Unit III

Optical Metrology
&
Form Measurement
 Interference
The interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant
wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude.
Type of Interference
 Interferometry
• The number of fringes that appear in a given length on the
screen is a measure of the distance between the two point
light sources and forms the basis for linear measurement.

• This technique is used in a variety of metrological applications

such as inspection of machine parts for straightness,
parallelism, and flatness, and measurement of very small
diameters.

• The instrument used for making measurements using

interferometry technique is called an interferometer.
 Light Sources

• tungsten lamp with monochromatic filter,

• mercury
• mercury 198 (λ is the secondary Int. standard of length),
• cadmium,
• krypton 86 (new basic international standard of length),
• thallium,
• sodium,
• helium,
• neon, and
• gas lasers
 Optical Flats
• Optical-grade clear fused quartz or glass structures
lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one or both
sides.
• Used with a monochromatic light to determine the
flatness of other optical surfaces by interference.
• When a flat surface of another optic is placed on the
optical flat, interference fringes are seen due to
interference in the tiny gap between the two surfaces.
• The spacing between the fringes is smaller where the gap
is changing more rapidly, indicating a departure from
flatness in one of the two surfaces, in a similar way to the
contour lines on a map.
• When the fringes are perfectly straight and same fringe
width for dark and bright band we conclude that the
surface is perfectly flat.
• For convex surface the fringes curve around the point of
contact.
• For concave surface the fringes curve away from the point
of contact.

The distance of air gap between two successive fringes is given by 
2
n
Distance of air gap of interference fringe of n order is 
th

2
 GATE-2016
Two optically flat plates of glass are kept at a small angle
θ as shown in the figure. Monochromatic light is incident
vertically.

If the wavelength of light used to get a fringe spacing of 1

mm is 450 nm, the wavelength of light (in nm) to get a
fringe spacing of 1.5 mm is _______
For IES Only
Surface condition using Optical Flats

Fringe patterns reveal surface conditions

Optical flat as a comparator
 nl
h 
2
Where l  separation of edges
n  number of fringes / cm
h  The difference of height between gauges
  wevlength of monochomatic light
 GATE - 2003
Two slip gauges of 10 mm width measuring 1.000 mm and
1.002 mm are kept side by side in contact with each other
lengthwise. An optical flat is kept resting on the slip gauges
as shown in the figure. Monochromatic light of wavelength
0.0058928 mm is used in the inspection. The total number
of straight fringes that can be observed on both slip gauges
is

(a) 2 (b) 6
(c) 8 (d) 13
 Talysurf
• It is based upon measuring the generated noise due to
dry friction of a metallic blade which travels over the
surface under consideration.
• If the frictional force is made small enough to excite the
blade, and not the entire system, then the noise will be
proportional to surface roughness, and independent of
the measured specimen size and material.
• The specimen surface roughness was measured by a
widely used commercial instrument (Talysurf 10), and the
prototype transducer.
 Constriction and Working
 This instrument also gives the same information as the Tomlision Surface Profilometer,
but much more rapidly and accurately.

 The measuring head of this instrument consists of a diamond stylus of about 0.002
mm tip radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a
motorised driving unit.

 The arm carrying the stylus forms an armature which pivots about the centre piece
of E-shaped stamping. On two legs of (outer pole pieces) the Eshaped stamping
there are coils carrying an a.c. Current.

 These two coils with other two resistances form an oscillator. The amplitude of the
original a.c. current flowing in the coils is modulated because of air gap between
the armature and E-shaped stamping. This is further demodulated so that the
current now is directly proportional to the vertical displacement of the stylus only.

 The demodulated output is caused to operate a pen recorder to produce a

permanent record and a meter to give a numerical assessment directly. In recorder
of this instrument the marking medium is an electric discharge through a specially
treated paper which blackens at the point of the stylus.
 Types of Interferometers
• Most common types are:
– Michelson interferometer
– Twyman–Green interferometer
– NPL Flatness Interferometer
– Pitter–NPL Gauge Interferometer
– Laser Interferometer
Michelson Interferometer
 Fourier-Transform Spectroscopy

• Used in FTIR, NMR, MRSI, Mass spectra, electron spin resonance etc.
Twyman–Green interferometer
NPL Flatness Interferometer

Example of fringe patterns (a) Equal fringes on

parallel surfaces (b) Unequal fringes due to
flatness error
 Pitter–NPL Gauge Interferometer

Checking of high degree of

accuracy and precision
 Laser Interferometers

Laser interferometers are used to calibrate machine tables, slides, and axis movements
of coordinate measuring machines. The equipment is portable and provides a very high
degree of accuracy and precision.
 Laser Micrometer

