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LIGHTNING
ELECTROMAGNETICS
ELECTROMAGNETIC LIBRARY
Bowman, Senior, and Uslenghi

Electromagnetic and Acoustic Scattering by Simple Shapes
Gardner
Lightning Electromagnetics
Lee
EMP Interaction: Principles, Techniques, and Reference Data
Mittra
Computer Techniques for Electromagnetics
Smythe
Static and Dynamic Electricity
Van Bladel
Electromagnetic Fields
LIGHTNING
ELECTROMAGNETICS
Edited by
Robert L. Gardner
Mission Research Corp
Albuquerque, New Mexico
® A SUMMA Book
0 HEMISPHERE PUBLISHING CORPORATION

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LIGHTNING ELECTROMAGNETICS
Copyright © 1990 by Hemispherer Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved. Printed

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Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in
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prior written permission of the publisher.
1234567890 EBEB 9876543210
Cover design by Sharon M. DePass.

A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lightning electromagnetics I edited by Robert L. Gardner.

p. cm.-(SUMMA book)
1. Lightning. 2. Electromagnetism. I. Gardner, Robert L.
QC966.L535 1990
551.5'632-dc20 90-30110
ISBN 0-89116-988-1 CIP
CONTENTS
Preface vii
PART A: MODELS OF FUNDAMENTAL

LIGHTNING PROCESSES
Properties of Lightning-Leader Pulses

C. E. Baum 3
2 Analytic Return-Stroke Transmission-Line Model
C. E. Baum and L. Baker 17
3 An Introduction to Leader Tip Modeling
C. E. Baum and R. L. Gardner 41
4 Lightning Return Stroke: A Numerical Calculation

of the Optical Radiation
A. H. Paxton, R. L. Gardner, and L. Baker 47
5 Return-Stroke Transmission Line Model
L. Baker 63
6 Natural Frequencies of a Post with a Lightning Return Stroke
F. C. Yang and K. S. H. Lee 75
7 Motion of lon Clouds in Air
C. E. Baum 87
8 Return-Stroke Initiation
C. E. Baum 101
PART B: PROPAGATION OF LIGHTNING-INDUCED SIGNALS
9 Review of Propagation Effects for Pulse Transmission

J. R. Wait 117
10 Effect of the Propagation Path on Lightning-Induced Transient Fields
R. L. Gardner 139
PART C: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHTNING PARAMETERS
11 Submicrosecond Risetimes in Lightning Return-Stroke Fields

C. D. Weidman and E. P. Krider 157
12 The Fine Structure of Lightning Return-Stroke Waveforms

C. D. Weidman and E. P. Krider 167
v
vi CONTENTS
13 Observation of Lightning in the Frequency and Time Domains

J. E. Nanevicz, E. F. Vance, and J. M. Hamm 191
14 UHF-VHF Radiation from Lightning
M. Le Baulch, J. Hamelin, and C. Weidman 211
15 A Study of Lightning Initiation Based on VHF Radiation
J. P Moreau and P L. Rustan 25 7
16 On the Interception of the Lightning Discharge
\1. Scuka et a/. 277
17 Electromagnetic Properties of Lightning Channels Formation
and Propagation
G. Labaune, P Richard, and A. Bondieu 285
18 Electromagnetic Measurement and Location of Lightning
C. E. Baum, J. P O'Neill, E. L. Breen, D. L. Hall, and C. B.
Moore 319
19 Experimental Study of the Electromagnetic Characteristics of Lightning
Discharge in the 200 Hz-20 MHz Band
C. Leteinturier and J. Hamelin 347
20 Simultaneous Measurement of Current, Electromagnetic Fields,
and Optical Emission from a Lightning Stroke
L. Baker, R. L. Gardner, A. H. Paxton, C. E. Baum,
and W Rison 365
PART D: LIGHTNING INTERACTION WITH SYSTEMS
21 Current and Voltage Induced on a Telecommunications Cable

by a Lightning Stroke
A. Zeddam and P Degauque 377
22 New Results for Quantification of Lightning/Aircraft Electrodynamics
F. L. Pitts, R. A. Perala, T. H. Rudolph, and L. D. Lee 401
23 Analysis of Correlated Electromagnetic Fields and Current Pulses During
Airborne Lightning Attachments
J. S. Reazer, A. \1. Serrano, L. C. Walko, and H. D. Burket 437
24 Lightning Response of Aircraft
F. C. Yang, K. S. H. Lee, D. J. Andersh, and J. Steil 469
25 Comparison of Published HEMP and Natural Lightning on the Surface of
an Aircraft
R. L. Gardner, L. Baker, J. L. Gilbert, C. E. Baum,
and D. J. Andersh 491
Index 535
PREFACE
Electromagnetics plays a significant role in lightning phenomenology from

the initial charge separation in the cloud until the return stroke interacts with a
system of interest. For the purposes of this book, the charge distribution in the
cloud forms the initial state of lightning formation. From that point, the leader
structure begins to form emitting electromagnetic fields as well as developing
currents as the electrons and ions flow in response to the fields. The air is
heated, forming a conducting plasma channel for further current development.
As the leader nears the ground, it intersects streamers growing up from the
ground initiating the return stroke. Strong high-frequency fields are emitted from
this initiation point. Current waveforms then travel away from the initiation
points in both directions along the conducting air plasma channels, heating them
further and continuing to emit electromagnetic fields. These fields, along with
other observables, such as optical radiation, acoustic waves, and the remaining
constituents of the air plasma may be used to remote sense the characteristics
of the channel. More importantly, however, the channel currents and fields may
interact with systems, such as aircraft, transmission lines, ships, or ground sys-
tems causing anything from system upset to catastrophic damage.
The works in this book survey theoretical and experimental research cover-
ing all of the areas of lightning phenomenology mentioned above. They are di-
vided, for convenience, into four parts.
A. Models of Fundamental Lightning Processes

B. Propagation of Lightning-Induced Signals
C. Measurement of Lightning Parameters
D. Lightning Interaction with Systems
This book is an expansion of a Special Issue of Electromagnetics on the

electromagnetics of lightning. To the categories used in the journal, a category
on propagation has been added to cover an important part of lightning electro-
magnetics: the relationship of lightning currents and fields to the channel cur-
rent.
Chapters in the first category describe analytical and numerical efforts to
predict lightning observables from first principles. While these predictions are
required to agree with what is actually observed, curve fits to data are relegated
to the second section as manipulations of the data rather than theories that can
stand alone. Four chapters have been added to the original four chapters in the
model development category of the special issue.
Chapters 1, 3, 7, and 8 of the category deal with limits of lightning observ-
ables imposed by fundamental requirements, such as energy conservation and
limits on propagation velocities to less than that of light. Chapters 1 and 3 were
vii
viii PREFACE
added to show some of the necessary properties of leader tips and the way they
propagate. Chapters 7 looks at the evolution of balls of charge and notes the
expansion due to electrical forces, assuming the balls or cylinders are in pressure
equilibrium before the expansion starts. Chapter 8 examines the necessary con-
ditions and observables of the initiation region of a return stroke. Since most of
the highest frequency emissions come from this region it is very important to
understand the initiation region. If one is going to understand the electromag-
netic radiation of a lightning return stroke, understanding the initiation region is
the key to the high frequency components.
Chapters 2, 4, and 5 form the foundation of transmission line models of the
return stroke current. State of the art in these calculations is to use transmission
line elements, which are nonuniform and dependent on the history of the current
that has flowed through each transmission line element. Chapters 2 and 5 use a
three-region (central core, corona, ambient air) model of the hydrodynamic be-
havior of the channel to calculate transmission line capacitance, resistance, and
inductance per unit length. Chapter 4 is a much more complete, but necessarily
cumbersome, model of a unit length of the channel. State of the art in these
types of models is to include magnetohydrodynamic expansion, radiative cooling
by multigroup diffusion, convective cooling, ohmic heating, and a detailed tabu-
lar equation of state for air. It should be noted that such one-dimensional models
take significant amounts of computer time to reach the tens of microseconds
duration of a return stroke, so three-dimensional calculations that are complete
physical models will be very difficult.
These models will help us understand the limits of the lightning phenomena
and to properly extrapolate the data base.
Propagation of lightning fields relates the currents of lightning channel to the
electromagnetic fields at some distant observation point. Such models are well
developed if the electrical characteristics of the propagation path are knwon, but
they must be very accurate if these models are to be used to support remote
sensing efforts. Dr. J. R. Wait has provided an excellent review of this subject in
chapter 9. While the mathematics of propagation over lossy ground is some-
what involved, the results have been experimentally verified many times. In
chapter 10, the methods of chapter 9 are applied to lightning. While the chapter
is nine years old, the model is still state of the art in that it treats most of the
important parts of the interaction.
Since lightning remains a largely empirical subject, it is not surprising that
the largest category is the Measurement of Lightning Parameters. The category
begins with a set of chapters, 11 and 12, which provide data on high-frequency
radiated fields for lightning. These two fundamental chapters are followed by an
overview of the data available in the frequency and time domains for lightning.
Chapter 14 is a more recent chapter produced for the special issue which
presents spectoral and temporal characteristics of lightning in the VHF-UHF fre-
quency range. Chapter 1 5 examines the VHF radiation that precedes the return
stroke for clues to the understanding of the complete lightning discharge.
One of the long-term goals of lightning research is to first predict and then,
one day, control the location of lightning strikes. Chapter 16 is a fundamental
PREFACE ix
chapter which uses photographic and elecromagnetic measurements to examine

