together, these nine groups represent over
50% of demersal fish landings in the Philippines (Pagdilao et al. 1991). Because of their diversity in
form, feeding, and behavior, demersal fish are exploited with various gears over different substrate
types, including mangrove swamps, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. As bottom-dwellers, their food
includes seaweeds and seagrasses, worms, small shrimps, small fish, and even shelled organisms and
corals.
The classification of elasmobranchs as by-catch is typical in most fisheries of the Philippines. As a

result, their catches are likely underreported. Little is known about their biology and ecology in local
waters because fishers usually discard their carcasses at sea after removing and retaining their fins. Six
rays and 43 sharks that reportedly occur in the Philippines, although not necessarily in the SCS area,
are included in the Red List. Of the rays, Urogymnus asperrimus (porcupine ray) and Aetomylaeus
nichofii (banded eagle ray) are vulnerable (at high risk of becoming extinct in the wild), another two
species are near threatened (likely to be vulnerable in the future), whereas data are deficient for both
Aetobatus narinari (spotted eagle ray) and Manta birostris (manta ray). Of the 43 sharks in the Red List,
only Carcharhinus hemiodon (pondcherry shark) is listed as critically endangered (extremely at high risk
of extinction in the wild), 4 other species are endangered (facing a very high risk of extinction), 10 are
vulnerable, including Rhincodon typus (whale shark), 7 are near threatened, 15 are almost nearly
threatened, while 6 have insufficient data for categorizing.
Reef-associated fish are also included in this category. While the higher valued species, such as
groupers and snappers, are exploited for human consumption, a number of species not consumed by
humans have also been exploited for the live aquarium fish trade (Nañola and Aliño 1999). The more
commonly targeted aquarium fish include chaetodontids (butterflyfish) and pomacanthids (angelfish).
Seahorses and pipefishes (syngnathids) are also exploited and marketed as “aphrodisiacs” in other
countries (Nañola and Aliño 1999). Among the syngnathids, nine species (including two pipefish) are
redlisted, five as vulnerable, and four with insufficient data. Those categorised with insufficient data are
species whose biology and ecology are prone to disruption from observed levels of exploitation.
Syngnathids brood their eggs in male abdominal pouches, and as such, the number of eggs produced
per female is very limited.
Aside from seahorses, eight other bottom dwelling fish are included in the Red List, inlcuding three
groupers (Cephalopolis boenak, Cromileptes altivelis, and Epinephelus lanceolatus), the humphead
wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), two dragonfishes (Pegasidae), and two gobiiform fish.
2.2.4 Commercially exploited invertebrates
The commercially exploited invertebrates in the country include species of molluscs, crustaceans, and
echinoderms. Each of these groups is very diverse. A listing of species would be too extensive to
include in this review. For several invertebrates, rearing and culture techniques have been investigated
and developed for the purpose of propagation. As such, susceptibility to local extinction would be
negligible. These include sea urchins (Tripneustes gratila) (Juinio-Meñez et al. 1998), sea cucumbers,
shrimps, crabs, and several molluscs, including giant clams. The latter group is of special conservation
concern as most are slow-growing and have reduced abundances in the wild. Six species of locally
occurring giant clams are included in the Red List, categorised as either vulnerable (Tridacna derasa
and T. gigas) or least risk (Hippopus hippopus, H. porcellanus, Tridacna maxima, and T. squamosa),
although the vulnerability of the least risk group to current exploitation levels cannot be ignored. Some
biological information on the 15 cephalopod species occurring in the SCS area is provided in Table 12.
Table 12 Summary of biological and ecological information for cephalopod species with
transboundary significance in the South China Sea.
Species Max. Size Prey Items Other Information References

Octopus (Octopus) 120–150cm hermit crab, blue Boletzky and Hanlon (1983); Roper
macropus TL crab, shrimp et al. (1984)
O. (O.)
membranaceus
O. (O.) aegina 30cm ML Roper et al. (1984)
Sepia 10cm ML Roper et al. (1984)
(Acanthosepion)
brevimana
S. (A.) lycidas 38cm ML shrimp Boletzky and Hanlon (1983)
S. (A.) aculeata 23cm ML prawn, mysid Boletzky and Hanlon (1983); Roper
et al. (1984)
S. (Sepia) pharaonis 43cm ML ♂ Hatching size:0.1g Roper et al. (1984); Wood and O'Dor
33cm ML ♀ Size/age at maturity: 84.1g, (2000)
110d; 3300deg-d
Sepiella inermis prawn, crab, Hatching size: 0.01g Boletzky and Hanlon (1983); Wood
fish, Size/age at maturity: 36.6g, and O'Dor (2000)
90d; 2700deg-d
Sepioteuthis 36cm ML fish, mysid, Hatching size: 0.044g Boletzky and Hanlon (1983); Wood
lessoniana shrimp, Size/age at maturity: 122.7g, and O'Dor (2000)
90d; 2700deg-d
Uroteuthis 30cm ML Roper et al. (1984)
(Photololigo)
chinensis
U. (P.) duvauceli: 29cm ML Roper et al. (1984)
U. (P.) edulis 40cm ML Roper et al. (1984)
Nototodarus 15.2cm Caught in depths up to 710m Nateewathana et al. (2000)
hawaiiensis
Sthenoteuthis 18cm ML ♂ Abound in W. Phil. at 50– Siriraksophon et al. (2000);
oualaniensis 26cm ML ♀ 100m; lifespan ~1yr; >75% Nateewathana et al. (2000); Basir
diet comprised of fish and (2000); Zakaria (2000)
st
cephalopods; size at 1 mat.
♀: 11cm ML
Thysanoteuthis 100cm ML Generally caught in upper Nateewathana et al. (2000)
rhombus 50m of water column
3. STATUS AND THREATS
3.1 Current Status
In this section, the Philippines part of the South China Sea is categorised into two sectors: western
Luzon, including the Batanes Islands and the major fishing grounds of Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay,
and western Palawan, including the western coast of Mindoro, Calamianes Islands, and the
embayments of Malampaya Sound, Bacuit Bay, and Ulugan Bay.
3.1.1 Fisheries Status in terms of CPUE
Fishing effort data are not regularly and adequately included in the published statistics for Philippine
fisheries, thus assessment of catch per unit effort (CPUE) is difficult. This section presents information
for the years where the computation of CPUE is possible, as well as that stemming from site-specific
studies.
At present, CPUE in the SCS area depends on the location and habitat where fishing takes places. In
the waters adjacent to Batanes Islands, pelagic fisheries exhibited high levels of CPUE levels in 1997 to
2002 (Table 13). The trend observed is that catch rates have either increased (e.g. simple handline,
drift gillnet) or remained constant (e.g. multiple handline, drift lines for flying fish), thus suggesting that
the area is still in good condition for pelagic fisheries. This may be attributed to the distance of the
fishing grounds from the major fishing ports and the limited fishing period (March–June) imposed by
perennially rough sea conditions, which both serve as a natural stopgap mechanism to fishing activities
in the area. This is in contrast to its reef fisheries, where exploitation occurs year round. Although catch
rates there are mostly higher than elsewhere in the country, latest figures (1998–2002) indicate
decreasing CPUE for spear fishing and octopus fishing (Table 13). The high CPUE observed for many
gear types in the area may have driven increases in total fishing effort levels. The total number of
fishers operating in the area increased 8% from 1997 (1330) to 2002 (1431). Similarly, the number of
fishing gear units increased 741% from 423 in 1997 to 3557 units in 2002. A possible cause of the large
discrepancy in the effort (boats and gears) data is the change in the survey method.
Most fisheries, especially demersal fisheries, in enclosed bays and gulfs along the SCS indicate an
overfished status. In Manila Bay, only 10% of the 1947 level of demersal fish population remained in
1993 (Armada 1993). From a high catch rate of 44kg/h for trawls in 1947, it decreased to only 10kg/h in
1993. Fugure 10 shows the CPUE trend of trawls in Manila Bay. In Lingayen Gulf, catch rates of trawls
are even lower at 4.4kg/h in 2002, a huge reduction from the 67.7kg/h observed in 1947.
Table 13 Catch rates (kg/h) of fishing gears used in Batanes waters (from Villarao et al. 2003).
Demersal Reef Pelagic
BS Multi Octo Simp Troll Anch Surf Drift Mod Gar

Year Hookah Spear Jigger FF Dline
Gnet HL Jig HL Line DInet Gnet Gnet Egnet TL
1997 3.0 1.8 3.9 1.1 3.4 1.7 5.9 4.3