A laser is emitted onto a spinning polygon mirror which traverses the beam throughout
the sensors measurement range at a constant speed. Measurements such as the outer
diameter or inner diameter are determined by measuring the amount of time the light
is blocked from the receiver.
Surface roughness measurement using LASER
 What is an Autocollimator?
• An autocollimator is an optical instrument that is used to
measure small angles with very high sensitivity. As such, the
autocollimator has a wide variety of applications including
precision alignment, detection of angular movement,
verification of angle standards, and angular monitoring over
long periods.
Principles of Operation
The autocollimator projects a beam of
collimated light. An external reflector
reflects all or part of the beam back into
the instrument where the beam is focused
and detected by a photodetector. The
autocollimator measures the deviation
between the emitted beam and the
reflected beam. Because the
autocollimator uses light to measure
angles, it never comes into contact with
the test surface.
 Autocollimator
• An optical instrument for non-contact measurement of
small angles or small angular tilts of a reflecting surface.
• Used to align components and measure deflections in
optical or mechanical systems.
• An autocollimator works by projecting an image onto a
target mirror, and measuring the deflection of the returned
image against a scale, either visually or by means of an
electronic detector.
• A visual autocollimator can measure angles as small as 0.5
arcsecond, while an electronic autocollimator can be up to
100 times more accurate.
• Visual autocollimators are used for lining up laser rod
ends and checking the face parallelism of optical
windows and wedges.
• Electronic and digital autocollimators are used as angle
measurement standards, for monitoring angular
movement over long periods of time and for checking
angular position repeatability in mechanical systems.
• Servo autocollimators are specialized compact forms of
electronic autocollimators that are used in high speed
servo feedback loops for stable platform applications.
Autocollimator

An autocollimator can measure

both flatness and straightness of
an object.

The property of a plane is

flatness, i.e. the state of being
flat without having pits and
mounds or being even -i.e. not
being uneven.
Whereas
Straightness is about a
practically one-dimensional
straight line which is supposed to
have only length, i.e. only one
dimension.
Measurement of Straightness

Straightness measurement using an autocollimator

 Straightness Measurement using
Autocollimator

For Straightness measurement a reflector is either moved along the surface or

mounted on a sliding carriage part of the machine to be measured. The mirror base
length is usually 100 mm and could differ. Deviations from straightness will result in
tilt of the mirror. Deviation from straightness are given by: h = Tan theta b, where theta
= reflector tilt, b = base length
At each position of the reflector in defined steps of the sliding carriage, the deflected
image position of the target with respect to the stationary eyepiece reticule in vertical
and the horizontal directions can be measured by the autocollimator.
Position of Reflector for straightness measurement.

If the reflector is not positioned properly, the reflector may not reflect the beam back
to the Autocollimator. The Sketch shown below is self explanatory for the reflection
positioning.
 Flatness Measurement using
Autocollimator
Machine Bed Flatness measurement

Flatness measurement of a surface table require measurement of deviation from straightness

in two directions. The reflector is moved along the surface to be measured. Along each line a
straightness measurement is carried out. The data from surface generators lines are used to
calculate the shape of the surface and the deviations from flatness.
 Surface Table Flatness Measurements

Additionally two reflectors may be required to keep the Autocollimator position the same for both
x

Additionally two reflectors may be required to keep the Autocollimator position the same for
both x & Y straightness measurements. In place of reflector a Penta Prism could also be
used. If only one additional reflector is used, then the Autocollimator position should be
altered.
 Squareness Measurements

For squareness measurement, the Autocollimator should be set in line with the Machine bed.
The procedure is similar with straightness measurement. A reflector is placed on the bed and
the Autocollimator is placed away from the machine bed and set as a reference. An accurate
pentaprism is placed very close to the vertical column used to transfer the autocollimator beam
to the second surface. The straightness of the second surface is measured. The data are then
combined and corrected for the error of the pentaprism
 GATE - 1998
Auto collimator is used to check
(a) Roughness
(b) Flatness
(c) Angle
(d) Automobile balance.
 GATE – 2009 (PI)
An autocollimator is used to

(a) measure small angular displacements on flat surface

(b) compare known and unknown dimensions

(c) measure the flatness error

(d) measure roundness error between centers

 GATE – 2014
The flatness of a machine bed can be measured
using

(a) Vernier calipers

(b) Auto collimator

(c) Height gauge

(d) Tool maker’s microscope

 Measurement of Straightness

Assuming that a level has graduations on the vial

with a least count of l mm and a radius of curvature,
Spirit level R, as shown in Figure the angle θ = 1/R (since θ is
very small).
If the graduations are at a 2 mm interval and
represent a tilt of 10", then the following can be
concluded:

Therefore, R = 41,273.89 mm or 41.274 m approximately.