how lightning chooses a strike point. Chapter 17 presents further high-fre-
quency electromagnetic data that is also tied to the location and time of the
emission point of the radiation. One of the resulting derived variables is the
velocity of propagation at the location of these emission points of about
2 x 107 m/s. This rather complete chapter also contains data from laboratory
experiments on streamer propagation, as well as a thorough theoretical founda-
tion to go with the experiments. Chapter 18 presents similar data but uses the
acoustic signal to determine the location of the breakdown process causing the
electromagnetic signal. Data in this chapter are some of the first fast ( 10-ns
sampling rate) measurements of lighting. Chapter 19 presents broadband light-
ning data to help better characterize the signature of the electromagnetic pulses
emitted by the discharges and their chronological development.
The last chapter of this category, chapter 20, is indicative of future direc-
tions in lightning measurements. The measurements are very broadband ( < 5-ns
sampling rate), but more importantly, several observables are time tied together.
Simultaneous optical, electromagnetic field, and current data are available. It
would be desirable to also include fast photographic and acoustic data to better
characterize near ground data.
The chapters in the last category describe system interaction for lightning.
These chapters are, in a sense, a culmination of the remaining chapters in that all
of the preceding data and theory is used to understand how severely lightning is
likely to affect a system. The category begins with a study of the impact of
lightning on telecommunication cables (Chapter 21 ). Large ground systems,
such as these or power cables, are particularly susceptible because their con-
ductors cover such large geographic regions. Also important is the interaction of
lightning with aircraft. Chapters 22-24 present data on the interaction of light-
ning with the F-1 06 and C-580 aircraft. The aim of such measurement programs
is to better define the parameter space of the lightning threat that modern air-
craft are likely to experience and develop standards to assure aircraft can with-
stand that environment.
The last chapter of the book is a summary of the data on the lightning
environment and a description of how one might tie that data to a specification
for an environment the aircraft is likely to experience. Although there is much
larger data to support a lightning environment model that is slightly faster than
the one suggested in this chapter, the conclusions of the chapter remain correct.
Simple interaction models are used to compare currents induced by lightning on
aircraft components with similar currents developed by high-altitude electromag-
netic pulse. It is the hope that similar exercises can result in a complete electro-
magnetic specification for military and civilian systems.
There is much work remaining. One of the most glaring omissions in light-
ning research is the lack of a thorough theoretical foundation that can be used to
establish limits on threat environments and to guide future experimental pro-
grams. The chapters in this book provide a beginning, but we are far from a
unified theory of lightning. One of the first areas in which that lack is apparent is
in the specification of the initial conditions for these other models, that is, a
X PREFACE
quantitative theory of charge formation or cloud electrification. Experiments,

primarily fast photography tied to other variables, are needed for initiation and
for integration of these data into a complete model of the lightning current,
including the system with which the lightning is interacting.
The goals of this research should continue to be twofold:
1. Establish a safe environment specification and consequent hardening
rules to all electromagnetic threats.
2. Establish an effective theory that will allow control over lightning strike
locations on systems of interest.
Robert L. Gardner
PART A:
MODELS OF FUNDAMENTAL LIGHTNING
PROCESSES
PROPERTIES OF LIGHTNING-LEADER
PULSES
C. E. Baum, Air Force Weapons Laboratory,

Kirtland AFB, New Mexico 87117, USA
ABSTRACT
Recent measurements have shown that lightning leader pulses have very fast rise times.
Characteristic times for the rise of as small as a little less than 30 ns have been observed.
Considering the nature of these leader pulses, an approximate model is obtained. This
model is based on an equivalent transmission line as sometimes used in antenna theory.
A corona which increases the capacitance per unit length is assumed to form around the
central arc channel. Letting the corona radius be governed by a simple breakdown model,
a nonlinear wave equation is obtained for the arc. Solving this equation one obtains veloci-
ties of the order of 108 m/ s and currents of the order of 15 kA; this agrees well with the data.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recent measurements have shown that lightning pulses can have very fast characteristic
times in their rises. For leader-like pulses this can be less than 30 ns with typical times
somewhat longer (Baum, 1980a). For return-stroke-like pulses, this can be less than 50 ns
with typical times somewhat longer (Baum, 1980a; Weidman and Krider, 1980).
For the leader pulses, the electromagnetic field data could be extrapolated back to the
source to give sources (time derivative of the volume integral of current density) consistent
with tens of kA and velocities of the order of 108 m/s (Baum, 1980a). Since these pulses
3
4 C. E. BAUM
have obvious importance for lightning interaction with electronic systems, one would like
to have one or more models to explain their behavior, so as to have an eventual quantita-
tive understanding in the usual senses. This note develops a very approximate nonlinear
transmission-line model of the lightning leader propagating through previously undisturbed
air (or under similar conditions). Some of these points have been covered in a spoken paper
(Baum, 1981).
2. EQUIVALE~T CORONA RADIUS
The concept of an equivalent corona radius, W0 , to approximately describe the transmis-

sion of waves along wires was proposed by this author in order to model the experiments
conducted at Kaman Sciences by Book and others (Book and Price, 1976; Book, 1978;
Baum, 1980b; Book, 1980). As indicated in Figure 1, there is a set of radii or equivalent
radii
wire radius (or later, arc radius)

equivalent corona radius (1)
W00 equivalent "outer" reference conductor radius
Figure 1. Equivalent-corona-radius model.

PROPERTIES OF LIGHTNING-LEADER PULSES 5
In this approximation one envisions that there is some reasonably well-defined (or at least
an equivalent) corona region described by W0 < W < We where W is the cylindrical radius in
a cylindrical (w, 4>, z) coordinate system with the z axis centered in the wire (or lightning
arc). This corona region has some conductivity u which may be a function of W and t
(time), and permittivity c which may be taken as co, the permittivity of free space.
In a transmission-line model, one needs appropriate per-unit-length parameters. For
present purposes let us approximate the longitudinal impedance per unit as an inductance
per unit length
L'
(2)
fLo permeability of free space
This corresponds to assuming that the longitudinal current is all on the wire (or later, arc).
The transverse admittance per unit length is more complicated. Given an assumption of
a rotationally symmetric corona (and strictly a coaxial geometry), then as in Figure 1, one
can divide the transverse admittance per unit length according to the radial dependence of
u. For simplicity we assume that we have a definite corona boundary at W = We and that
for the region exterior to the corona we have a capacitance per unit length
co
C'
fa
fa ]:_ ln
271" we
(Woo) (3)
co permittivity of free space
The geometrical factors for inductance and capacitance per unit length are related by
(4)
.6. = ]:_ In ( we )
271" W0
so that as corona develops .6. grows from zero and gives a measure of the change in C'.
If we approximate the corona conductivity, u, as uniform for W0 < W < We then we have
a parallel corona capacitance per unit length
(5)
and conductance per unit length

1 27ru u
G- -- (6)
e-ln(~)- .6.
where the capacitance per unit length in the absence of corona is
c~ = [c'-1 + c;+lrl = ;: = ln2ti;) . (7)

6 C. E. BAUM
For present purposes the corona conductance is assumed sufficiently large that G~ can
be considered to have zero voltage drop (compared to that across C'), and hence C~ can
also be neglected. Of course u is not assumed so large that Ill c - Ill 0 is comparable to or
greater than a skin depth since that would require changing the impedance per unit length
away from that of a simple constant L'. In this approximation the significant current, I, is
on the wire or arc of radius W0 , while the significant charge per unit length, Q', is on the
outer corona "boundary" of radius W0 •
An approximate value for the corona radius can be obtained from
IQ'.L = effective breakdown electric field

27re 0 ""c
_121_ (8)
21reoEb
1 w.
21re 0 Eb IQ'I
This is an important approximation in that the corona radius is only a function of a single
temporal/spatial variable, Q'.
Other kinds of equivalent corona radii are possible involving some average over the
charge distribution. However for present simplicity, the above form is adopted. Perhaps
future developments of this model will adopt other forms.
3. TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS
For a simple transmission line with a single voltage/current pair of interest, one has a
set of coupled first order partial differential equations in space and time. In the classical
linear, time-invariant, bilateral (reciprocal) case, these take the form
av
az
al
az -Y'l + l~
z' longitudinal impedance per unit length (9)
Y' transverse admittance per unit length
v: longitudinal voltage source per unit length
J~ transverse current source per unit length
where a tilde~ above a quantity indicates a function of the Laplace-transform variable or

complex frequency, s.
In time domain Equation (9) takes on a more complex form depending on the forms of
Z' and Y' which become not impedance and admittance functions (per unit length), but
more general operators. However, one can also include nonlinear effects in time domain.
Consulting Figure 2a note that one can construct a per-unit-length equivalent circuit using
the equivalent circuit elements per unit length which have been discussed. Note the inclusion
of the time-domain per-unit-length sources for generality; in the present problem, these are
set to zero. Using the approximation of sufficiently large u replaces G~ and C~ by a short
circuit. This leaves the simplified equivalent circuit per unit length in Figure 2b. Note that
while L 1 is taken as invariant with respect to both time, t, and space, z, C' is a function of
both of these parameters thereby making the equivalent transmission line nonuniform.
V'
s
-+ +
C'c G'
c
v I'
s
C'
a) General case with uniform corona.
L'
L
I
-+ 0 '000000' 0
1
v z
- 0 0
b) Case without sources and with sufficiently large corona conductivity.
Figure 2. Per-unit-length transmission-line equivalent-circuit represen-

tation.
8 C. E. BAUM
With these approximations our time-domain transmission-line equations take the form
av = -L'ai
az at
aI
az = -~[C'V]
at (10)
Using the definition of capacitance per unit length
C '= Q' (11)

v·
The second of Equation (10) is the equation of continuity. Replacing V gives for Equa-
tion (10)
a
az
(Q')
C'
I
-L-
,a
at
aI aQ' (12)
az at
Using Equations (3) and (8) we have our approximate form for C' as
eo
c'
!c
fc 1 I
211" n
(Q:X,)
1Q'I (13)
Q:X, 27reoEbiJ!oo
so that C' is only a function of Q'. Then Equation (12) has independent variables z and t,
and dependent variables I and Q'.
A convenient form for Equation (12) is found by eliminating I by operating on the two
equations by partial derivatives with respect to z and t, respectively, giving
1
L'
a2
az 2
(Q')
C' -
a2 Q' 0
at 2 = (14)
which is a nonlinear wave equation for Q' since C' is a function of Q' only (by hypothesis).
4. NONLINEAR WAVES FROM HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
The coupled set of first-order equations (12) and the corresponding wave equation (14)
are homogeneous (sourceless) and admit solutions as nonlinear waves as pointed out by
Chen (1980a, 1980b) in the form
Q' Q'(r)
z
T
t ± v(Q') (15)
v( Q') { 1 d [ Q' ] }1/2