1998 4.4 2.7 6.6 1.1 2.0 5.0 10.4 1.2
1999 5.1 2.7 5.7 1.2 4.3 0.6 8.9 17.7 2.4 0.6
2000 2.3 3.1 22.2 4.7 1.2 1.8 3.7 4.6 2.2 1.5 0.4
2001 2.6 3.3 14.8 1.9 0.2 1.9 4.1 6.0 7.7 14.9 1.9 0.4
2002 4.6 2.9 19.7 3.7 0.7 2.7 3.9 6.5 5.6 15.6 2.7 0.7
Legend: BS Gnet, bottom-set gillnet; Mutli HL, multiple handline; Octo jig, octopus jig; Simp HL, simple handline;
Anch DInet, anchovy drive-in net; Surf Gnet, surface gillnet; Drift Gnet, drift gillnet; Mod Egnet, modified encircling
gillnet; Gar TL, garfish troll line; FF Dline, flying fish drift line.
50
-48.41
y = 6E+160x
40 r = 0.680
CPUE (kg/h)
30
20
10
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
Figure 10 Catch per unit effort (CPUE) of trawls in Manila Bay (from Armada 1993).
40
Danish Seine Trawl
CPUE (MT/boat/y)
30
20
10
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Figure 11 Catch per unit effort (CPUE) of Danish seines and trawls in Lingayen Gulf
(from Gaerlan et al. 2003).
There appears to be a succession of fish populations in overfished areas, in which pelagic species
replace lost demersal biomass. This has been observed in Manila Bay and Lingayen Gulf, where an
increase in pelagic catch replaced the loss in demersal stocks. For instance, data from Lingayen Gulf
indicate that from 1998 to 2002, CPUE (tons/boat/y) of Danish seines, which exploit both pelagic and
demersal fish, increased by 20.8% while trawl CPUE declined by 26.8% over the same period (Figure
11) (Gaerlan et al. 2003). In Manila Bay, the high variability of trawl CPUE is attributed to seasonal
catches of small pelagics within trawl nets constructed with large mouth openings.
In western Palawan waters, pelagic resources remain in good condition, with ringnets and purse seines
yielding an average of 42 tons per lunar cycle (~14–16 d/mo) (Ingles 2000). However, in nearby coastal
waters adjacent to Busuanga Island, Palawan, small pelagics seem to have disappeared. In this case,
catch rates of bagnets have dropped from 15 tons/lunar cycle in 1988 to 0.2 tons/lunar cycle in 1998. At
present, the use of bagnets has totally ceased in Coron Bay, Palawan.
In summary, the following generalisations may be drawn from the status and levels of CPUE in the
Philippines portion of the SCS:
1. Commercial fishing continues to observe high CPUE and is profitable for two reasons: (a) the
offshore relocation of the fleet; and (b) the use of aggregating devices. Fishing fleets based in the
SCS area are now fishing further offshore, mostly in lightly exploited western Palawan waters.
Whereas vessels using ringnets and purse seines in nearshore areas employ efficient FADs and
high-intensity artificial lighting on their boats to attract and concentrate large volumes of pelagic
fish. The aggregating devices tend to herd fish into fishable quantities within the zone of action of
the netting gears, thus increasing their vulnerability to capture even in highly depleted coastal
areas.
2. All nearshore fishing grounds, particularly those within embayments, are overfished. These areas
(e.g. coral reefs, shallow soft-bottom areas) are characterised by diminishing catch rates, increased
units of most gears, decreasing sizes of fish, and a reduced number of fish species in the fishery.
Notable exceptions include the waters adjacent to Batanes Islands, Lubang Island, and some
protected areas in west Palawan.
3. In highly exploited and overfished areas such as Manila Bay and Lingayen Gulf, the decline in
demersal resources has led to an abundance of pelagic species triggering a massive shift in fishing
gears and fish catching techniques.
4. There is a need for new measures of fishing effort that reflect actual and effective fishing capacity
and exploitation rates. The use of conventional effort units (e.g. horsepower, gross tonnage) seems
inappropriate due to the use of FADs in fishing.
3.1.2 Status of fish stocks based on historical review of fish landings and CPUE
Generally, CPUE exhibited a gradual increase from 1967 to 1987 (Barut et al. 1997). This trend,
however, may not portray the true state of fisheries, as the calculation of CPUE relied on the
relationship between total yield and total gross tonnage. Boat tonnage is a coarse and perhaps
inappropriate indicator of fishing effort. A separation of the data by habitat/ecosystem type indicates
that, during the same period, CPUE for small pelagic and demersal fish exhibited a decreasing trend
(Figure 12) (Dalzell and Ganaden 1987). The large tuna handline fishery conducted in the southern
waters of the Philippines, whose fleet at one time reached ~ 20,000 units, distorted this general trend.
The entry of highly efficient Danish seines to the fishery may also have influenced this situation. Both of
these gears have very high catch rates using low tonnage boats.
For traditional fishing grounds, including Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, historical CPUE data describe
the various states of the fishery through time. In Lingayen Gulf, the number of boats in the commercial
fishing sub-sector remains very high. From three units of Danish seines operating in 1988 (Silvestre et
al. 1991), the number increased to 42 units in 2002. Similarly, the 23 units of trawlers in 1985 (Mines
1986) increased to 48 units in 2002. It is important to note that observers in 1985 considered Lingayen
Gulf to be overfished. While the combined numbers of commercial boats increased from 1998 to 2002,
total gross tonnage actually decreased (Figure 13). This is possibly a result of an increase in the
number of Danish seiners and a decrease in the number of larger trawlers.
Manila Bay is one of the oldest fishing grounds in the country and its history of fishing could be used to
infer the status of Philippine fisheries in general and the fisheries along the South China Sea in
particular. The historical trend of trawl catch rates in Manila Bay (Figure 10) indicates that the demersal
stock observed in 1993 represents just 10% of the total biomass level of demersal species observed in
1947. However, the CPUE of catches of pelagic fish have recently increased, thus indicating that
pelagic fish now dominate the area’s fish fauna. In addition, a unit of drift gillnet in 1993 landed an
average of 19.1 kg/d whilst a unit of a high bottom-set gillnet averaged 10.4 kg/d, with the catch in the
latter gear type mostly being composed of small pelagic species.
Palawan, which is noted for its pristine waters, is experiencing the same plight. Data in Ingles (2000)
indicates a rapid decrease in CPUE for both small- and large-scale fishing gears in West Palawan.
Reduced catch rates are common in many small-scale, reef-based fishing gear operations. For
instance, catch rates in fisheries supporting the trade of live reef fish, typically groupers and wrasses,
have declined in areas depending on reefs that are highly accessible; sighting surveys in 1998 support
this observation (Ingles 2000). Fisheries have greatly reduced the population densities of groupers,
lobsters, and octopuses on the reefs of Calamianes Islands, Palawan.
3.2 Current and potential threats
3.2.1 Current threats
Legal fishing
The absence of a national policy to regulate effort is one of the main causes of resource depletion. In
practice, fisheries policies and laws are formulated as a reaction to the current fisheries situation
instead of taking into account future needs and trends. Fisheries management as practiced in many
areas of the country is “self regulating”, i.e. if the resource collapses, the fishery simply stops.
120000 700,000
Commercial Effort (GT)
Fisheries Production (MT)

100000 600,000
500,000
80000
400,000
60000
300,000
40000
200,000
20000 GT prodn 100,000
0 0
1967 1972 1977 1982 1987
Year
3.5
3.0 Small Pelagics Demersal
CPUE (MT/hp/y)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985
Year
Figure 12 Total fisheries production (metric tons, MT) and fishing effort (gross tonnage,
GT) (upper panel; from Barut et al. 1997) and catch per unit effort (CPUE) of
small pelagic and demersal fish (lower panel; from Dalzell and Ganaden 1987) in
the Philippines.
2000 100
1600 95
Number of Boats
Total Tonnage
1200 90
800 85
Total tonnage
400 80
Total Number
0 75
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
Figure 13 Total number and gross tonnage of fishing boats in Lingayen Gulf.
Illegal fishing
Destructive fishing methods, particularly in reef areas, are still commonly used. These methods include
the use of toxic chemicals, explosives, and fine mesh nets.
Market forces
The global demand for specific fishery products could drive a fishery to be profitable despite very low
population levels of the target species. High prices for invertebrates (e.g. shrimps, crabs, octopuses,
lobsters) and other key species (live groupers, Napoleon wrasses) in export markets may encourage
fishers to fish out populations, despite low catch rates.
3.2.2 Potential threats
Fisheries development in the Philippines is characterised by the gradual expansion of the fishing
grounds at a pace that is dictated by the rate of resource depletion (Ingles 2000). This is also true for
the Philippine areas facing the South China Sea. At present, both the municipal and commercial fishers
are tending to operate in less fished areas further from the shore, thus catch rates remain constant as
the fleet moves to more productive areas. In this setting, the continuous and perhaps increased
exploitation of fish resources occurs until reaching the open access limit.
Handline fishers, muro-ami operators, and even spear fishers now regularly visit reef patches as far as
the Kalayaan Islands. This practice, if not stopped, would continue until the very last of those few
remaining pristine areas is overexploited.
Pollution
Marine pollution, including marine debris, could be a potential threat to the fisheries of the area. Oil
spills from oil rigs/depots and maritime accidents could result in irreversible ecodisasters with dire
consequences for fisheries production. With oil and gas resources recently discovered in western
Palawan waters, the threat of oil spills may escalate in the future. Similarly, the high intensity of
shipping activities and oil transport may pose similar dangers. The area is indeed a busy sea-lane for
the constant movement of both people and potential pollutants.
Population increase
The current rate of population growth is 2.1%, implying that the Philippine population will double in 23
years. Hence, the number of fishers would proportionately increase. With the current state of fisheries
resources and without any actions aimed at rebuilding depleted stocks, population increases will
exacerbate the current pressure on fisheries resources.
Climate change
Global warming and the impacts of sea-level rise may also affect fisheries. There are studies that
demonstrate how ENSO events influence fisheries. Coral bleaching during the 1998 El Niño episode
has devastated wide coral reef areas on the western side of the country. In El Nido, Palawan, many of
these reefs failed to recover. The effects of coral bleaching on fisheries need to be further studied and
better understood.
Market forces
The globalisation of trade in fisheries products may be advantageous to some fishing sectors but
disadvantageous to others. The reduction of trade barriers is expected to have short-term impacts on
Philippine capture fisheries. Subsidies to fisheries by many developed countries will have a pronounced
impact on the competitiveness of Philippine fisheries products. There is likewise a tendency to the
imposition of non-tariff barriers (e.g. ecolabeling, sanitary and phytosanitary restrictions) upon fisheries
products from developing countries.
4. HABITATS AND AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH

