T.

TEST SCIENCE
9/8/19 12:56 PM

Pointers:
• Circulatory System
○ Blood flow
○ Blood types
○ Blood pressure
○ Diseases
• Respiratory system
○ Function of gases we inhale
○ Composition of gases
• Photosynthesis
○ Light dependent phase
○ Carbon fixation
○ Cellular respiration
§ Aerobic
§ Anaerobic

Circulatory System
• Life-support system that transports nutrients and oxygen in the body
• Removes waste materials produced by the cells and carries hormones from the point
of secretion
• Structure:
○ Heart
§ Cone-shaped; muscular
§ Pumps blood throughout the body
§ It's axis is slightly deviated to the left and is divided into left and right
halves
§ Chambers
□ Right atrium
□ Left atrium
□ Right ventricle
□ Left ventricle
○ Blood vessels
§ Tubes where blood flows into a closed circuit
§ Types
□ Arteries
® Responsible for carrying blood that leaves the heart
® Contains oxygenated blood except for the pulmonary artery
® Arterioles are fine branches of arteries entering each organ of
the body
□ Veins
® Responsible for carrying blood back to the heart
® Contains deoxygenated blood except for pulmonary veins
® Venules are fine microscopic branches of veins
□ Capillaries
® Finest and thinnest among blood vessels
® Form a vast network where exchange of materials take place
in the body
® Measure about 1 mm long and 8 Hm
® It's walls are made of epithelial tissues and only one cell thick
® Exchange of materials between the bloodstream and body
cells takes place by diffusion through capillary walls
§ Valves
□ Flap-like structures that are found between the atria, ventricles, in
some large arteries attached to the heart, and veins
□ Prevents backward flow of blood
○ Blood
§ Internal circulating medium of the body that gives life to the cells
§ Transports raw nutrients to the cells, removes waste to the specific
excretory organs to the body
§ Types
Type A Antigen A Antibody B Can donate to Can receive
A or AB from O and A
Type B Antigen B Antibody A Can donate to Can receive
B or AB from O and A
□ Type AB Antigen A No Can donate to Can receive
and B antibodies AB from all blood
types
Type O No Antibodies Can donate to Can receive
antigens A and B all blood types from O
® Antibodies = act against foreign materials; cells that fight
pathogens, bacteria, virus
§ Composition
□ Plasma
® Liquid part of blood (unclotted) that is transparent and straw-
colored
® Comprises around 55% of the total blood volume
® Major substances
◊ Water
◊ Dissolved wastes
◊ Antibodies
◊ Dissolved nutrients
◊ Fibrinogen (used for blood clotting)
◊ Hormones
□ Leukocytes
® White blood cells
® Cells of the immune system
® Helps defend the body from invasion of pathogens
® Can be produced and/or stored in the bone marrow of the
lymph nodes
® Can be classified into granular and non-granular
◊ Granular
} Neutrophils
– Largest in population
} Eosinophils
} Basophils
◊ Non-granular
} Monocytes
} Lymphocytes
® Lifespan lasts for only 1-3 days
® Normal cell count = 5000-10,000 wbc per cubic of blood
® Macrophages
◊ Non-specific immune cells that rid of any foreign
particles through phagocytosis
□ Platelets
® Colorless pieces of cells smaller than other white or red blood
cells
® Don't have nuclei
® Produced from very large bone marrow cells called
megakaryocytes
® Lifespan is less than ten days
® Acts only in clotting
® When a blood vessel is injured, they stick to that blood vessels
and release and enzyme called fibrinogen, which changes into
fibrin during clotting
® The spongy mesh is the blood clot which forms the scab
□ Erythrocytes
® Red blood cells
® Bi-concave disc-shaped cells that are non-nucleated
® A small drop of blood may contain as many as 5 million rbc per
cubic centimeter
® Hemoglobin
◊ Iron and protein compound that attracts and easily
unites with gasses
◊ Deposits iron and reacts to oxygen
◊ Gives red color to red blood cells
§ Blood Pressure
□ Systolic pressure
® Tells how much pressure is exerted when the heart contracts
® Top number
□ Diastolic pressure
® Tells how much pressure is exerted when the heart relaxes
® Bottom number
□ Normal blood pressure: 120/80
○ Circulation
§ Pulmonary
□ Flow of blood from the right ventricles to the capillaries of the lungs
and back to the left atrium
□ The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, passing the pulmonary
arteries
□ As blood reaches the capillaries of the lungs, oxygen diffuses into the
blood while excess carbon dioxide leaves the bloodstream
§ Systemic
□ Pathway of the blood from the left ventricle to the capillaries of the