L' dQ' C'(Q')
These are waves propagating in the =t=z direction depending on the sign chosen (and noting
the symmetry). Note that the actual functional form of the dependence of C' on Q' does
not need to be specified for this result to hold. Using the data of Book and Price (1976) and
Book (1978), Chen observed that the observed pulse stretching (or increasing delay) at large
amplitudes was consistent with an amplitude dependent velocity as in Equation (15), and
that the experimental velocities decreased in the experiment from 3 x 10 8 m/s to between
1 x 108 m/s and 2 x 108 m/s at the higher amplitudes. In addition it was noted that not
all the details of the waveforms were consistent with this kind of a model, but the major
portion of the waveform fit such a model rather well.
Equations (12) can be transformed into the nonlinear retarded time r by noting
T t± z
v(Q'(r))
:t Iz canst ant
ar I
at z constant dr
d
ar I d
:Z It constant a z t constant dr
d [ -1 J -ar I
r
arl 1±z- (16)
at z constant dr v at z constant
arl ± -+z-d [1- J -ar I }

a z t constant v dr v at t constant
arl
at z constant {1=t=z~ [~Jrl
arl 1{ d [1]}-l
±-;; 1 'f z dr -;;
a z t constant
These partial-derivative formulas can be substituted into Equation (12); the second is sat-
isfied and the first give the third equation of (15). The second of Equation (12) becomes
di(r) = =fv(Q'(r))dQ'(r) (17)

dr dr
noting now that I is a function of r alone since Q' and v are functions of r alone. Integrating
Equation (17) gives
I(r)-I; 'f lQ:

Q'(r)
v( q')dq'
I; I( r;)
Q; Q(r;)
} initial conditions at r = r; . (18)
With given initial conditions then Equations (15) and (18) give the complete solution to
Equation (12) or equivalently Equation (14).
10 C. E. BAUM
5. APPLICATION TO LIGHTNING LEADER
Applying the foregoing to the arc in the atmosphere, which begins the lightning event,
requires some careful consideration. Approximations are a key consideration. Figure 3
shows a view of the tip of the lightning leader. Several physical aspects can be considered.
The concept of a transmission-line model itself leads to problems. There is no physical
return or reference conductor. However it has been established that in the case of sufficiently
thin conductors, a transmission-line model is still approximately valid (Schelkunoff, 1952).
For this purpose thin means a small radius compared to other characteristic distances, such
as conductor length(s) and times of concern multiplied by the speed of light. Even if the
arc channel has a small radius (say of the order of 1 mm), there is still the larger corona
radius of concern.
Another set of problems concerns the leader tip. The pulse of concern is not propagating
on a preexisting conducting wire. The charge near the arc tip must exceed some value to
cause electrical breakdown of the air and thereby a propagating leader tip. This may give
the key to our model. If the leader tip propagates faster than the wave on the equivalent
transmission line (as in Equation (15)), then the tip is in effect stretched, thereby reducing
the local charge per unit length and the associated electric field, and hence stopping the
breakdown or reducing the tip velocity. Conversely, if the tip is propagating slower than
the wave behind it, charge will pile up increasing the breakdown rate and hence the tip
velocity. Thus it would appear that the velocity behind the tip and the velocity of the tip
are linked. Furthermore since Q' should be above some value to maintain the breakdown
velocity, we can neglect small values of Q' in searching for appropriate solutions.
'1'00
cv-c ------f----.. . -+
-
\
- I
T'l'o arc channel
v
/
I
----------------
corona
__ .--
,/'
equivalent reference
- - - - - -co;;d"'lli:t;;"r---- - - - - -
Figure 3. Lightning-leader model.

With the foregoing in mind, let us look for what might be thought of as a shockwave
with no charge or current in front of it and a uniform Q' and I behind it, i.e.,
I(r) =fv(Q'(r))Q'(r)
Q'(r) Q'u(r)
I(r) = Iu(r) (19)
u(r) { 1 for r > 0

0 for r < 0
Note that this solution satisfies Equation (18) as a special simple case.
Further aiding our physical arguments, there is some data that one can use (Baum et
al., 1980a). Recent measurements of the electromagnetic fields from lightning show some
very fast leader-like signals with characteristic times in the rise of the order of 30 ns or
somewhat longer. Via the free-space dyadic Green's function, a far-field approximation,
and reflection at the ground plane, one can relate the fields back to the currents. For the
distance back to the source, acoustic arrays and videotape pictures are used. This results
in a characteristic source parameter
~ 1t .~ r J<;;~',t)dV"
- --at lv"
1 -1. 1r ::::::: transverse dyad
1 identity (20)
r. unit radius vector from observer to source
for which only the transverse components are observed. Note that for greater accuracy, the
current can be written as a function of retarded time.
Summarizing the data in Baum et al. (1980a), the magnitude of the transverse compo-
nents of individual pulses of i is somewhat variable with the stronger ones in the 10 11 Am/s
to 10 12 Am/s range. One example reached about 1.5 TAm/s, but appeared to be more like
a return stroke.
For comparison to the data, note that our simple form of leader in Equation (19) gives
a magnitude
(21)
neglecting retarded time effects. In natural lightning one does not have a semi-infinite
channel of current. The pulse event includes not only the leader tip, but a propagation of
the disturbance in the opposite direction as well, communicating the streamer motion back
along the arc. This may increase the result in Equation (21) by a factor of 2 or so.
Other physical parameters need to be estimated. Let us take
Eb ~ 2 MV/m
W0 ~ 1 mm (22)
W00 ~ 10m
The breakdown field is only approximate and the reader may wish to try other numbers; it
is altitude dependent, decreasing at higher altitudes. The arc radius W0 is very crude, but
12 C. E. BAUM
fortunately it only enters logarithmically. The equivalent outer reference conductor radius
is also very crude, but again it only enters logarithmically. The present estimate is based
on about a 30 ns observed characteristic time for the pulse rise giving a transit time out to
this radius; one can also guess some characteristic length of arc significant in an individual
pulse as being of this general order as well. Perhaps in the future these numbers can be
refined somewhat.
6. VELOCITY EQUATION
Take the corona radius model in section 2 and solve for the velocity in Equation (15).
Starting from the velocity formula
[v(~')r = 1 1 d [ Q' ]
c 2 L' dQ' C( Q')
;L d\~'\ [\Q'\fc(Q')]
_!_ {t (Q') + \Q'\dfc(Q')}
h c d\Q'\
;L {2~ In(~~)-;~}
_!_{h-1:::..-_!_}
h 2~
1
!:::..+-
1- 2~ (23)
h
1
c
we can see the decrease of the velocity from that of light. In terms of charge-per-unit-length
parameters, we have
In Q~) - 1
( JQ'f
In ( Q~)
Q~
(
In~
Q~)
In (~t)
In(~)
1- (Q~)
In Q~
(24)
and in terms of radius parameters, we have
[
v(Q')]2 _ In(~) - 1
c -In(~:)
In ("ill"")
eWe
In(~:)
In (eWe)
1_ Wo
(25)
In(~:)
There are some special cases of interest if we choose We as special values. For
1' (26)
since there is no corona and Equation (23) then do not apply. For
We Wo+
[~r
1
1--- (27)
21r/L
1
1-
In(::)
showing some velocity decrease. Note that the velocity becomes imaginary if We becomes
too large. The critical value is given by
(28)
so our values of "ill e of interest are in the range
(29)
14 C. E. BAUM
7. SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS
Summarizing our equations we have
III
(30)
with variables: III, IQ'I, v, and We· This is an underdetermined system so far. There is also
the data concerning T or IIIv.
To get a clue as to what is happening, consider the following table in which We is varied
as a parameter:
We !(
IQ'I III IIIv
0.1 m 0.62 11 J.LC/m 2.1 kA 0.33 TAm/s
0.2 m 0.56 22 J.LC/m 3.1 kA 0.52 TAm/s
0.5m 0.47 55 J.LC/m 7.7 kA 1.1 TAm/s
1 m 0.38 110 J.LC/m 12 kA 1.4 TAm/s
2 m 0.26 220 J.LC/m 17 kA 1.2 TAm/s
From this we can see that as We increases, v decreases, IQ'I increases, III increases, but IIIv
increases then decreases. Since IIIv is related to the electromagnetic fields observed at a
distance, the maximum value is an interesting parameter.
The maximum IIIv is found by differentiation with respect to an appropriate parameter.
Let us use IQ'I giving
IIIv
d
diQ'I [IIIv] (31)
ln(~)}
ln (Q:.O)
2 {
= c 1-
Q~
Equating the derivative to zero gives a set of parameters associated with the maximum IIIv
as
Wcassoc. =
1Jassoc. (32)
IIassoc.l = Vassoc.IQ:.Ssoc.l
[lllv]lmax v!ssoc.IQ:.Ssoc.l ·
Using our previously selected parameters (as in Equation (22)) gives specific numbers as
IQ:.Ssoc.l ~ 150 p.C/m

q, Cassoc, ~ 1.1 m
11assoc. ~ 1.0 X 108 m/s (33)
llassoc.l ~ 15 kA
[lllv]lmax ~ 1.5 TAm/s
which gives rather reasonable numbers for comparison to various experimental numbers
including those in Baum et al. (1980a).
8. SUMMARY
This equivalent nonlinear transmission-line model of the lightning leader agrees with
some aspects of the data giving approximate values of current, charge-per-unit-length, and
velocity. However, there are clear limitations to this model, including the lack of information
concerning characteristic times of the rise and pulse width. Perhaps some improvements
can be made to include nonzero resistance per unit length of the arc; this may be associated
with the finite width of the pulses by preventing the current from maintaining its full value
16 C. E. BAUM
after some time giving a depletion wave to quench the pulse. There may be some similarity
to a nonlinear relaxation oscillator.
One can think of possible improvements to the model by removing the transmission-line
approximation. In antenna theory one often treats thin wires via an integral equation known
as the Pocklington equation in which there are integrals over current and charge using a
thin-wire approximation. Including the foregoing corona-radius model with current and
charge-per-unit-length on different radii, W0 and W0 , respectively, is a potential approach.
Another approach to removing the transmission-line approximation involves a Lorentz
transformation to a coordinate frame moving in the z direction with velocity, v. In this
frame the electromagnetic problem is quasi-static if all parameters of the original problem
propagate with constant velocity, v, in the z direction and with constant amplitude.
The present development has evolved with the leader tip in mind. However it may also
apply to other aspects of a lightning event, e.g., a return stroke, with appropriate changes
in the physical parameters in the model. Evidently considerable research is needed.
REFERENCES
1. C. E. Baum et al., "Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10