If the base length is 250 mm, the height h, to which one end must be raised for a 2 mm
bubble movement, is given by the following relation:
θc = h/250 Therefore, h = 0.012 mm.
 Clinometer
• An optical device for measuring elevation angles above
horizontal.
• Compass clinometers are fundamentally just magnetic
compasses held with their plane vertical so that a
plummet or its equivalent can point to the elevation of the
sight line.
• The clinometer can read easily and accurately angles of
elevation that would be very difficult to measure in any
other simple and inexpensive way.
• A fairly common use of a clinometer is to measure the
height of trees.
Clinometer
 Optical Square
• An Optical square consists of a small cylindrical metal box,
about 5 cm in diameter and 12.5 cm deep, in which two mirrors
are placed at an angle of 45o to each other and at right angles to
the plane of the instrument.
• One mirror(horizon glass) is half silvered and other(index glass)
is wholly silvered.
• The optical square belongs to a reflecting instruments which
measure angles by reflection. Angle between the first incident
ray and the last reflected ray is 90o
• Used to find out the foot of the perpendicular from a given
point to a line.
• Used to set out right angles at a given point on a line in the
field.
• Two mirrors may be replaced by two prisms.
An Optical Square
 ISRO-2010
Optical square is
(a) Engineer's square having stock and blade set at 90o
(b) A constant deviation prism having the angle of deviation
between the incident ray and reflected ray, equal to 90o
(c) A constant deviation prism having the angle of deviation
between the incident ray and reflected ray, equal to 45o
(d) Used to produce interference fringes
 Measurement of Straightness

• Clinometer
A clinometer is a special case of a
spirit level. While the spirit level is
restricted to relatively small angles,
clinometers can be used for much
larger angles. It comprises a level
mounted on a frame so that the
frame may be turned to any desired
angle with respect to a horizontal
reference. Clinometers are used to
determine straightness and flatness
of surfaces. They are also used for
setting inclinable tables on jig boring
machines and angular jobs on surface
grinding machines.
Measurement of Flatness
 Laser Scanning Micrometer
• The LSM features a high scanning rate which allows
inspection of small workpiece even if they are fragile, at a
high temperature, in motion or vibrating.
• Applications :
– Measurement of outer dia. And roundness of cylinder,
– Measurement of thickness of film and sheets,
– Measurement of spacing if IC chips,
– Measurement of forms,
– Measurement of gap between rollers.
 IES - 1998
Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Measuring Device) (Parameter Measured)
A. Diffraction grating 1. Small angular deviations on long
flat surfaces
B. Optical flat 2. On-line measurement of moving
parts
C. Auto collimators 3. Measurement of gear pitch
D. Laser scan micrometer 4. Surface texture using interferometer
5. Measurement of very small
displacements
Code: A B C D A B C D
(a) 5 4 2 1 (b) 3 5 1 2
(c) 3 5 4 1 (d) 5 4 1 2
 GATE-2014
Which one of the following instruments is widely used to
check and calibrate geometric features of machine tools
during their assembly?
(a) Ultrasonic probe
(b) Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
(c) Laser interferometer
(d) Vernier calipers
 Planimeter
• A device used for measuring the area of any plane
surface by tracing the boundary of the area.
 LVDT
• Acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer, a
common type of electromechanical transducer that can
convert the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is
coupled mechanically into a corresponding electrical
signal.
• LVDT linear position sensors are readily available that can
measure movements as small as a few millionths of an
inch up to several inches, but are also capable of
measuring positions up to ±20 inches (±0.5 m).
• A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) is a
type of electrical transformer used for measuring angular
displacement.
LVDT
 Telescopic Gauges
• Used to measure a bore's size, by transferring the
internal dimension to a remote measuring tool.
• They are a direct equivalent of inside callipers and
require the operator to develop the correct feel to obtain
repeatable results.
 Parallelism
• In geometry, parallelism is a term that refers to a property in Euclidean
space of two or more lines or planes, or a combination of these.
• The assumed existence and properties of parallel lines are the basis of
Euclid’s parallel postulate. Two lines in a plane that do not intersect or
touch at a point are called parallel lines.
• Likewise, a line and a plane, or two planes, in 3D Euclidean space that do
not share a point are said to be parallel.

Parallelism (a) Between two axes (b) Between an axis and a plane
 Squareness
• Very often, two related parts of a machine need to meet perfect
squareness with each other. In fact, the angle 90° between two lines or
surfaces or their combinations, is one of the most important
requirements in engineering specifications. For instance, the cross-slide of
a lathe must move at exactly 90° to the spindle axis in order to produce a
flat surface during facing operation.

Typical squareness test with

standard square and dial gauge
 Roundness
• Roundness is a geometric aspect of surface metrology and is of great
importance because the number of rotational bearings in use is much
more than that of linear bearings. Many machine parts, such as a machine
spindle or the hub of a gear, have circular cross sections; these parts
should have roundness with a very high degree of accuracy.
• Roundness is defined as a condition of surface of revolution where all
points of the surface intersected by any plane perpendicular to a
common axis are equidistant from the axis.

Out of roundness or Use of a V-block for measuring

roundness error out of roundness
 Cylindricity
• A cylinder is an envelope of a rectangle rotated about an axis. It is bound
between two circular and parallel planes.
• Cylindricity is a measure of the degree of conformance of a component to
the ideal cylinder for which it is designed.
 Runout
• Runout is a measure of the trueness of the running of a body about its
own axis.
• When a dial indicator is placed in contact with the surface of a component
rotating about its axis, the indicator should not show any
variation/deflection in its reading if the runout is zero.

Runout (a) Radial runout (b) Axial runout