STOCKS
In discussing habitats and areas important in the maintenance of fish stocks, particularly those with
transboundary relevance, it is necessary to examine things on a large, at least basin-wide, scale since
the focus is on species occurring over a wide geographical range and thus subject to large-scale
dispersal mechanisms and other processes. Furthermore, plankton investigations showing spatial egg
and larval distributions typically cover large areas rather than specific localities or habitats. Hence, the
following discussion deals primarily with fishing grounds or basins rather than specific localities and
their habitat characteristics.
In this respect, certain portions of the western Philippine coastline stand out due to coastal topography
and available fisheries information. These include Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, and a group of
islands with high topographic complexity, namely Northern Palawan and the Calamianes Islands
(Figure 14).
4.1 Biophysical profile
Mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs comprise the most productive shallow water habitats in the
marine environment. Besides having their respective resident fauna and flora, they may also serve as
habitats for different life stages (e.g. spawning grounds for adults, nursery grounds for juveniles) of
various fish and invertebrates. As such, the ecological interconnections between these habitats serve a
major role in the productivity of coastal and offshore waters.
2
The overall distribution of coral reefs in the country is shown in Figure 15, covering about 30,000km
(McManus 2002) or about 5% of the world’s coral reefs. This includes the double barrier reef system
north of Bohol (Danajon Reef) and the barrier reef system several kilometers off the west coast of
Palawan in the South China Sea. Other extensive reef areas (not adequately shown in the figure)
include the northern Palawan Shelf, the Surigao Shelf, and the Bicol Shelf. Overall, about 400 coral
species (Licuanan 2000) and over 1000 reef-associated fish species (Hilomen et al. 2000) have been
recorded in the country. Along the western Philippines, coral reefs are most extensive in Palawan,
where reef cover is estimated at about 9,800km2, or about 1/3 of the country’s total reef area (PCSD
2000). The northernmost portion of Palawan (Calamianes Islands) ranks as one of the highest in terms
of hard coral diversity (305 species) in the country (Werner and Allen 2000; Capili et al. 2002. Other
reef areas of high biodiversity significance include the Balabac Strait in Southern Palawan, Southern
Mindoro, portions of Batangas and Zambales coasts, western Lingayen Gulf, northern Batanes,
Scarborough Reef, and the Kalayaan Island Group (CI 2002).
Maps of the overall distribution of mangrove forests and seagrass beds in the country are unavailable,
although maps showing high priority areas in terms of biodiversity conservation are given in Figures
16a and b. At least 50 mangrove and mangrove-associated species have been reported in the country,
although the total cover of mangrove forests has been drastically reduced from about 500,000 ha in
1920 to around 100,000ha in 1997 (Calumpong and Meñez 1997). Much of this is attributed to forest
conversion to fishponds and other shoreline development activities. Along the western Philippines,
priority areas of high biodiversity conservation for mangroves include the entire province of Palawan
and a few remaining stands along the coast of Batangas, southeastern Lingayen Gulf, and on the
northern coast of Cagayan province (Figure 16a).
Batanes
Ilocos
Ilocos
Coast
Lingayen Gulf
Lingayen
Gulf
Subic Bay,
SubicBay
Zambales
Manila
ManilaBay
Bay
Batangas
Mindoro
Coast
Strait
Malampaya
Sound Malampaya
Calamianes
No.Palawan
Islands
KIG
KIG
Northern
Palawan
Figure 14 Map of western Philippines showing locations of main embayments (red squares)
and other coastal areas of transboundary significance in the South China Sea.
KIG–Kalayaan (Spratlys) Islands Group.
Low risk
Moderate risk
High risk
Figure 15 Overall distribution of coral reefs of various risk levels in the Philippines. Areas
along the western coast with highest priority in terms of reef biodiversity and
conservation are indicated by ellipses or squares.
At least 13 species of seagrasses have been recorded in the country (Calumpong and Meñez 1997).
Similar to mangroves, the habitat offered by seagrass beds is more important than the species richness
of the grasses themselves. In both ecosystems, it is the primary producers themselves (i.e. mangroves
and seagrasses) that form and provide the bulk of physical habitat for the diverse faunal and floral (i.e.
seaweeds) assemblages commonly found in them. Primary production in both ecosystems is consumed
primarily through the detritus pathway, which involves several levels of benthic consumers that in turn
serve as (protein-rich) prey for the more mobile and visible invertebrates (e.g. crabs, lobsters, molluscs,
and echinoderms) and fish (Odum 1971; Mann 1982). The natural abundance of small benthic
detritivores, the physical protection provided by the grasses and the mangrove roots/trees, and the
physiological requirements of these shallow water coastal ecosystems make them ideal nursery
grounds for a diversity of marine animals.
4.1.1 Known spawning grounds
Several ichthyoplankton surveys have been conducted in various parts of the country wherein
information regarding spawning grounds is available. However, since larvae are generally only
identifiable to family level, species-specific spawning grounds cannot be identified. Spawning grounds
for tuna (Figure 8) include the west coast of Palawan, Mindoro Strait extending further into the Sulu
Sea, the offshore areas of Manila Bay-Zambales, and the Ilocos coast. Findings that are more recent
consider the Celebes Sea, including Moro Gulf, as the major spawning grounds for tuna, with
subsequent migration through the Sulu Sea via Balabac Strait, Northern Palawan, and Mindoro Strait
(Figure 9). This migration facilitates mixing of tuna stocks from the South China Sea with those from
the Celebes Sea, the major spawning ground.
a) Mangrove b) Seagrass
Priority Priority
Areas Areas
Figure 16 Areas of highest priority for a) mangrove and b) seagrass biodiversity and
conservation along the coast of the western Philippines.
Lingayen
Gulf
Pacific
South
China Ocean
Sea
Mindoro
Strait
Malampaya
Sound
Sulu
Sea
Celebes
Sea
Figure 17 Major areas of intense fish spawning based on Magnusson (1970) and Tan (1970).
Table 14 provides a summary of zooplankton biomass and ichthyoplankton density in various areas
along the western Philippines and adjacent internal waters. Both fish egg and larval density estimates
are highest in Malampaya Sound (Estudillo et al. 1980), a rather deep embayment on the west coast of
northern Palawan (Figure 14). Zooplankton biomass for the same year was likewise high in this area.
Recent estimates of zooplankton density in the Sound (Ingles 2002) also show high values (Table 15).
3
If a zooplankton biomass of 0.01ml/m is considered typical of oceanic waters (Hermes and Villoso
1985), then based solely on plankton densities, Malampaya Sound is likely a spawning ground for
various fish species. Unfortunately, species composition of ichthyoplankton is not reported.
Ordoñez et al. (1975) reported concentration of fish larvae in Mindoro Strait (Figure 17) during their
survey, although reported values were much lower than that recorded in Malampaya Sound (Table 15).
Because larval densities have large differences with those observed in internal waters (Batangas
Coast/Manila Bay), the area was thus considered a spawning ground, especially for Thunnidae,
Carangidae, Serranidae, and Mullidae, which comprised over 75% of the ichthyoplankton in the area.
Specific areas of high larval densities may not necessarily be the area where the spawning actually
took place, but more likely at the downstream portion of the latter due to the displacement by water
currents. Local hydrography (current speed and direction) would then determine the magnitude of the
displaced distance. What is perhaps more relevant is that locations for both spawning (i.e. high egg
concentrations) and settlement (high larval concentrations) are equally important for the survival and
continued reproduction of fish stocks. In the marine environment, both locations are more likely found
within at least a portion of a fishing ground rather than in a single specific habitat within the fishing
ground (e.g. specific reef or seagrass bed).
Table 14 Comparison of zooplankton biomass (ml/m3) and fish egg and larval densities
(ind/100 m3) at locations along the South China Sea side of the Philippines.
Egg Larvae Peak
Location Biomass References
Density Density Density
Chamchang and Chayakul
South China Sea (W. Phil.) - 18.4 11.9 -
(2000)
Lingayen Gulf 0.6 115.4 53.6 Dec–Apr Estudillo (1985)
Malampaya Sound (Inner) 5.1 1126.7 575.0 May–Sep Estudillo et al. (1980)
Malampaya Sound (Outer) 3.6 1081.7 465.2 May–Sep Estudillo et al. (1980)
Mindoro Strait 1.9–26 1.08 28–35 - Ordoñez et al. (1975)
Northern Palawan - - 10-50 - Armada (1997)
Northern Palawan 0.2 41.2 12.3 - Campos (2000)
Batangas Coast/Manila Bay - - 1.2 - Ordoñez et al. (1975)
Sulu Sea 0.03–0.25 - - - Hermes and Villoso (1985)
Visayan Sea 0.86 339.6 67.9 - Campos et al. (2002)
Table 15 Comparison of net primary production (gC/m2/d) and zooplankton density (ind/m3)
in the South China Sea and some coastal areas of the Philippines.
o
Net 1 Zooplankton
Area Production Density Reference
South China Sea (Western Philippines) 0.1–1.53 446–4,683 Furio and Borja (2000)
Relox et al. (2000)
South China Sea (NW Palawan) 0.4–0.5 – San Diego-McGlone et al. (1999)
South China Sea (North of KIG*) 4114±256 Palermo et al. (2003)
Lingayen Gulf 0.5–2.8 1,000–9,000 MERF (2002)
Manila Bay 0.7–3.8 220–6240 MADECOR (1995)
Malampaya Sound (Northern Palawan) – 1,900–10,700 Ingles (2002)