nanosecond resolution," Proc. Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and
FAA-RD-80-30, April1980a, pp. 39-82. An expanded version of this is also planned.
2. C. E. Baum, "Simple model of corona on a wire, FULMEN 5," Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, May 1980b.
3. C. E. Baum, "Electromagnetic characterization of lightning in the submicrosecond
regime," URSI XXth General Assembly, Washington, DC, August 1981.
4. P. S. Book and H. J. Price, "A transmission line corona experiment," Interaction Note
313, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, October 1976.
5. P. S. Book, "Study of corona in a transmission line test facility," Interaction Note
369, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, November 1978.
6. P. S. Book, "Transient corona measurements in a transmission line test facility, FUL-
MEN 5," Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, May 1980.
7. K. C. Chen, "Interpretation of corona test data, FULMEN 5," Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, May 1980a.
8. K. C. Chen, "Transient corona effects on a wire over the ground," Proc. Lightning
Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980b, pp. 265-281.
9. S. A. Schelkunoff, Advanced Antenna Theory, New York: Wiley and Sons, 1952.
10. C. D. Weidman and E. P. Krider, "Submicrosecond risetimes in lightning radiation
fields, Proc. Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April
1980, pp. 29-38. Also as "Submicrosecond risetimes in lightning return-stroke fields,"
Geophys. Res. Letts., vol. 7, no. 11, November 1980, pp. 955-958.
Models of Fundamental Lightning Processes
C. E. Baum , et al., Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10 nanosecond resolution,
Proc. Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980a, pp. 3982. An expanded
version of this is also planned
C. E. Baum , Simple model of corona on a wire, FULMEN 5, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM,
May 1980b.
C. E. Baum , Electromagnetic characterization of lightning in the submicrosecond regime, URSI XXth General
Assembly, Washington, DC, August 1981.
P. S. Book and H. J. Price , A transmission line corona experiment, Interaction Note 313, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, October 1976.
P. S. Book , Study of corona in a transmission line test facility, Interaction Note 369, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, November 1978.
P. S. Book , Transient corona measurements in a transmission line test facility, FULMEN 5, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, May 1980.
K. C. Chen , Interpretation of corona test data, FULMEN 5, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM,
May 1980a.
K. C. Chen , Transient corona effects on a wire over the ground, Proc. Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Pub.
2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980b, pp. 265281.
S. A. Schelkunoff , Advanced Antenna Theory, New York: Wiley and Sons, 1952.
C. D. Weidman , and E. P. Krider , Submicrosecond risetimes in lightning radiation fields, Proc. Lightning
Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980, pp. 2938. Also as Submicrosecond
risetimes in lightning return-stroke fields, Geophys. Res. Letts., vol. 7, no. 11, November 1980, pp. 955958.
M. Abramowitz and J. Stegun , Handbook of Mathematical Functions, NBS Monograph 55, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1964.
C. E. Baum et al., Measurements of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10-ns resolution (revised),
Lightning Phenomenology Note 3, February 1982. This is an expanded version (more data) of an earlier version
(same title, authors) in Proc. Symp. on Lightning Technology, NASA Conference Publication 2128, FAA-RD-80-
30, April 1980, pp. 3982. Also see (same authors) Electromagnetic measurements of and location of lightning
(this issue).
C. E. Baum , Properties of lightning-leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Note 2, 1981 and Proc.
International Aerospace Conference on Lightning and Static Electricity, Oxford, March 1982, paper A6.
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1975.
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P. S. Book and H. J. Price , Transmission line corona experiment, Interaction Note 313, 1976.
P. S. Book , Study of corona in a transmission line test facility, Interaction Note 369, 1978.
K. C. Chen , Transient corona effects on a wire over the ground, in Lightning Technology, NASA Conference
Publication 2128, April 1980.
T. R. Connor , Stroke- and space-resolved slit spectra of lightning, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Report LA-
3754 Addendum, 1968.
40 E. Garbagnati et al., Rilievi delle caratteristiche del fulmine in Italia. Risultati ottenuti negli anni 19701973.
R. L. Gardner , A Model of the Lightning Return Stroke, Doctoral thesis, University of Colorado, 1980.
P. F. Little , Transmission line representation of a lightning return stroke, J. Phys. D., 11, pp. 18931910, 1978.
E. T. Pierce , in Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity ( L. G. Smith , ed.), New York: Pergamon Press,
1958.
G. H. Price , and E. T. Pierce , Radio Science, vol. 12, pp. 381, 1977.
M. Rao and H. Bhattacharya , Lateral corona currents from the return stroke channel and the slow field change
after the return stroke in a lightning discharge, J. Geophys. Res., vol. 71, pp. 28112814, 1966.
L. E. Salonave , Lightning and Its Spectrum, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1980, pp. 117ff.
S. A. Schelkunoff , and H. J. Friis , Antennas: Theory and Practice, New York: John Wiley, 1952.
M. A. Uman op cit., p. 133 following Dennis and Pierce, J. Res. NB8 68D (Radio Science), pp. 777794, 1964.
M. A. Uman , in Planetary Electrodynamics ( Hughes and Coroniti , ed.), Gordon and Breach, 1969a.
M. A. Uman , Lightning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969b.
C. F. Wagner and A. R. Hileman, The lightning stroke-II, Trans. AIEE, vol. 80, pp. 622642, 1961.
C. F. Wagner , The relation between stroke current and the velocity of the return stroke, IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. 82, pp. 609617, 1963.
C. F. Wagner , Lightning and transmission lines, J. Franklin Inst., vol. 283, pp.558594, 1967.
A. G. Webster , Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics, New York: Dover, 1945.
G. B. Whitham , Linear and Nonlinear Waves, New York: J. Wiley, 1974.
Ya. B. Zeldovich and Yu. P. Raizer , The Physics of Shockwaves and High Temperature Phenomena, New
York: Academic Press, 1966.
1975.
C. E. Baum et al., Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10 nanosecond resolution
(Revised), Lightning Phenomenology Notes, Note 3, EMP Note Series, Kirtland AFB, NM, February 1982. A
subset of this data was also published in Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10
nanosecond resolution, in Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980.
C. E. Baum , Properties of lightning leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Notes, Note 2, EMP Note Series,
Kirtland AFB, NM, 1981.
J. S. Boyle , and R. E. Orville , Return stroke velocity measurements in multi-stroke lightning flashes, J.
Geophys. Res., vol. 81, pp. 44614466, 1976.
C. L. Longmire , R. L. Gardner , J. L. Gilbert , and M. H. Frese , A physical model of nuclear lightning, Lightning
Phenomenology Notes, Note 4, EMP Note Series, Kirtland AFB, NM, 1982.
T. Ogawa , The lightning current in CRC Handbook of Atmospherics, H. Volland , ed., Boca Raton: CRC Press,
1982.
T. F. Trost , and F. L. Potts , Analysis of electromagnetic fields on a F-106 aircraft during lightning strikes,
Proceedings of the International Aerospace Conference on Lightning and Static Electricity, St. Catherines
College, Oxford, March 1982.
C. E. Baum , private communication.
W. Finkelnburg , and H. Maecker , in Handbuch der Physik, edited by S. Flugge , Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1956,
vol. 22, p. 254.
R. L. Gardner , Ph.D. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 1980.
Changming Guo , and E. Philip Krider , J. Geophys. Res. 87, p. 8913, 1982.
R. R. Johnston , and D. E. Stevenson , Radiative Properties of High Temperature Air II, National Technical
Information Service Document No. 641577 UCRI-13786 (Science Applications, Inc. Rep. SAI-056-77-PA, Palo
Alto, CA, 1977).
61 I. D. Latimer , J. I. Mills , and R. A. Day , J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer 10, p. 629, 1970.
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R. E. Orville , J. Atmos. Sci. 25, p. 852, 1968b.
J. M. Picone et al., J. Atmos. Sci. 38, p. 2056, 1981. Our calculated lightning channel radius was about the
same as the radius of the experimental discharge channel of Picone et al. and was much smaller than the
lightning channel radius that they assumed. Therefore we quote the cooling time and give an effective diffusion
coefficient corresponding to the experimental data in Figure 1 of their article.
M. N. Plooster , Phys. Fluids 13, p. 2665, 1970.
M. N. Plooster , Phys. Fluids 14, p. 2124, 1971a.
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L. Spitzer, Jr. and R. Harm , Phys. Rev. 89, p. 977, 1953.
L. Spitzer , Jr., Physic of Fully Ionized Gases, New York: Interscience, 1962.
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M. A. Uman , J. Geophys. Res. 74, p. 949, 1969.
J. G. Anderson and E. C. Sakshaug , in Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers ( D. G. Fink and H. W.
Beaty , ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, p. 2728.
L. Baker , Lightning Phenomenology Note 12, to appear.
L. Baker and C. E. Baum , Analytic Return-Stroke Transmission-Line Model, this issue.
C. E. Baum , Properties of lightning-leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Note 2, December 1981.
K. Berger , J. Franklin Inst., vol. 283, p. 478, 1967.
K. Berger , in Lightning, vol. I ( R. H. Golde , ed.), New York: Academic Press, 1977, pp. 147ff.
74 L. V. Bewley , Traveling Waves on Transmission Systems, 2nd ed., New York: Dover, 1963.
S. I. Braginskii , Soviet Phys. JETP, vol. 34, p. 1068, 1958.
R. L. Gardner , Ph.D. thesis, University of Colorado, 1980.
R. H. Golde , in Lightning, vol. 1 ( R. H. Golde , ed.), New York: Academic Press, 1977, p. 335.
H. Kroninger , CSIR report ELEK53, 1974, Nat. Elec. Eng. Res. Inst., Pretoria, S.A.
D. M. LeVine and R. Meneghini , Goddard Space Flight Center, preprint X-953-77-154, 1977.
P. F. Little , J. Phys. D, vol. 11, p. 1893, 1978.
G. H. Price and E. T. Pierce , Radio Science, vol. 12, p. 381, 1977.
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Interscience, 1967, pp. 263ff.
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D. E. Strawe , preprint.
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M. A. Uman , Lightning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.
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C. F. Wagner , AIEE, vol. 82, pt. 2, p. 609, 1963.
C. D. Weidman and E. P. Krider , in Lightning Technology, NASA Conference Publication 2128, FAA-RD-80-30,
1980, p. 29.
Volland, H. , A wave guide model lightning currents and their electromagnetic field, on Lightning Technology,
NASA Conference Publication 2/28, FAA-RD-80-30, pp. 319, April 1980.
King, R.W.P. , et al., Antennas in Matter, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1981.
Baum, C. E. , Properties of lightning leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Notes, Note 2, Air Force
Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, New Mexico, December 1981.
Marin L. , Natural Modes of Certain Thin-Wire Structures, Interaction Notes, Note 186, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, New Mexico, August 1974.
Abramowitz, M. , and Stegun, I. N. , eds., Handbook of Mathematical Functions, National Bureau of Standards,
AMS-55, 1964.
C. E. Baum , Air Conductivity: Some New Developments, Theoretical Note 2, Air Force Weapons Laboratory,
Kirtland AFB, NM, 1965a.
C. E. Baum , The Calculation of Conduction Electron Parameters in Ionized Air, Theoretical Note 6, Air Force
Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, 1965b.
C. E. Baum , Electron Thermalization and Mobility in Air, Theoretical Note 12, Air Force Weapons Laboratory,
Kirtland AFB, NM, 1965c.
D. K. Davies , Measurements of Swarm Parameters in Dry Air, Theoretical Note 346, Air Force Weapons
D. K. Davies , and P. J. Chantry , Air Chemistry Measurements II, Theoretical Note 352, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, July 1984.
D. O. Dommasch , S. S. Sherby , and T. F. Connolly , Airplane Aerodynamics, New York: Pitman Publishing
Corp., 1957.
S. Singer , Ball Lightning, in: Lightning ( R. H. Golde , ed.), New York: Academic Press, 1977, vol. 1, pp.
409436.
M. A. Uman , Lightning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969, Appendix C.
C. E. Baum , Interaction of electromagnetic fields with an object which has an electromagnetic symmetry plane,
Interaction Note 63, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, March 1971.
C. E. Baum , E. L. Breen , J. P. ONeill , C. B. Moore , and D. L. Hall , Measurements of electromagnetic
properties of lightning with 10 nanosecond resolution, Lightning Phenomenology Note 3, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, February 1982, also in shorter form (same authors, title), Proc. Lightning
Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128, FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980, pp. 3982.
C. E. Baum , Properties of lightning-leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Note 2, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, December 1981, and Proc. Intl. Aerospace Conf. on Lightning and Static
Electricity, Oxford, March 1982, pp. A61 through A6-9.
114 C. E. Baum , and R. L. Gardner , An introduction to leader tip modelling, Lightning Phenomenology Note 5,
Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, July 1982, also Electromagnetics, 1986, pp. 111115, and
Lightning Electromagnetics, 1989.
C. E. Baum , J. P. ONeill , E. L. Breen , D. L. Hall , and C. B. Moore , Location of lightning electromagnetic
sources by time of arrival compared to inference from electromagnetic fields, Thunder Acoustics, and
Videotape Photographs, Lightning Phenomenology Note 11, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM,
October 1983,
C. E. Baum , and L. Baker , Return-stroke transmission-line model, Lightning Phenomenology Note 13, Air
Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, October 1984, also in Electromagnetics Special Issue, 1988, pp.
229240.
R. L. Gardner , L. Baker , J. L. Gilbert , C. E. Baum , and D. J. Andersh , Comparison of published HEMP and
natural lightning on the surface of an aircraft, Lightning Phenomenology Note 12, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, August 1984, also as R. L. Gardner , L. Baker , C. E. Baum , and D. J. Andersh ,
Comparison of lightning with public domain HEMP waveforms on the surface of an aircraft, Proc. EMC
Symposium, Zurich, March 1985, pp. 175180, also as (first authors, title) Proc. Intl Aerospace Conf. on
Lightning and Static Electricity, 1985, pp. 18, and Lightning Electromagnetics, 1989.
Phenomenology Note 4, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, March 1982, also as Phys. Fluids,
1984, pp. 26942698.
M. A. Uman , M. J. Master , and E. P. Krider , A comparison of lightning electromagnetic fields with the nuclear
electromagnetic pulse in the frequency range 104-107 Hz, IEEE Trans. EMC, November 1982, pp. 410416.
Properties of Lightning-Leader Pulses

C. E. Baum , et al., Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10 nanosecond resolution,
Proc. Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980a, pp. 3982. An expanded
version of this is also planned
C. E. Baum , Simple model of corona on a wire, FULMEN 5, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM,
May 1980b.
C. E. Baum , Electromagnetic characterization of lightning in the submicrosecond regime, URSI XXth General
Assembly, Washington, DC, August 1981.
P. S. Book and H. J. Price , A transmission line corona experiment, Interaction Note 313, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, October 1976.
P. S. Book , Study of corona in a transmission line test facility, Interaction Note 369, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, November 1978.
P. S. Book , Transient corona measurements in a transmission line test facility, FULMEN 5, Air Force Weapons
K. C. Chen , Interpretation of corona test data, FULMEN 5, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM,
May 1980a.
K. C. Chen , Transient corona effects on a wire over the ground, Proc. Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Pub.
2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980b, pp. 265281.
S. A. Schelkunoff , Advanced Antenna Theory, New York: Wiley and Sons, 1952.
C. D. Weidman , and E. P. Krider , Submicrosecond risetimes in lightning radiation fields, Proc. Lightning
Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980, pp. 2938. Also as Submicrosecond
risetimes in lightning return-stroke fields, Geophys. Res. Letts., vol. 7, no. 11, November 1980, pp. 955958.
Analytic Return-Stroke Transmission-Line Model

M. Abramowitz and J. Stegun , Handbook of Mathematical Functions, NBS Monograph 55, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1964.
C. E. Baum et al., Measurements of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10-ns resolution (revised),
Lightning Phenomenology Note 3, February 1982. This is an expanded version (more data) of an earlier version
(same title, authors) in Proc. Symp. on Lightning Technology, NASA Conference Publication 2128, FAA-RD-80-
30, April 1980, pp. 3982. Also see (same authors) Electromagnetic measurements of and location of lightning
(this issue).
C. E. Baum , Properties of lightning-leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Note 2, 1981 and Proc.
International Aerospace Conference on Lightning and Static Electricity, Oxford, March 1982, paper A6.
R. Becker , Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions, New York: Dover, 1964.
1975.
K. Berger , in Lightning ( R. H. Golde , ed.), London: Academic Press, 1977, p.119.
P. S. Book and H. J. Price , Transmission line corona experiment, Interaction Note 313, 1976.
P. S. Book , Study of corona in a transmission line test facility, Interaction Note 369, 1978.
K. C. Chen , Transient corona effects on a wire over the ground, in Lightning Technology, NASA Conference
Publication 2128, April 1980.
T. R. Connor , Stroke- and space-resolved slit spectra of lightning, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Report LA-
3754 Addendum, 1968.
40 E. Garbagnati et al., Rilievi delle caratteristiche del fulmine in Italia. Risultati ottenuti negli anni 19701973.
R. L. Gardner , A Model of the Lightning Return Stroke, Doctoral thesis, University of Colorado, 1980.
P. F. Little , Transmission line representation of a lightning return stroke, J. Phys. D., 11, pp. 18931910, 1978.
E. T. Pierce , in Recent Advances in Atmospheric Electricity ( L. G. Smith , ed.), New York: Pergamon Press,
1958.
G. H. Price , and E. T. Pierce , Radio Science, vol. 12, pp. 381, 1977.
M. Rao and H. Bhattacharya , Lateral corona currents from the return stroke channel and the slow field change
after the return stroke in a lightning discharge, J. Geophys. Res., vol. 71, pp. 28112814, 1966.
L. E. Salonave , Lightning and Its Spectrum, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1980, pp. 117ff.
S. A. Schelkunoff , and H. J. Friis , Antennas: Theory and Practice, New York: John Wiley, 1952.
M. A. Uman op cit., p. 133 following Dennis and Pierce, J. Res. NB8 68D (Radio Science), pp. 777794, 1964.
M. A. Uman , in Planetary Electrodynamics ( Hughes and Coroniti , ed.), Gordon and Breach, 1969a.
M. A. Uman , Lightning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969b.
C. F. Wagner and A. R. Hileman, The lightning stroke-II, Trans. AIEE, vol. 80, pp. 622642, 1961.
C. F. Wagner , The relation between stroke current and the velocity of the return stroke, IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. 82, pp. 609617, 1963.
C. F. Wagner , Lightning and transmission lines, J. Franklin Inst., vol. 283, pp.558594, 1967.
A. G. Webster , Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics, New York: Dover, 1945.
G. B. Whitham , Linear and Nonlinear Waves, New York: J. Wiley, 1974.
Ya. B. Zeldovich and Yu. P. Raizer , The Physics of Shockwaves and High Temperature Phenomena, New
York: Academic Press, 1966.
An Introduction to Leader Tip Modeling

1975.
C. E. Baum et al., Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10 nanosecond resolution
(Revised), Lightning Phenomenology Notes, Note 3, EMP Note Series, Kirtland AFB, NM, February 1982. A
subset of this data was also published in Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10
nanosecond resolution, in Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128 and FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980.
C. E. Baum , Properties of lightning leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Notes, Note 2, EMP Note Series,
Kirtland AFB, NM, 1981.
J. S. Boyle , and R. E. Orville , Return stroke velocity measurements in multi-stroke lightning flashes, J.
Phenomenology Notes, Note 4, EMP Note Series, Kirtland AFB, NM, 1982.
T. Ogawa , The lightning current in CRC Handbook of Atmospherics, H. Volland , ed., Boca Raton: CRC Press,
1982.
T. F. Trost , and F. L. Potts , Analysis of electromagnetic fields on a F-106 aircraft during lightning strikes,
Proceedings of the International Aerospace Conference on Lightning and Static Electricity, St. Catherines
College, Oxford, March 1982.
Lightning Return Stoke: A Numerical Calculation of the Optical Radiation