Visayan Sea – 11,700 Campos et al. (2002)
*Kalayaan (Spratlys) Islands Group.
Comparable larval densities have also been recorded in Lingayen Gulf (Estudillo 1985), the SCS
(Chamchang and Chayakul 2000), and Northern Palawan (Armada 1997; Campos 2000) (Table 14). In
Lingayen Gulf, eggs and larvae were concentrated along the coast from the southern central to the
eastern portions of the Gulf. Low ichthyoplankton densities were recorded at the mid-Gulf stations
(Estudillo 1985). Unfortunately, the survey did not include the western Gulf area, which includes much
of the reefs in there. A more recent plankton survey (MERF 2002) reported a hundredfold difference in
zooplankton biomass between the high concentrations in the Western Gulf region extending from
Bolinao to the Hundred Islands Reef system, and the rest of the Gulf. Water circulation in Lingayen Gulf
(Figure 18) is forced by the northward shelf current passing Cape Bolinao, resulting in a wake feature
that forms an eddy across the mouth of the Gulf (Altemerano and Villanoy 2002). Dispersal modeling
showed that most particles (i.e. larvae) released near the Bolinao Reef Flat are entrained in the
headland eddy, favoring settlement and recruitment along the western Gulf region. Therefore, it is more
likely that the latter region is a major spawning ground for reef and other fish within Lingayen Gulf.
In the SCS, highest egg concentrations were recorded at about 100nm off the coasts of Ilocos
southward to Zambales, whereas the highest larval densities occurred further south and in internal
waters of Mindoro and Northern Palawan (Chamchang and Chayakul 2000). The latter is consistent
with the results of Ordonez et al. (1975). The dominant fish groups in more recent surveys include the
gobiids, carangids, and apogonids, which were found closer inshore, whereas the scombrids and
thunnids were found further offshore (Chamchang and Chayakul 2000).
In northern Palawan, spawning and settlement grounds are likely further inshore, particularly within the
numerous embayments and indentations along the coast (Campos 2000). The major pelagic groups in
the area include the carangids, clupeids, scombrids, and engraulids, whereas the most common
epibenthic groups are the gobiids, mugilids, and the reef-associated haemulids, monacanthids, and
lutjanids. Collectively, these groups comprised about 65% of the larval assemblage in the area (Floro
2003).
From the foregoing discussion and based on available data from plankton surveys, three major
spawning areas are identifiable: (a) the western portion of Lingayen Gulf; (b) Mindoro Strait; and (c)
Northern Palawan including the Calamianes Islands. While it is believed that Scarborough Shoal and
the Kalayaan Island Group (KIG) are major sources of propagules for the country’s archipelagic waters
(and fishing grounds), comparable information (e.g. plankton) useful for more definitive examination are
lacking.
4.1.2 Known nursery areas and feeding grounds
There is a paucity of available information regarding the potential productivity of waters along the
western Philippines. Investigations in 1998 show that the area south of Subic Bay extending to waters
west of northern Palawan has higher phytoplankton biomass, as indexed by chlorophyll α
concentrations, than waters further north (Bajarias 2000; Furio and Borja 2000). Relatively high
concentrations of chlorophyll α have also been reported for the shelf, shoal, and oceanic areas west of
northern Palawan (San Diego-McGlone et al. 1999). An overall distribution of chlorophyll α,
zooplankton, and small pelagic fish abundance indicators is shown in Figure 19. High zooplankton
biomass is also closely associated with areas of high chlorophyll α concentrations (Relox et al. 2000).
Purse seine fishing experiments conducted in the vicinity in 1998 showed that catch rates for small
pelagic fish, primarily Decapterus spp., were at least tenfold higher just off the Bataan Peninsula than in
other coastal areas further north or south (Pastoral et al. 2000), thus showing a good spatial
correspondence with the concentrations of phytoplankton and zooplankton.
High fish biomass is normally supported by high primary and secondary plankton production. From the
information presented above, it can also be inferred that, within the SCS sub-region, high fish
abundance is in close spatial correspondence with both high zoo- and phytoplankton biomass. Hence, it
follows that higher concentrations of nutrients are required to sustain the primary and secondary
production, which in turn supports the fisheries production capacities, in coastal embayments. A
comparison of net primary production and zooplankton concentrations in the SCS area (Table 15)
highlights the large difference. This implies that if early developmental stages (e.g. larvae) of coastal
stocks were to benefit from areas that provide natural protection from open water predation, and from
those where productivity adequately supports high consumption and rapid growth rates, Lingayen Gulf
and Manila Bay would likely serve as important nursery grounds.
The prevalence of juveniles in trawl catches in Lingayen Gulf (MERF 2002) and Manila Bay (Armada
1995) is a clear indication that both areas serve as nursing and feeding grounds for many coastal
stocks, including those of transboundary significance. Definitely, for some species, these areas would
be important spawning grounds as well, although for migratory species such as tuna and other large
pelagics, their dependence on such areas for spawning is uncertain.
17
16.75
16.5
Cape
16.25 Bolinao
Bolinao
Reef Flat
Hundred
Islands
16
119.5 119.75 120 120.25 120.5
Figure 18 Water circulation in Lingayen Gulf showing eddy formation at the mouth and
entrainment within the western portion of the Gulf (Altemerano and Villanoy 2002).
Figure 19 General distribution of chlorophyll α (green: concentration increases with

darkness), high zooplankton concentrations (blue), and highest catch rates for
small pelagics (red) in western Philippines during April–May 1998.
4.1.3 Known fishing grounds
Figure 20 shows the major areas where soft-bottom demersal fishing (e.g. trawling) has traditionally
been conducted, along with areas where primarily hard-bottom (reef) demersal fisheries normally
operate (Simpson 1979). Trawl fishing is concentrated around the two major embayments, with
activities in northern and northwestern Palawan restricted to the trawlable portions. Reef fishing only
covers a limited area along the Luzon coast.
In contrast, traditional fishing grounds for pelagic species, particularly small pelagics, cover almost the
entire coastline from Ilocos to Batangas, including Verde Island Pass, Lingayen Gulf, and Manila Bay,
and further south into Palawan (Simpson 1979). The major fishing grounds for round scads based on
landing statistics are located mostly in interisland waters (Figure 21), with the exception of waters
around northern Palawan, the coast of Batangas, and in Manila Bay. For small pelagics as a whole, the
major fishing grounds along the western Philippines include western Palawan and the waters around
Manila Bay (Figure 22). In contrast, the most productive tuna fishing grounds are located in the
southern portion of the country (Figure 23), except the coast of Batangas.
In the open waters of the SCS, there is meager information on the spatial distribution of fish catch rates.
From historical accounts, however, there have been numerous reports of foreign vessels fishing in the
area of Scarborough Shoal, a disputed area about 150nm west of Zambales (Thomas 1999). The
structure of shoals, including reef habitats that provide shelter and prey for a variety of fish species and
shallow areas that permit benthic primary production to enhance the carrying capacity of the immediate
environment, makes them attractive fishing grounds. Also, the topography in and around shoal areas
increases the potential for physical entrainment features, which tend to concentrate plankton. Thus, it is
theoretically valid to claim that Scarborough Shoal may serve as a source of eggs and larvae of fish
and invertebrate stocks along the coast, although there have been no systematic investigations on this
matter.
4.2 Unknown issues such as stocks with undefined spawning grounds
There is scarce information about the spawning grounds for elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) and
invertebrate groups. In general, elasmobranchs either deposit benthic egg cases or carry their eggs.
They have very low fecundity so that protection of their spawning and nursing grounds is necessary to
prevent further depletion of their stocks. Little is known about elasmobranchs in the country, even along
the SCS coast, maybe due to the absence of a directed fishery for them. Elasmobranchs are still
considered as bycatch in fisheries, and the practice of discarding much of the bycatch at sea, except for
shark fins, hampers taxonomic identification and measurement of catch.
In the case of invertebrates, there is more information on crustaceans (shrimp and crabs), although
most are from the interisland waters. Similar to fish, many invertebrates are broadcast spawners with
planktonic early life stages. Thus, their propagules are also subject to dispersal by currents. However,
for the less motile invertebrates, such as sea urchins, sea cucumbers, gastropods, and bivalves, it is
likely that their stocks are dependent on recruitment from local spawners. This is one of the reasons
why developing culture, larval rearing, and reseeding techniques remain a viable option for managing
such stocks. Larval rearing techniques have been developed for species of giant clams, some bivalves,
and the sea urchin Tripneustes gratila, while the procedures for sea cucumber are still being refined.
Cephalopods, except for Sepioteuthis lessoniana, are lesser studied due to an excessive interest in
fish. Even in scientific surveys, most cephalopod species are often unidentified and simply lumped
together as squid, octopus, or cuttlefish. There is some data for oceanic squids Tysanoteuthis rhombus
and Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis from exploratory fishing cruises in the SCS (Dickson et al. 2000;
Siriraksophon et al. 2000).
4.3 Current and potential threats
Threats to the habitats of fishing grounds are summarised in Tables 16 to 19. Lingayen Gulf and
Manila Bay are bordered by high population centres, although there are fewer industrial operations
around Lingayen Gulf. Since both have extensive shallow areas (reef flats and mudbanks in Lingayen
Gulf, but mostly mudbanks in Manila Bay), they are vulnerable to global increases in temperature and
the consequent rise in the sea level. This is especially true for the coral reef habitats of Lingayen Gulf.
Both Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay are considered overexploited (Armada 1994; MERF 2002) to a
point where drastic shifts in the species composition of faunal assemblages have occurred (Armada
1999). Similarly, fisheries in Malampaya Sound have also shown signs of overfishing (Ingles 2002). The
latter, together with Calamianes Islands (also located in Palawan) is known to be some of the remaining
pristine natural marine habitat in the Philippines. Aside from its high biodiversity and endemicity, the
Sound is also a refuge for endangered species, including the dugong and the Irrawady dolphin (Ingles
2002). Unfortunately, even these supposedly pristine areas have exhibited declines in fish catches, an
indication of overfishing (Werner and Allen 2000). Hence, the greatest immediate threat in northern
Palawan is the lack of proper fisheries/habitat management. In the densely populated waters of
Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay, the immediate threats are numerous and the persistent problem has
been inadequate management of marine resources. The coast of Mindoro facing the Mindoro Strait is
economically underdeveloped due to its exposure to rough (sea and land) conditions. As such, many of
the perceived threats associated with human activities in this area would be of much lesser magnitude,
although the downstream effects of logging and mining are likely considerable.
4.4 Ranking of habitats
4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security
In terms of total fisheries production and fishing effort, both Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay would rank
high, since proper resource management is most needed in both areas. More people are, and will
remain, dependent on fisheries production in both areas. Hence, there is a greater need for sustainable
use in light of an ever-increasing human population. Northern Palawan and Mindoro Strait are not as
heavily populated, although the former is already heavily fished. The areas with greatest need and
priority remain to be both Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay.
Figure 20 Distribution of soft-bottom (trawlable: blue) and hard-bottom (reef: red) fishing
grounds along the country’s South China Sea coast (Simpson 1979).
South Pacific
China Ocean
Sea
Sulu
Sea
Celebes
Sea
Figure 21 Most important fishing grounds for round scads from 1956 to 1970 based on
Ronquillo (1975) and PCAMRD (1993).
Table 16 Present and future threats to Manila Bay based on information from MADECOR
(1995) and Armada (1999).
Future Future
Threats Present Threats Present
(next 10 y) (next 10 y)
Destructive harvest Global changes
Bottom trawl 3 3 Thermal 3
Use of Explosives 3 3 Sea level rise 3
Plant/animal removal 3 3 Coastal development
Pollution Land fill 3 3
Sediment 3 3 Dredging 3 3
Heavy metals 3 3 Coastal erosion 3 3
Oil 3 3 Upland development
Organic pollutants 3 3 Changing discharge/runoff 3 3
Eutrophication 3 3
Salinity change 3 3
Pesticides 3 3
Natural disasters
Storms 3 3
Flood 3 3
Drought 3 3
Land subsidence 3 3
Table 17 Present and future threats to Lingayen Gulf based on information from various
references including McManus et al. (1992), UPMSI (1999), and MERF (2002).
Future Future
Pollution Land fill 3
Sediment 3 3 Dredging 3 3
Organic pollutants 3 3 Coastal erosion 3 3
Eutrophication 3 3 Upland development
Salinity change 3 3 Changing 3 3
discharge/runoff
Natural disasters
Storms 3 3
Flood 3 3
Drought 3 3
Land subsidence 3 3
Table 18 Present and future threats to Northern Palawan (including Calamianes Islands)
based on Estudillo et al. (1980), Werner and Allen (2000), and Ingles (2002).
Future Future
Threats Present (next 10 y) Threats Present (next 10 y)
Pollution Tourism 3
Sediment 3 3 Coastal erosion 3
Natural disasters Upland development
Storms 3 3 Changing discharge/runoff 3
Table 19 Present and future threats to Mindoro Strait.
Future Future
Use of Explosives 3 3 Thermal 3
Plant/animal removal 3 3 Sea level rise 3
Pollution Coastal development
Sediment 3 3 Coastal erosion 3
Oil (from collisions) 3 3 Upland development
Natural disasters Changing discharge/runoff 3
Storms 3 3
4.4.2 Association with high-value species
Both Lingayen Gulf and Manila Bay show clear signs of ecosystem overfishing (Pauly et al. 1989), as
shown by the prevalence of fast growing, small, omnivorous, and low-valued fish such as herring and
anchovies, and invertebrates such as shrimps and squids (Armada 1999). This is attributed to the loss
of large predatory (high-valued) fish (e.g. lutjanids, haemulids, serranids, flatfish, etc.) from the fish
community, thus allowing the fast-growing omnivorous prey species to dominate in abundance.
In contrast, such high-valued fish are still common in northern Palawan (Werner and Allen 2000),
although the live fish trade (for juvenile groupers especially) will likely take its toll if allowed to continue
unabated. Overall, because of less human activities, habitat conditions are healthier and more pristine
in northern Palawan than in most other areas in the country. It is likely that the production capacity of
the area, including high-valued species, is still high and may be sustained if managed properly.
Mindoro Strait is relatively deep with very narrow shelves on either side of the Strait. Its natural
productivity is likely to be influenced more by hydrographic processes (e.g. convergence of water
masses) than by the shallow water features (reefs, coastal indentions, seagrass beds, mangroves, etc.)
and processes (interconnections between habitats), which are rather more important in northern
Palawan. Thus, the Strait has a more physically driven environment where the limits to productivity are
natural and generally beyond the scope of management interventions.
4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, or threatened species
Due to less disturbed conditions, northern Palawan is among the very few areas in the country where
rare and uncommon species can still be found. The high scleractinian coral diversity in the Calamianes
Islands (Capili et al. 2002) reflects such conditions. The area is also considered as one of the eight
important marine corridors, which serve to maintain the marine biodiversity in the Philippines (Ong and
Ibuna 2000). Together with Mindoro Strait, the Mindoro-Calamianes Corridor allows the free movement
of stocks, propagules, and ultimately genetic materials between the SCS and the Sulu Sea and nearby
internal waters (Figure 24) (Endriga 2003). Faunal affinities (Juinio-Meñez et al. 2003) and similarities
in fish species composition (Dantis et al. 1999) have been found between the two areas. In addition, the
corridor also serves as a connection between the Kalayaan Island Group and the Tubbataha Reef
System, both of which are believed to be major sources of fish and invertebrate larvae for the country’s
internal waters (McManus 1994; Dantis et al. 1999). It has been suggested that Palawan likewise
serves as an important source of propagules for the SCS (DENR 1997). Thus, whether as corridor or
source, the northern Palawan area is of special interest from both conservation and management
standpoints.
5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME
This part discusses the basic instruments and support mechanisms for managing marine habitats and
populations. It deals with legal instruments, e.g. national laws that also serve as the basis for local
ordinances and for the country’s commitment to international agreements, and institutional
arrangements in support of fisheries or coastal resources management initiatives, including the roles of
various government agencies, research and academic institutions, and the local government units in
monitoring, control, and enforcement. This section also examines patterns of resource ownership, the
capacity of human resources and institutions to perform research, monitoring, control, and surveillance,
as well as the role of management bodies and stakeholders in managing fisheries and coastal
resources.
5.1 Legal instruments
A number of legal instruments form the basis for managing the country’s fish stocks and marine
habitats. National laws define the limits and management responsibilities for the use of fishery
resources. These laws are mirrored through fishery ordinances at the local level.
Various aspects of fish stock, marine habitat, and coastal resources management are articulated in the
1987 Constitution of the Philippines, the Local Government Code of 1991 (Republic Act 7160), the
Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 (RA 8435), and the Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA
8550).
Pacific
South
Ocean
China
Sea
Sulu
Sea
Celebes
Sea
Figure 23 Top 10 tuna fishing grounds in the country with mean annual landings >30,000 MT
from 1983 to 1987 (PCAMRD 1993).
SOUTH
CHINA
SEA
SULU
SEA
Figure 24 Predominant sea surface currents (broken arrows; from Juinio-Menez et al. 2003)
and inferred direction of mixing (red arrows) of stocks of fish and invertebrates in
the southeastern SCS area of western Philippines (Endriga 2003).
The Philippine Constitution articulates general principles for the management and use of all natural
resources in the Philippines. In the case of fish stocks, aquatic habitats, and coastal resources, the
following are the pertinent provisions:
• The State shall protect and promote the right to health of the people; the State shall protect and
advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm
and harmony of nature.
• The exploration, development, and utilization of natural resources shall be under the full control
and supervision of the State. The State shall protect the nation’s marine wealth, and exclusive