*
C. E. Baum , private communication.
W. Finkelnburg , and H. Maecker , in Handbuch der Physik, edited by S. Flugge , Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1956,
vol. 22, p. 254.
R. L. Gardner , Ph.D. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 1980.
Changming Guo , and E. Philip Krider , J. Geophys. Res. 87, p. 8913, 1982.
R. R. Johnston , and D. E. Stevenson , Radiative Properties of High Temperature Air II, National Technical
Information Service Document No. 641577 UCRI-13786 (Science Applications, Inc. Rep. SAI-056-77-PA, Palo
Alto, CA, 1977).
61 I. D. Latimer , J. I. Mills , and R. A. Day , J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer 10, p. 629, 1970.
H. N. Olsen , Phys. Fluids 2, p. 614, 1959.
R. E. Orville , J. Atmos. Sci. 25, p. 839, 1968a.
R. E. Orville , J. Atmos. Sci. 25, p. 852, 1968b.
J. M. Picone et al., J. Atmos. Sci. 38, p. 2056, 1981. Our calculated lightning channel radius was about the
same as the radius of the experimental discharge channel of Picone et al. and was much smaller than the
lightning channel radius that they assumed. Therefore we quote the cooling time and give an effective diffusion
coefficient corresponding to the experimental data in Figure 1 of their article.
M. N. Plooster , Phys. Fluids 13, p. 2665, 1970.
M. N. Plooster , Phys. Fluids 14, p. 2124, 1971a.
M. N. Plooster , Phys. Fluids 14, p. 2111, 1971b.
G. C. Pomraning , Radiation Hydrodynamics, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1973.
M. L. Prueitt , J. Geophys. Res. 68, p. 803, 1963.
R. D. Richtmeyer , and K. W. Morton , Difference Methods for Initial Values Problems, New York: Interscience,
1967.
L. Spitzer, Jr. and R. Harm , Phys. Rev. 89, p. 977, 1953.
L. Spitzer , Jr., Physic of Fully Ionized Gases, New York: Interscience, 1962.
M. A. Uman , J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 26, p. 123, 1964.
M. A. Uman , J. Geophys. Res. 74, p. 949, 1969.
Return-Stroke Transmission Line Model

7
J. G. Anderson and E. C. Sakshaug , in Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers ( D. G. Fink and H. W.
Beaty , ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978, p. 2728.
L. Baker , Lightning Phenomenology Note 12, to appear.
L. Baker and C. E. Baum , Analytic Return-Stroke Transmission-Line Model, this issue.
C. E. Baum , Properties of lightning-leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Note 2, December 1981.
K. Berger , J. Franklin Inst., vol. 283, p. 478, 1967.
K. Berger , in Lightning, vol. I ( R. H. Golde , ed.), New York: Academic Press, 1977, pp. 147ff.
74 L. V. Bewley , Traveling Waves on Transmission Systems, 2nd ed., New York: Dover, 1963.
S. I. Braginskii , Soviet Phys. JETP, vol. 34, p. 1068, 1958.
R. L. Gardner , Ph.D. thesis, University of Colorado, 1980.
R. H. Golde , in Lightning, vol. 1 ( R. H. Golde , ed.), New York: Academic Press, 1977, p. 335.
H. Kroninger , CSIR report ELEK53, 1974, Nat. Elec. Eng. Res. Inst., Pretoria, S.A.
D. M. LeVine and R. Meneghini , Goddard Space Flight Center, preprint X-953-77-154, 1977.
P. F. Little , J. Phys. D, vol. 11, p. 1893, 1978.
G. H. Price and E. T. Pierce , Radio Science, vol. 12, p. 381, 1977.
R. D. Richtmyer and R. B. Morton , Difference Methods for Initial Value Problems., 2nd ed., New York: Wiley-
Interscience, 1967, pp. 263ff.
S. A. Shelkunoff and H. J. Friis , Antennas: Theory and Practice, New York: John Wiley, 1952.
D. E. Strawe , preprint.
M. A. Uman and D. K. McLain , J. Geophys. Res., vol. 74, p. 6899, 1969.
M. A. Uman , D. K. McLain and E. P. Krider , Am. J. Phys., vol. 43, p. 33, 1975.
M. A. Uman et al., in Lightning Technology, NASA Conference Publication 2128, FAA-RD-80-30, 1980, p. 21.
C. F. Wagner , AIEE, vol. 82, pt. 2, p. 609, 1963.
C. D. Weidman and E. P. Krider , in Lightning Technology, NASA Conference Publication 2128, FAA-RD-80-30,
1980, p. 29.
Natural Frequencies of A Post with A Lightning Return Stroke

Volland, H. , A wave guide model lightning currents and their electromagnetic field, on Lightning Technology,
NASA Conference Publication 2/28, FAA-RD-80-30, pp. 319, April 1980.
King, R.W.P. , et al., Antennas in Matter, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1981.
Baum, C. E. , Properties of lightning leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Notes, Note 2, Air Force
Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, New Mexico, December 1981.
Marin L. , Natural Modes of Certain Thin-Wire Structures, Interaction Notes, Note 186, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, New Mexico, August 1974.
Abramowitz, M. , and Stegun, I. N. , eds., Handbook of Mathematical Functions, National Bureau of Standards,
AMS-55, 1964.
Motion of Ion Clouds in Air

C. E. Baum , Air Conductivity: Some New Developments, Theoretical Note 2, Air Force Weapons Laboratory,
Kirtland AFB, NM, 1965a.
C. E. Baum , The Calculation of Conduction Electron Parameters in Ionized Air, Theoretical Note 6, Air Force
Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, 1965b.
C. E. Baum , Electron Thermalization and Mobility in Air, Theoretical Note 12, Air Force Weapons Laboratory,
Kirtland AFB, NM, 1965c.
D. K. Davies , Measurements of Swarm Parameters in Dry Air, Theoretical Note 346, Air Force Weapons
D. K. Davies , and P. J. Chantry , Air Chemistry Measurements II, Theoretical Note 352, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, July 1984.
D. O. Dommasch , S. S. Sherby , and T. F. Connolly , Airplane Aerodynamics, New York: Pitman Publishing
Corp., 1957.
S. Singer , Ball Lightning, in: Lightning ( R. H. Golde , ed.), New York: Academic Press, 1977, vol. 1, pp.
409436.
M. A. Uman , Lightning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969, Appendix C.
Return-Stroke Initiation
C. E. Baum , Interaction of electromagnetic fields with an object which has an electromagnetic symmetry plane,
Interaction Note 63, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, March 1971.
C. E. Baum , E. L. Breen , J. P. ONeill , C. B. Moore , and D. L. Hall , Measurements of electromagnetic
properties of lightning with 10 nanosecond resolution, Lightning Phenomenology Note 3, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, February 1982, also in shorter form (same authors, title), Proc. Lightning
Technology, NASA Conf. Pub. 2128, FAA-RD-80-30, April 1980, pp. 3982.
C. E. Baum , Properties of lightning-leader pulses, Lightning Phenomenology Note 2, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, December 1981, and Proc. Intl. Aerospace Conf. on Lightning and Static
Electricity, Oxford, March 1982, pp. A61 through A6-9.
114 C. E. Baum , and R. L. Gardner , An introduction to leader tip modelling, Lightning Phenomenology Note 5,
Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, July 1982, also Electromagnetics, 1986, pp. 111115, and
Lightning Electromagnetics, 1989.
sources by time of arrival compared to inference from electromagnetic fields, Thunder Acoustics, and
Videotape Photographs, Lightning Phenomenology Note 11, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM,
October 1983,
C. E. Baum , and L. Baker , Return-stroke transmission-line model, Lightning Phenomenology Note 13, Air
Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, October 1984, also in Electromagnetics Special Issue, 1988, pp.
229240.
R. L. Gardner , L. Baker , J. L. Gilbert , C. E. Baum , and D. J. Andersh , Comparison of published HEMP and
natural lightning on the surface of an aircraft, Lightning Phenomenology Note 12, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, August 1984, also as R. L. Gardner , L. Baker , C. E. Baum , and D. J. Andersh ,
Comparison of lightning with public domain HEMP waveforms on the surface of an aircraft, Proc. EMC
Symposium, Zurich, March 1985, pp. 175180, also as (first authors, title) Proc. Intl Aerospace Conf. on
Lightning and Static Electricity, 1985, pp. 18, and Lightning Electromagnetics, 1989.
Phenomenology Note 4, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, NM, March 1982, also as Phys. Fluids,
1984, pp. 26942698.
M. A. Uman , M. J. Master , and E. P. Krider , A comparison of lightning electromagnetic fields with the nuclear
electromagnetic pulse in the frequency range 104-107 Hz, IEEE Trans. EMC, November 1982, pp. 410416.
Propagation of LightningInduced Signals