economic zone, and reserve its use and enjoyment exclusively to Filipino citizens.
• The state shall protect the rights of subsistence fishers, especially of local communities, to the
preferential use of the communal marine and fishing resources, both inland and offshore. It
shall provide support to such fishers through appropriate technology and research and other
services.
• The right of the people and their organisations to effective and reasonable participation at all
levels or social, political, and economic decision-making shall not be abridged.
The Local Government Code forms the basis for transferring (devolving) national level responsibilities
to local government units (LGUs). It places the responsibility for the development and delivery of basic
services with LGUs. In managing fish stocks and coastal habitats, it incorporates the following:
• Management of fishery resources within the 15-km limit of the coastal waters.
• Enhancement of the right of the people to a balanced ecology.
• Provision of extension and on-site research services and facilities related to agriculture and
fishery activities.
• Provision of solid waste disposal system or environmental management system and services
and facilities related to general hygiene and sanitation.
• Enforcement of forestry laws limited to community-based projects, pollution control law, small
mining law, and other laws on the protection of the environment.
• Enactment and enforcement of necessary fishery ordinances and other regulatory measures in
coordination with non-governmental organisations and people’s organisations in the
community.
• Forging of joint ventures to facilitate the delivery of certain basic services, capability-building,
and livelihood development.
• Cooperative undertakings among LGUs for purposes commonly beneficial to them.
• Share in the Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA) to enable them to provide the basic services and
perform fundamental functions (including fisheries management) at their level.
The Fisheries Code provides the basis for the development, management, and conservation of the
country’s fisheries and aquatic resources. It is essentially a consolidation of previous fishery laws and
an update of existing laws related to fisheries at the time of its enactment. Pertinent provisions cover
various aspects of fisheries, exploitation of fish resources, and their management, namely:
• Enactment of appropriate fishery ordinances in accordance with the national fisheries policy.
• Enforcement of all fishery laws, rules and regulations as well as valid fishery ordinances
enacted by the municipal council.
• Integration of the management of contiguous fishery resources/areas, which must be treated as
a single resource system.
• Granting of fishing permits and privileges to duly registered fisherfolk organizations/
cooperatives.
• Ensuring that the municipal waters are utilised by municipal fisherfolk or
organisation/cooperatives except when an appropriate fishery ordinance is enacted to allow
commercial fishing within the municipal waters.
• Maintenance of a registry of municipal fisherfolk for monitoring fishing activities and for other
related purposes.
• Issuance of permits to municipal fisherfolk and organisations/cooperatives that will be engaged
in fish farming, seaweed farming, etc.
• Granting of demarcated fishery rights to fishery organisations/cooperatives for mariculture
operation.
• Provision of support to municipal fisherfolk through appropriate technology research, credit,
production, and marketing assistance and other services.
• Provision of support for the creation of the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management
Councils (FARMCs) at national, regional and local levels.
The major concern of the Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act is not just to modernise
agriculture and fisheries. It also aims to serve as a framework for a sustained increase in the production
of goods and services and for a more equitable distribution of opportunities, income, and wealth. Its
provisions intend to attain the following:
• Modernise the agriculture and fisheries sectors by transforming them from a resource-based to
a technology-based industry.
• Enhance profits and incomes in the agriculture and fisheries sectors, particularly the small
farmers and fisherfolk, by ensuring equitable access to assets, resources, and services, and
promoting higher-value crops, value-added processing, agribusiness activities, and agro-
industrialisation.
• Ensure the accessibility, availability, and stable supply of food to all at all times.
• Encourage horizontal and vertical integration, consolidation, and expansion of agriculture and
fisheries activities, groups, functions, and other services through the organisation of
cooperatives, farmers’ and fisherfolks’ associations, corporations, nucleus estates, and
consolidated farms, and to enable these entities to benefit from economies of scale, afford
them a stronger negotiating position, pursue more focused, efficient, and appropriate research
and development efforts, and enable them to hire professional managers.
• Promote people empowerment by strengthening people’s organisations, cooperatives, and
NGOs, and by establishing and improving mechanisms and processes for their participation in
government decision-making and implementation.
• Pursue a market-driven approach to enhance the comparative advantage of our agriculture and
fisheries sectors in the world market.
• Induce the agriculture and fisheries sectors to ascend continuously the value-added ladder by
subjecting their traditional or new products to further processing in order to minimise the
marketing of raw, unfinished, or unprocessed products.
• Adopt policies that will promote industry dispersal and rural industrialisation by providing
incentives to local and foreign investors to establish industries that have backyard linkages to
the country’s agriculture and fisheries resource base.
• Provide social and economic adjustment measures that increase productivity and improve
market efficiency while ensuring the protection and preservation of the environment and equity
for small farmers and fisherfolk.
• Improve the quality of life of all sectors.
The Philippines, together with Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand,
and Viet Nam, forms the working group that is drafting guidelines so that the provisions of the Code of
Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF) will be implemented at the regional level. This is realised
through coordination with the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC). As an active
participant in the regionalisation of the CCRF, the Philippines also acts to ensure that provisions of the
Code of Conduct are incorporated into policies that guide fish stock utilisation and management in the
Philippines.
5.2 Institutional arrangements (research, monitoring, control, and enforcement)
Various national government agencies are concerned, directly or indirectly, with fisheries utilisation and
management. These include the following:
1. The Department of Agriculture (DA) is responsible for the promotion of agricultural development
and growth through increased productivity. Among the primary objectives of the DA is to increase
the real incomes of farmers and fisherfolk. The following agencies under the DA are concerned with
fisheries, fish utilisation, management, and other support services:
• Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). It recommends plans, programs, policies,
rules, and regulations on matters related to fisheries and marine resources, and provides
technical assistance in the implementation of these policies;
• National Agricultural and Fishery Council (NAFC). It acts as an advisory body to the DA and
serves as a forum for continuing consultative discussions within the agricultural and fishery
sectors. NAFC is the DA's main agency in charge of coordinating private sector participation in
the development of agricultural and fisheries sectors. It builds partnerships between the
government and the private sector, as well as between the DA and LGUs.
• Philippine Fisheries Development Authority (PFDA). It promotes growth of the fishing industry
and improves efficiency in the handling, preserving, marketing, and distribution of fish and
fishery products through the establishment of fish ports, fish markets, and other infrastructures
necessary for the progressive advancement of the fishing industry. It has joint management
agreement with coastal LGUs for the management of municipal fish ports.
2. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) promotes the well-being of
Filipinos through the sustainable development of forest and marine resources, optimal utilization of
land and minerals, and effective environmental management. The DENR also has several agencies
under it that are directly or indirectly concerned with the management of marine habitats.
3. Agencies involved in research and scientific coordination work include the Department of Science
and Technology – Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Resources Development (DOST–
PCAMRD), a policy-formulating and coordinating body for aquatic and marine science and
technology development; the DA – Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR), the main coordinating
body for all research conducted by the DA; and the DENR – Ecosystem Research and
Development Bureau (ERDB), which is DENR’s research coordinating unit. There are likewise
academic institutions that focus their scientific work on fish and aquatic organisms, including the
various institutes under the College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences (CFOS); the Marine Science
Institute (MSI) of the University of the Philippine System (UPS); the Marine Laboratory of Siliman
University; the Marine Biology Department of San Carlos University; and various fisheries colleges
and departments of other state universities.
4. Other national government agencies concerned with the enforcement of fishery and environment
laws include the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG); the Maritime Group of the
Philippine National Police (PNP); the Department of Tourism (DOT)’ the Department of National
Defense (DND); the Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC); and the Philippine
Coast Guard (PCG).
5. Other national government agencies mandated to coordinate national activities include the National
Economic Development Authority (NEDA), which coordinates various social and economic plans,
policies, programs, and projects on national and sectoral levels, and the Department of Foreign
Affairs (DFA), which heads the Cabinet Committee on Marine Affairs and addresses the various
concerns regarding the implementation of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS).
6. The Congress of the Philippines, particularly the Committees on Agriculture, Ecology, and Natural
Resources of the House of Representatives, and the Committees on Environment, Agriculture, and
Food of the Senate.
7. The Local Government Units, which by virtue of the devolution of the responsibilities of the national
government under the Local Government Code of 1991, had been given the exclusive authority to
grant fishery privileges in municipal waters and the responsibility to manage its fish stocks and
aquatic resources.
Although it appears that there are many agencies involved, directly and indirectly, in the management
of fisheries resources, the immediate burden still lies with the local government or the municipality. The
municipality, however, cannot conduct research and monitoring concerning the management of fish and
invertebrate resources. This activity is usually performed in collaboration with BFAR, DENR, DOST,
and various research and academic institutions in the form of projects usually funded by international
agencies or in the form of loan. A number of similar initiatives are also being conducted in collaboration
with non-governmental organisations (NGOs). For the gathering and monitoring of baseline data by
these institutions or organisations, an institutional capability-building component is usually included to
ensure the continuation of activities even beyond the life of the project.
In some initiatives, support for the development of a legal basis for the management of coastal and
aquatic resources is also given. The products are municipal ordinances governing the proper utilisation
of resources or, in most cases, a codified set of fisheries ordinances covering all aspects of utilisation
and management of fish and other aquatic resources.
The municipality also carries the burden of enforcing fishery laws. In most cases, a composite team of
civilian volunteers, police, and military personnel is formed to conducts sea patrols and apprehend
violators of fishery laws or, at least, deter illegal fishing activities. Many of these sea patrols, locally
called bantay dagat, were created with external help from NGOs and other institutions, as part of
project interventions. Members of the composite team also receive training in enforcement procedures,
such as proper boarding, collection, and evidence preservation.
Municipalities sharing a common resource system, like bays and gulfs, unite and form an Integrated
FARMC. Initiatives among these municipalities are harmonised to achieve proper utilisation of the
common resource system. The Municipal Fisheries Ordinances (MFO) of participating municipalities
are also harmonised and coastal resources management plans are coordinated by a governing body or
council. Although municipal authorities manage their respective sea patrols, attempts are also made to
coordinate enforcement of fishery laws.
5.3 Overview of patterns of resource ownership and traditional utilization
Traditionally, the Philippines has had open access fisheries. Fishing of all forms used to be allowed in
all waters of the archipelago, ultimately leading to the overfishing of all accessible fishing grounds and
major fish stocks of the country. This prompted the government to rethink its policies, resulting in a
gradual shift in recent years to a limited access regime. Initial attempts to limit access to fisheries
included a ban on the operation of commercial fishing boats (more than 3 GT) in waters 7 fathoms deep
or shallower, or within 7 km from the coastline. This ban was later extended to within 15 km of the
coastline, which is considered as municipal waters.
Limiting access to fisheries is also integrated with the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs).
MPAs take the form of fish sanctuaries, marine reserves, marine parks, or mangrove reserves as no-
take zones, regulated-use zones, or both. The establishment of MPAs is embodied in the Fisheries
Code, usually implemented through community-based organisations. Another innovative endeavor by
NGOs to limit access to fisheries involves the use of community property rights (CPR), which is seen as
a viable option for coastal resources management that will benefit the most marginalised fisherfolk.
CPR makes the community a part of the decision-making process in the design and implementation of
coastal resources management activities.
5.4 Human and institutional capacities
The Philippines is a recipient of various grants and loans intended for the development of the fisheries
sector. A large portion of these grants and loans was allotted to human and institutional development.
Major banks and donor agencies include, among others, the World Bank (WB), Asian Development
Bank (ADB), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), German Agency for Technical
Cooperation (GTZ), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), and Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA). Through these and other foreign donor institutions, the country’s human
resources and institutions in fisheries research and development are strengthened.
A major recipient is the BFAR and its personnel. Many research and extension personnel of BFAR are
recipient of scholarships and grants both locally and abroad in connection with the performance of their
duties. This includes graduate studies, training, and exchange visits in fields including capture fisheries,
aquaculture, and fish processing. Loans and grants are also used to develop the research and other
scientific capabilities of educational institutions, primarily colleges, institutes, and departments of state
universities and private universities that are mandated to promote fisheries and marine science through
instruction, research, and extension. Institutions were also developed and strengthened through
financial support for infrastructures and equipment.
The implementation of a number of projects, funded through either grants or loans, has gradually
developed the capacity of human resources and institutions to manage fish stocks, aquatic habitats,
and coastal resources. Although these projects were site-specific, experiences from them served a
basis for replication in other areas of the country and even as model for other developing countries.
Normally these projects were implemented by various government agencies in partnership with local
and international NGOs, people’s organisations (POs), the academe, LGUs, and the community.
Projects conducted in coastal areas of the Philippines’ side of the SCS include:
• Fisheries Sector Program (FSP): 1990 to 1995. The program was implemented by DA through
BFAR and had several components: fishery resource and ecological assessment (REA), coastal
resources management, income diversification, research and extension, law enforcement, credit,
and infrastructure. Manila Bay was the only SCS site included in the project. At various levels of
success, the program was able to encouraged LGUs to adopt Coastal Resources Management
(CRM) planning as a basic tool for resource management. Results of REA conducted on selected
priority bays provided the scientific basis for the formulation of baywide management plans. FSP
also claimed to have developed a high level of awareness and knowledge about the resources
among stakeholders and enabled them to actively participate in resource management activities.
• Coastal Environment Program (CEP): 1993 to onwards. This environment program of DENR aims
to institutionalise CRM in organisational structures based on the principles of sustainable
development, biodiversity, and resource sharing. It also aims to strengthen the link between upland
and coastal ecosystems under a watershed-based management approach. CEP is being
implemented throughout the country through DENR’s regional and provincial activities. It is relying
on sharing with other stakeholders, especially communities and LGUs, the responsibility to manage
natural resources. It also works through a decentralised structure at the local level.
• Fisheries Resource Management Project (FRMP): 1998 to 2003. This is the continuation of the
FSP, with three components: fisheries resource management, income diversification, and capacity
building. The management component was designed to strengthen fisheries regulation, rationalise
the utilisation of fisheries resources, and rehabilitate damaged habitats. The income diversification
component promotes income diversification for municipal fisherfolk by organising self-reliant
community groups, promoting micro enterprises, and supporting mariculture development. The
capacity building component aims to strengthen, in the long term, the capacity of agencies for
fisheries resource management at the national, regional, and local levels.
• Marine Science and Resource Development: 1985 to 1995. This UNDP-funded project
implemented by the UPMSI was designed to advance marine science in the Philippines, to link
marine science research and development programs with the end-users of information and
technology, to upgrade the capability of the UPMSI to conduct basic and applied research and
instruction at the graduate level, and to develop and promote new technologies or the adaptation of
existing ones for the effective utilisation, management, and conservation of the marine resources.
In addition, there are a number of fisheries and coastal resource management initiatives undertaken by
local and international NGOs and the academe, together with POs, LGUs, and the community, that
focus on common property rights, MPAs, participatory resource assessment and management,
integrated habitat management, and livelihood diversification.
5.5 Review of stakeholders
Municipal and commercial fishers, defined in Section 1.2 above, represent stakeholders in the
Philippines’ capture fisheries. Municipal fishers are equivalent to the small-scale or sustenance fishers
of other countries, whose primary motivation in fishing is subsistence. The commercial fishers, on the
other hand, operate larger fishing boats mostly for profits. Fishers may be temporarily employed in the
commercial sector while they are usually owners and operators in the municipal sector.
Fishing and farming are the dominant sources of livelihood in most Philippine fishing communities along
the SCS coast. On small islands, fishing usually dominates, although there are cases where fishing and
farming activities are not well differentiated. Farming is the major occupation during the wet season, but
gradually shifts to fishing leading up and during the dry season. Manufacturing and other industries also
provide employment opportunities in coastal communities, especially those located in or near urban
centers. Ecotourism and outdoor recreation is also becoming another source of livelihood. Other
sources of livelihood are aquaculture, fish handling and processing, fish distribution and marketing, boat
construction and maintenance, gear construction and repair, salt making, as well as quarrying of corals
and sand.
The Local Government Code, aside from defining the basic mandates of the LGUs, also increased the
financial resources available to them through Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA) shares, which are
proportionate to their contribution to the national coffers. In addition, it recognises the need for civil
society involvement in local governance by allocating certain seats for direct people’s participation in
local policy and planning bodies, such as the local development councils and the local legislative
bodies. It also emphasises the role of LGUs in sharing with the national government the responsibility of
protecting the ecological balance of natural environments within their jurisdictions.
The implementation of resource management activities follows a holistic approach. Although some
services and many of responsibilities were already devolved to the local government, the management
of resources takes a broader perspective. It recognises the interrelationships and interdependencies of
the physical, biological, sociocultural, economic, legal, and institutional factors affecting the entire
ecosystem. Coastal communities, government agencies, LGUs, NGOs, POs, FARMCs, and other civic
organisations play important, intertwining roles. Although management is implemented at the lowest
LGU level, policies and the underlying framework cover a larger ecosystem (bay, gulf, or sea).
Some of the policies relevant to fisheries management include:
• Decentralisation of the management of nearshore fisheries resources to municipalities and local
fishing communities.
• Strengthening of fisheries law enforcement by organising municipal-based inter-agency law
enforcement teams composed of representatives from fisherfolk association, NGOs, LGUs,
Philippine Maritime Police (PMP), PCG, BFAR, DENR, the private sector, and other concerned
agencies or institutions.
• Promotion of community-based initiatives to rehabilitate, conserve, and protect the coastal
resources.
• Diversification of the source of income of fisherfolk toward other income opportunities.
• Expansion of extension services to form closer linkages between and among the fisherfolk,
research institutes, and other beneficiaries.
Embodied in the Fisheries Code is the creation of the FARMCs at the national and local levels. This
recognises the need to coordinate resource management activities at various levels and to ensure the
participation of LGUs, coastal communities, government agencies, NGOs, and POs in the management
of coastal resources. Three levels were established: national (NFARMC), municipality/city
(MFARMC/CFARMC), and integrated (IFARMC).
Most municipalities bounding the South China Sea have established their MFARMCs because the law
mandates it. Some were organised through the assistance of NGOs, but mostly through the regular
program of BFAR in its respective regional units. Each BFAR regional unit has a FARMC coordinator
whose main task during the past few years was to help each municipality or city establish their
respective FARMCs.
Many municipalities also formed smaller units of FARMCs at the barangay level (BFARMCs). Though
not mandated by the Fisheries Code, the formation of BFARMCs is being encouraged to institute
fisheries resource management initiatives at the community level. This also facilitates the replication of
efforts by the MFARMC at the community level. Also, since many management initiatives, such as the
establishment of MPAs, take place at the community level, the creation of BFARMCs reinforces
initiatives concerning the implementation of MPA management plans and enforcement of agreed rules
regarding resource utilisation. BFARMC can also be an effective partner in fishery law enforcement.
Although sea patrols are based in the municipality, BFARMCs can act as community lookouts for illegal
fishing activities.
Many fisheries and aquatic resource management schemes in the coastal areas along the SCS coast
were initiated independent of the creation of FARMCs and were started even before the
institutionalisation of the various levels of FARMCs. These initiatives range in scope, from large-area
coastal management interventions involving stakeholders of an entire body of water to concerted
fisheries management activities of a fishers organisation.
On a larger scale, Lingayen Gulf became the subject of an integrated coastal resources management
initiative through the participation of the Philippines in the ASEAN-USAID Coastal Resources
Management Project (1986 to 1988). The then six member-nations of the Association of South East
Asian Nations (ASEAN) each piloted a Coastal Resource Management Project (CRMP) in a selected
site in each country (Scura et al. 1992) and Lingayen Gulf was chosen for the Philippines. This led to
the creation of the Lingayen Gulf Coastal Area Management Commission (LGCAMC), a coordinating
body for the integrated management of the coastal resources of the gulf.
On a smaller scale, the municipalities of Mabini and Tingloy, Batangas formed the MaTinCADC
(Mabini-Tingloy Coastal Area Development Council) (White and Meneses 2003). Prior to this, a
chronology of interventions by various government and non-government institutions had taken place.
This included the establishment of marine sanctuaries, conservation projects, CRM activities, coral reef
monitoring, and ecotourism.
Several coral reef areas were declared as marine parks, marine reserves, marine sanctuaries, or fish
sanctuaries. These include marine sanctuaries declared through a municipal ordinance in Mabini,
Batangas (White and Meneses 2003); a biosphere reserve managed by the Philippine Tourism
Authority in Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro (Rañola et al. 2003); a marine park established with the
assistance of the USAID/DENR Coastal Resource Management Project in San Vicente, Palawan
(Uychiaoco et al. 2003); and a fish sanctuary established with the assistance of the Haribon Foundation
and US Peace Corps in San Salvador Island, Masinloc, Zambales (Arceo and Alano 2003).
Some management actions were part of on-going government projects, like the Coastal Environment
Program (CEP) site of DENR in Telbang, Alaminos, Pangasinan (Orallo et al. 2003a). UPMSI maintains
a research station in Bolinao, Pangasinan, which became the source of information derived from
various research activities. The area also became the recipient of community-based coastal resource
management (CB-CRM) initiatives (Ferrer et al. 1996). Even fisher associations can initiate fisheries
resources management activities, as in the case of the Nagabugan Fishermen Association of Davila,
Pasuquin, Ilocos Norte. This NGO-organised association has planted 25 hectares of mangroves,
initiated alternative livelihood projects, and undertaken coastal and marine resources management
activities (Orallo et al. 2003b). The entire island of San Salvador, Masinloc, Zambales, a reservation
area, is managed by a local people’s organisation (Samahang Pangkaunlaran ng San Salvador) with
considerable support from the local government (Arceo and Alano 2003).
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Recommendations for government follow-up action