M. M. Agrest , and M. S. Meksimov , Theory of Incomplete Cylindrical Functions and Their Applications, Berlin :
Springer-Verlag, 1971. (See also Section VII-3, Radiation from a vertical dipole on the earths surface, pp.
200205.)
D. E. Barrick , Theory of HF and VHF propagation across the rough sea, Radio Science, vol. 6, pp. 517533,
1971.
H. Bremmer , Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves, Handbuch der Physik, 1958a, pp. 423633.
H. Bremmer , Applications of operational calculus to ground wave propagation, particularly for long waves, IRE
Trans. AP-3, p. 267, 1958b.
D. C. Chang , and R. J. Fisher , A unified theory of radiation of a vertical dipole over a dissipative earth, Radio
Science, vol. 9, pp. 11291138, 1974.
V. Cooray , and S. Lundquist , Effects of propagation on the rise times and the initial peaks of radiation fields
from return strokes, Radio Science, vol. 18, pp. 405415, 1983.
L. B. Felsen , Transient Electromagnetic Fields, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1976, Chapter 1.
R. L. Gardner , Effect of the propagation path on lightning induced fields, Radio Science, vol. 16, pp. 377384,
1981.
E. M. Gyunnien , G. I. Makarov , V. V. Novikov , and S. T. Rybachek , Problems of Wave Diffraction and
Propagation, E. H. Gyunnien (ed.), Leningrad State University, 1964, pp. 5191.
H. Haddad , and D. C. Chang , Transient electromagnetic field generated by a vertical dipole on the surface of
earth, Radio Science, vol. 16, pp. 165177, 1981.
F. Hepburn , Waveguide interpretation of atmospheric waveforms, Atmos, and Terr. Phys., vol. 10, p. 121,
1957.
G. A. Hufford , An integral equation approach to the problem of wave propagation over an irregular surface,
Quart. Appl. Math., vol. 9, pp. 391404, 1952.
136 A. G. Jean , and J. R. Wait , The use of electromagnetic signals emitted from nuclear explosions to study
long range VLF propagation, Geophys. Res., vol. 70, pp. 12581261, 1965.
R. J. King , and J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic ground wave propagation-Theory and experiment, Symposia
Mathematica, vol. 18, pp. 107208, 1976.
A. Malaga , Delay dispersion of wideband ground wave signals due to propagation over a rough ocean surface,
Radio Science, vol. 19, p p. 13891398, 1984.
D. K. McLain , Exact expression and moment approximation for the electric field intensity of the lightning return
stroke, Geophys. Res., vol. 76, pp. 21022105, 1971.
P. M. Morse and H. Feshbach , Methods of Theoretical Physics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953, p. 440.
V. V. Novikov , and G. I. Makarov , Propagation of pulsed signals over a homogeneous flat earth, Radio Eng.
and Electr. Phys. (USSR), vol. 5, pp. 644652, 1961.
O. M. Phillips , Dynamics of the Upper Ocean, London: Cambridge University Press, 1966, pp. 103123.
W. J. Pierson , and L. Moskowitz , A proposed spectral form for fully developed wind seas based on the
similarity theory of S. A. Kitzigorodskii, Geophys. Res., vol. 69, pp. 51815190, 1964.
R. K. Rosich , and J. R. Wait , On the calculation of an average surface impedance for a periodic surface, NTIS
Document AD-714090, October 1970.
S. K. Srivastava , Scattering of HF electromagnetic waves from an ocean surface: An alternative approach
incorporating a dipole source, Ph.D. thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland, April 1984.
B. van der Pol , On discontinuous electromagnetic waves and the occurrence of a surface wave, IEEE Trans.
AP-4, pp. 288293, 1956.
P. N. Vorontsov-Velyaminov and V. V. Novikov , Problems of Wave Diffraction and Propagation, Leningrad
State University, 1962, p. 2.
J. R. Wait , Transient fields of a vertical dipole over a homogeneous curved ground, Can. Phys., vol. 34, pp.
2735, 1956a.
J. R. Wait , Radiation from a vertical antenna over a curved stratified ground, Res. of U.S. National Bureau of
Standards, vol. 56, pp. 237244, 1956b.
J. R. Wait , The transient behavior of the electromagnetic ground wave on a spherical earth, IRE Trans. AP-5,
pp. 198202, 1957a.
J. R. Wait , A note on the propagation of the transient ground wave, Can. Phys., vol. 35, pp. 11461151, 1957b.
137 J. R. Wait , Propagation of a pulse across a coast-line, Proc. IRE, vol. 45, pp. 15501552, 1957c.
J. R. Wait , Propagation of VLF pulses to great distances, Res. National Bureau of Standards, vol. 61, pp.
205232, 1958.
J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic Radiation from Cylindrical Structures, New York: Pergamon Press, 1959a.
J. R. Wait , Guiding of electromagnetic waves by uniformly rough surfaces, IRE Trans. AP-7, pp. S154S168,
December 1959b.
J. R. Wait , On the theory of the slowtail portion of atmospheric waveforms, Geophys. Res., vol. 65, pp.
19391946, 1960.
J. R. Wait , A note on the propagation of electromagnetic pulses over the earths surface, Can. Journ. Phys.,
vol. 40, pp. 12641269, 1962.
J. R. Wait , Propagation of electromagnetic pulses in terrestrial waveguides, IEEE Trans. AP-18, pp. 904918,
1965.
J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic Waves in Stratified Media, 2nd ed., New York: Pergamon Press, 1970. (Prior work
of Fock, van der Pol, Bremmer, Pekeris, Feinberg, Lcontovich and Norton is referenced.)
J. R. Wait , Ground wave pulses, in Electromagnetic Probing in Geophysics, Appendix A (ed. by J. R. Wait ),
Boulder, CO: Golem Press, 1971a, pp. 343360.
J. R. Wait , Propagcao de Pulsos Sobre a Terra, Revista Brasileira de Technologia, vol. 2, pp. 193199, 1971b.
J. R. Wait , On the electromagnetic pulse response of a dipole over a plane surface, Can. Phys., vol. 52, pp.
153196, 1974.
J. R. Wait , Theories for radio ground wave propagative over a multisection path, Radio Science, vol. 15, pp.
971976, 1980.
J. R. Wait , Wave Propagation Theory, New York: Pergamon Press, 1981, Chapter 12.
J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic Wave Theory, New York: Harper and Row, 1984, Chapters 1 and 4. (Revised
printing, New York: Wiley, 1988)
J. R. Wait and A. H. Conda , On the diffraction of electromagnetic pulses by curved conducting surfaces, Can.
Phys., vol. 37, pp. 13841396, 1959, and vol. 47, p. 1050, 1969.
J. R. Wait and H. H. Howe , Amplitude and phase curves for ground wave propagation in the band 200 c/s to
500 kc/s, N.B.S. Circular No. 574, May 1956 (now available as N.T.I.S. as PR 272292/AS).
138 J. Walsh and M. H. Rahman , Transient analysis of an electric dipole over sea water, Digest, Proceedings
of IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 2, 1979, p. 531.
A. Baos , Dipole Radiation in the Presence of a Conducting Half Space, New York: Pergamon, 1966.
C. E. Baum , et al., Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10 nanosecond resolution, in
Lightning Technology, NASA Conference Publication 2128, FAA-RD-80-30NASA Langley Research Center,
Hampton, Virginia, 1980.
E. O. Brigham , The Fast Fourier Transform, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1974.
S. J. Day , N. Mullineux , and J. R. Reed , Transient response using Fourier transforms, Part II: Use of the
modified Fourier transform, Int. J. Elec. Eng. Educ., vol. 4, pp. 3140, 1966.
H. A. Haddad , Transient electromagnetic propagation over conducting earth, Ph.D. thesis, Chapter 3,
University of Colorado, 1979.
A. G. Jean , L. J. Lange , and J. R. Wait , Ionospheric reflection coefficients from sferics measurements, Geofis.
Pura Appl. Milano, vol. 38, pp. 147153, 1957.
A. G. Jean , W. L. Taylor , and J. R. Wait , VLF phase characteristics deduced from atmospheric wave forms, J.
J. A. Leise and W. L. Taylor , A transmission line model with general velocities for lightning, J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 391396, 1977.
D. M. LeVine and R. M. Meneghini , Radiation from a filament driven by a traveling wave, NASA TN D-8302,
1976.
D. M. LeVine and R. M. Meneghini , Electromagnetic fields radiated from a lightning return stroke: Application of
an exact solution to Maxwells equations, J. Geophys. Res., vol. 83, no. C5, pp. 23772384, 1978.
Y. T. Lin , Lightning return stroke models, Ph.D. thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, 1978.
Y. T. Lin , M. A. Uman , and R. B. Standler , Lightning return stroke models, J. Geophys. Res., vol. 85, no. C3,
pp. 15711583, 1980.
J. B. Smyth and D. C. Smyth , Lightning and its radio emission, Radio Sci., vol. 11, no. 12, pp. 977984, 1976.
153 M. A. Uman , Lightning, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.
M. A. Uman and D. K. McLain , Magnetic field of a lightning return stroke, J. Geophys. Res., vol. 74, no. 28, pp.
68996910, 1969.
M. A. Uman , D. K. McLain , and E. P. Krider , The electromagnetic field from a finite antenna, Am. J. Phys.,
vol. 43, pp. 3338, 1975.
J. R. Wait , Transient fields of a vertical dipole over a homogeneous curved ground, Can. J. Phys., vol. 34, no.
1, pp. 2735, 1956a.
J. R. Wait , On the waveform of a radio atmospheric at short ranges, Proc. IRE, vol. 44, no. 8, p. 1052, 1956b.
J. R. Wait , The transient behavior of the electromagnetic ground wave on a spherical earth, IRE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-5, no. 2, pp. 198202, 1957a.
J. R. Wait , Propagation of a pulse across a coastline, Proc. IRE, vol. 45, no. 11, pp. 15501551, 1957b.
J. R. Wait , Terrestrial propagation of very-low-frequency radio waves, a theoretical investigation, J. Res. Nat.
Bur. Stand., vol. 64D, pp. 153204, 1960.
J. R. Wait , A note on the propagation of electromagnetic pulses over the earths surface, Can. J. Phys., vol. 40,
pp. 12641269, 1962a.
J. R. Wait , Introduction to the theory of VLF propagation, Proc. IRE, vol. 50, pp. 16241647, 1962b.
J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic Waves in Stratified Media, 2nd ed., New York: Pergamon, 1970.
J. R. Wait and A. Murphy, Multiple reflections between the earth and ionospyere in VLF propagation, Geofis.
C. D. Weidman and E. P. Krider , Submicrosecond risetimes in lightning radiation fields, in Lightning
Technology, NASA Conference Publication 2128, FAA-RD-80-30, NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton,
Virginia, 1980. 154
Review of Propagation Effects For Pulse Transmission