• Activities under the monitoring, control, and surveillance (MCS) system should be strongly
implemented and executed.
• Implementation of specific projects in fulfillment of commitments and in compliance with various
international conventions, such as the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.
• Collaborative interagency efforts and activities must address and incorporate relevant concerns,
e.g. environmental impact assessments, biodiversity conservation, marine protected areas,
biosafety protocols, etc.
6.2 Recommendations for regional collaborative efforts

• Concerns for the international waters should also include:
a. Highly migratory and transboundary aquatic species (e.g. fishes, marine mammals, marine
turtles, invertebrates).
b. Monitoring and evaluation of catches, including bycatch and discards, in the high seas by
commercial fishing fleets.
c. Bilateral fisheries cooperation in several themes, including utilisation, management, research,
and development.
• Stock assessment and studies delineating populations and stocks of shared fishery resources
using available technologies, e.g. surveys, tagging, morphometrics, and molecular studies.
• Establishment of a joint fisheries management framework between and among neighbouring
countries that are sharing and utilising common resources.
• Joint management and research for shared stocks of threatened or endangered marine species,
e.g. marine mammals and whale shark.
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United Nations UNEP/GEF South China Sea Global Environment

Environment Programme Project Facility

The Fish Stocks and Habitats of Regional, Global, and

Mr. Noel Barut

1.1 Geographic and oceanographic description

The Philippines (Figure 1) is an archipelago with an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of

1.2 Biogeographic and demographic features

1.3 Overview of the fisheries sector

Figure 1 Philippine Marine Jurisdictional Boundaries.

CAR 1,417 1,650 3,318 3,279 3,570

Total 2,793,556 2,829,520 2,923,772 2,993,332 3,166,530

COMMERCIAL MUNICIPAL TOTAL

1.3.1 Total landings by fishing area

1.3.2 Fishing effort by gear

56,000 Commercial Municipal Total

300,000 Commercial Municipal Total

Purse Seine Ring Net Trawl Danish Seine

Gill Net Hook & Line Beach Seine Fish Corral

Region I Region III Total

1990 3 41 27 628 30 668

1.3.3 Economic value of fisheries production

1.3.4 Importance of the fisheries sector in terms of employment and dependence

2. SPECIES OF REGIONAL, GLOBAL, AND TRANSBOUNDARY SIGNIFICANCE

2.1 Ranking of Importance

2.1.1 Ranking in terms of landings

2.1.2 Local market value

2.1.4 Food Security

Item 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

2.2 Biology and ecology of the priority species

Depending on the availability of references, the information includes: a) geographical distribution of

2.2.1 Large pelagic fishes

Figure 8 Tuna spawning grounds in the Philippines (Wade 1951).

Figure 9 Tuna migration routes to the South China Sea.

SPECIES Common name Occurrence

2.2.2 Small pelagic fish species

2.2.3 Demersal fish species

The classification of elasmobranchs as by-catch is typical in most fisheries of the Philippines. As a

Species Max. Size Prey Items Other Information References

3. STATUS AND THREATS

3.1 Current Status

3.1.1 Fisheries Status in terms of CPUE

Demersal Reef Pelagic

BS Multi Octo Simp Troll Anch Surf Drift Mod Gar

1997 3.0 1.8 3.9 1.1 3.4 1.7 5.9 4.3

3.2 Current and potential threats

3.2.1 Current threats

Fisheries Production (MT)

4. HABITATS AND AREAS OF IMPORTANCE IN THE MAINTENANCE OF EXPLOITED FISH

4.1 Biophysical profile

4.1.1 Known spawning grounds

Manila Bay 0.7–3.8 220–6240 MADECOR (1995)

Malampaya Sound (Northern Palawan) – 1,900–10,700 Ingles (2002)

4.1.2 Known nursery areas and feeding grounds

Figure 19 General distribution of chlorophyll α (green: concentration increases with

4.1.3 Known fishing grounds

4.2 Unknown issues such as stocks with undefined spawning grounds

4.3 Current and potential threats

4.4 Ranking of habitats

4.4.1 Association with species of importance to food security

Table 19 Present and future threats to Mindoro Strait.

4.4.2 Association with high-value species

4.4.3 Association with endangered, rare, or threatened species

5. CURRENT MANAGEMENT REGIME

5.1 Legal instruments