*
M. M. Agrest , and M. S. Meksimov , Theory of Incomplete Cylindrical Functions and Their Applications, Berlin :
Springer-Verlag, 1971. (See also Section VII-3, Radiation from a vertical dipole on the earths surface, pp.
200205.)
D. E. Barrick , Theory of HF and VHF propagation across the rough sea, Radio Science, vol. 6, pp. 517533,
1971.
H. Bremmer , Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves, Handbuch der Physik, 1958a, pp. 423633.
H. Bremmer , Applications of operational calculus to ground wave propagation, particularly for long waves, IRE
Trans. AP-3, p. 267, 1958b.
D. C. Chang , and R. J. Fisher , A unified theory of radiation of a vertical dipole over a dissipative earth, Radio
Science, vol. 9, pp. 11291138, 1974.
V. Cooray , and S. Lundquist , Effects of propagation on the rise times and the initial peaks of radiation fields
from return strokes, Radio Science, vol. 18, pp. 405415, 1983.
L. B. Felsen , Transient Electromagnetic Fields, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1976, Chapter 1.
R. L. Gardner , Effect of the propagation path on lightning induced fields, Radio Science, vol. 16, pp. 377384,
1981.
E. M. Gyunnien , G. I. Makarov , V. V. Novikov , and S. T. Rybachek , Problems of Wave Diffraction and
Propagation, E. H. Gyunnien (ed.), Leningrad State University, 1964, pp. 5191.
H. Haddad , and D. C. Chang , Transient electromagnetic field generated by a vertical dipole on the surface of
earth, Radio Science, vol. 16, pp. 165177, 1981.
F. Hepburn , Waveguide interpretation of atmospheric waveforms, Atmos, and Terr. Phys., vol. 10, p. 121,
1957.
G. A. Hufford , An integral equation approach to the problem of wave propagation over an irregular surface,
Quart. Appl. Math., vol. 9, pp. 391404, 1952.
136 A. G. Jean , and J. R. Wait , The use of electromagnetic signals emitted from nuclear explosions to study
long range VLF propagation, Geophys. Res., vol. 70, pp. 12581261, 1965.
R. J. King , and J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic ground wave propagation-Theory and experiment, Symposia
Mathematica, vol. 18, pp. 107208, 1976.
A. Malaga , Delay dispersion of wideband ground wave signals due to propagation over a rough ocean surface,
Radio Science, vol. 19, p p. 13891398, 1984.
D. K. McLain , Exact expression and moment approximation for the electric field intensity of the lightning return
stroke, Geophys. Res., vol. 76, pp. 21022105, 1971.
P. M. Morse and H. Feshbach , Methods of Theoretical Physics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953, p. 440.
V. V. Novikov , and G. I. Makarov , Propagation of pulsed signals over a homogeneous flat earth, Radio Eng.
and Electr. Phys. (USSR), vol. 5, pp. 644652, 1961.
O. M. Phillips , Dynamics of the Upper Ocean, London: Cambridge University Press, 1966, pp. 103123.
W. J. Pierson , and L. Moskowitz , A proposed spectral form for fully developed wind seas based on the
similarity theory of S. A. Kitzigorodskii, Geophys. Res., vol. 69, pp. 51815190, 1964.
R. K. Rosich , and J. R. Wait , On the calculation of an average surface impedance for a periodic surface, NTIS
Document AD-714090, October 1970.
S. K. Srivastava , Scattering of HF electromagnetic waves from an ocean surface: An alternative approach
incorporating a dipole source, Ph.D. thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland, April 1984.
B. van der Pol , On discontinuous electromagnetic waves and the occurrence of a surface wave, IEEE Trans.
AP-4, pp. 288293, 1956.
P. N. Vorontsov-Velyaminov and V. V. Novikov , Problems of Wave Diffraction and Propagation, Leningrad
State University, 1962, p. 2.
J. R. Wait , Transient fields of a vertical dipole over a homogeneous curved ground, Can. Phys., vol. 34, pp.
2735, 1956a.
J. R. Wait , Radiation from a vertical antenna over a curved stratified ground, Res. of U.S. National Bureau of
Standards, vol. 56, pp. 237244, 1956b.
J. R. Wait , The transient behavior of the electromagnetic ground wave on a spherical earth, IRE Trans. AP-5,
pp. 198202, 1957a.
J. R. Wait , A note on the propagation of the transient ground wave, Can. Phys., vol. 35, pp. 11461151, 1957b.
137 J. R. Wait , Propagation of a pulse across a coast-line, Proc. IRE, vol. 45, pp. 15501552, 1957c.
J. R. Wait , Propagation of VLF pulses to great distances, Res. National Bureau of Standards, vol. 61, pp.
205232, 1958.
J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic Radiation from Cylindrical Structures, New York: Pergamon Press, 1959a.
J. R. Wait , Guiding of electromagnetic waves by uniformly rough surfaces, IRE Trans. AP-7, pp. S154S168,
December 1959b.
J. R. Wait , On the theory of the slowtail portion of atmospheric waveforms, Geophys. Res., vol. 65, pp.
19391946, 1960.
J. R. Wait , A note on the propagation of electromagnetic pulses over the earths surface, Can. Journ. Phys.,
vol. 40, pp. 12641269, 1962.
J. R. Wait , Propagation of electromagnetic pulses in terrestrial waveguides, IEEE Trans. AP-18, pp. 904918,
1965.
J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic Waves in Stratified Media, 2nd ed., New York: Pergamon Press, 1970. (Prior work
of Fock, van der Pol, Bremmer, Pekeris, Feinberg, Lcontovich and Norton is referenced.)
J. R. Wait , Ground wave pulses, in Electromagnetic Probing in Geophysics, Appendix A (ed. by J. R. Wait ),
Boulder, CO: Golem Press, 1971a, pp. 343360.
J. R. Wait , Propagcao de Pulsos Sobre a Terra, Revista Brasileira de Technologia, vol. 2, pp. 193199, 1971b.
J. R. Wait , On the electromagnetic pulse response of a dipole over a plane surface, Can. Phys., vol. 52, pp.
153196, 1974.
J. R. Wait , Theories for radio ground wave propagative over a multisection path, Radio Science, vol. 15, pp.
971976, 1980.
J. R. Wait , Wave Propagation Theory, New York: Pergamon Press, 1981, Chapter 12.
J. R. Wait , Electromagnetic Wave Theory, New York: Harper and Row, 1984, Chapters 1 and 4. (Revised
printing, New York: Wiley, 1988)
J. R. Wait and A. H. Conda , On the diffraction of electromagnetic pulses by curved conducting surfaces, Can.
Phys., vol. 37, pp. 13841396, 1959, and vol. 47, p. 1050, 1969.
J. R. Wait and H. H. Howe , Amplitude and phase curves for ground wave propagation in the band 200 c/s to
500 kc/s, N.B.S. Circular No. 574, May 1956 (now available as N.T.I.S. as PR 272292/AS).
138 J. Walsh and M. H. Rahman , Transient analysis of an electric dipole over sea water, Digest, Proceedings
of IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 2, 1979, p. 531.
Effect oF the Propagation Path on Lightning-Induced Transient Fields

*
A. Baos , Dipole Radiation in the Presence of a Conducting Half Space, New York: Pergamon, 1966.
C. E. Baum , et al., Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10 nanosecond resolution, in
Lightning Technology, NASA Conference Publication 2128, FAA-RD-80-30NASA Langley Research Center,
Hampton, Virginia, 1980.
E. O. Brigham , The Fast Fourier Transform, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1974.
S. J. Day , N. Mullineux , and J. R. Reed , Transient response using Fourier transforms, Part II: Use of the
modified Fourier transform, Int. J. Elec. Eng. Educ., vol. 4, pp. 3140, 1966.
H. A. Haddad , Transient electromagnetic propagation over conducting earth, Ph.D. thesis, Chapter 3,
University of Colorado, 1979.
A. G. Jean , L. J. Lange , and J. R. Wait , Ionospheric reflection coefficients from sferics measurements, Geofis.
A. G. Jean , W. L. Taylor , and J. R. Wait , VLF phase characteristics deduced from atmospheric wave forms, J.
vol. 82, no. 3, pp. 391396, 1977.
D. M. LeVine and R. M. Meneghini , Radiation from a filament driven by a traveling wave, NASA TN D-8302,
1976.
D. M. LeVine and R. M. Meneghini , Electromagnetic fields radiated from a lightning return stroke: Application of
an exact solution to Maxwells equations, J. Geophys. Res., vol. 83, no. C5, pp. 23772384, 1978.
Y. T. Lin , Lightning return stroke models, Ph.D. thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville, 1978.
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LIGHTNING

Bowman, Senior, and Uslenghi

0 HEMISPHERE PUBLISHING CORPORATION

Copyright © 1990 by Hemispherer Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved. Printed

1234567890 EBEB 9876543210

Cover design by Sharon M. DePass.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lightning electromagnetics I edited by Robert L. Gardner.

PART A: MODELS OF FUNDAMENTAL

Properties of Lightning-Leader Pulses

4 Lightning Return Stroke: A Numerical Calculation

PART B: PROPAGATION OF LIGHTNING-INDUCED SIGNALS

9 Review of Propagation Effects for Pulse Transmission

PART C: MEASUREMENT OF LIGHTNING PARAMETERS

11 Submicrosecond Risetimes in Lightning Return-Stroke Fields

12 The Fine Structure of Lightning Return-Stroke Waveforms

13 Observation of Lightning in the Frequency and Time Domains

PART D: LIGHTNING INTERACTION WITH SYSTEMS

21 Current and Voltage Induced on a Telecommunications Cable

Electromagnetics plays a significant role in lightning phenomenology from

A. Models of Fundamental Lightning Processes

This book is an expansion of a Special Issue of Electromagnetics on the

chapter which uses photographic and elecromagnetic measurements to examine

quantitative theory of charge formation or cloud electrification. Experiments,

C. E. Baum, Air Force Weapons Laboratory,

2. EQUIVALE~T CORONA RADIUS

The concept of an equivalent corona radius, W0 , to approximately describe the transmis-

wire radius (or later, arc radius)

Figure 1. Equivalent-corona-radius model.

and conductance per unit length

where the capacitance per unit length in the absence of corona is

c~ = [c'-1 + c;+lrl = ;: = ln2ti;) . (7)

IQ'.L = effective breakdown electric field

where a tilde~ above a quantity indicates a function of the Laplace-transform variable or

a) General case with uniform corona.

b) Case without sources and with sufficiently large corona conductivity.

Figure 2. Per-unit-length transmission-line equivalent-circuit represen-

C '= Q' (11)

4. NONLINEAR WAVES FROM HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS

v( Q') { 1 d [ Q' ] }1/2

arl ± -+z-d [1- J -ar I }

di(r) = =fv(Q'(r))dQ'(r) (17)

I(r)-I; 'f lQ:

5. APPLICATION TO LIGHTNING LEADER

Figure 3. Lightning-leader model.

u(r) { 1 for r > 0

and in terms of radius parameters, we have

so our values of "ill e of interest are in the range

Summarizing our equations we have

IQ:.Ssoc.l ~ 150 p.C/m

[lllv]lmax ~ 1.5 TAm/s

1. C. E. Baum et al., "Measurement of electromagnetic properties of lightning with 10

Properties of Lightning-Leader Pulses

Analytic Return-Stroke Transmission-Line Model

An Introduction to Leader Tip Modeling

Lightning Return Stoke: A Numerical Calculation of the Optical Radiation

Return-Stroke Transmission Line Model

Natural Frequencies of A Post with A Lightning Return Stroke

Motion of Ion Clouds in Air

Propagation of LightningInduced Signals

Review of Propagation Effects For Pulse Transmission

Effect oF the Propagation Path on Lightning-Induced Transient Fields

Measurement of Lightning Parameters