body organ and back to the right atrium
□ Left ventricle pumps blood to the parts of the body
□ Blood leaves the left ventricles through the aorta
□ As blood reaches the capillaries of the different organs. Oxygen,
food, and other substances diffuse out of the blood stream
□ Waste materials from the cells diffuse into the blood stream
□ Blood returns to the heart through the veins
○ Diseases
§ Atherosclerosis
□ Caused by accumulation of fatty substances and/or cholesterol in
the arteries
□ May result to cardiovascular resistance and decreased blood flow in
the arteries
§ Hypertension
□ Often results from atherosclerosis
□ Caused by extra energy or build up of pressure to make blood
circulate in narrowed blood vessels
§ Angina pectoris
□ Chest pain similar to heart attack except it is mild
□ Pain arises in the heart and in the left arm and shoulder
□ Symptoms forewarn the person that there is inadequate supply of
oxygen in the heart
§ Stroke
□ Caused by interference in the supply of blood to the brain
□ May be caused by a blood clot in the blood vessels of the brain or by
atherosclerosis
§ Heart attack
□ Also known as Myocardial Infarction
□ Caused by insufficient supply of blood to one or more parts of the
heart muscles
□ Results to death of cells
□ Could be caused by blood clot that forms in the coronary arteries or
by atherosclerosis
□ Signs and symptoms
® Pain at the center of the chest radiating to the shoulder, left
arm and jaw
® Impending feeling of death
§ Cardiac arrhythymia
□ Characterized by abnormally high or low heart rate
□ Can result in increased palpitations of the heart with associated
dizziness
□ Could impair blood flow and initiate heart attack
§ Anemia
□ Occurs when blood does not have enough red blood cells or is
deficient in hemoglobin
§ Leukemia
□ Cancer of the blood
□ Characterized by the excessive production of abnormal white blood
cells
□ Starts in the bone marrow then spreads throughout the body
□ Symptoms
® Easy bruising
® Bleeding
® Swollen gums
® Enlargement of lymph nodes, liver, or spleen
Respiratory system
• Responsible for getting oxygen from the atmosphere and bringing it to our lungs
• Respiration
○ Exchange of gasses between the cells and its environment
○ Uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the discharge of carbon
dioxide
○ Essential to support the production of Adenosine Triphosphate during cellular
respiration
• Inhalation
○ Act of inhaling air/ inspiration
○ One set of rib muscles and the diaphragm becomes active
○ Rib muscles involved contract and cause the ribs to move upward and outward
○ At the same time, the diaphragm contracts, moves downward and flatten
○ Enlarges chest cavity and lowers the air pressure in the lungs
○ Greater outside pressure causes air to rush into the lungs and fills them
• Exhalation
○ Act of exhaling air/ expiration
○ Set of rib muscles relaxes and a second set of rib muscles contract
○ Changes into the muscles cause the ribs to move downward and toward the
body
○ The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward to its former arched position
○ These events cause pressure to be exerted on the lungs and cause the chest
cavity to become smaller
○ Despite excessive exhalation, the lungs still contain a volume of air called
residual air
• Internal Respiration
○ Flow of oxygen from the blood to the body cells
○ The air we inhale is 4/5 nitrogen and 1/5 oxygen
○ At the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into the blood of the capillaries and combines with
hemoglobin
• External Respiration
○ Flow of oxygen from airsacs of lungs to blood (oxygenation of blood)

Organs of the Respiratory System

• Nose
○ In the nasal cavity, inhaled hair is cleaned, moistened, and warmed through:
§ Coarse hair
□ Strain some dust particles out of the air that enters the body
§ Mucuos membrane
□ Layer of specialized cells that line the walls of the nasal passages
§ Cilia
□ Microscopic hairs on the surface cells of the mucous membrane that
move back and fourth at all times
• Throat/ Pharynx
○ Air from nasal passages enter the throat and passes over the adenoids and
tonsils
○ Adenoids are embedded in the walls between the back of the nasal passages and
the throat
○ Tonsils lie in the sidewalls near the mouth and throat
• Glottis
○ Slit-like opening into the trachea
○ Epiglottis prevents swallowed food from entering the trachea
○ The portion of the windpipe just below the glottis is called the voice box (larynx)
where the vocal cords lie
• Trachea
○ A tube about 10cm long and 2.5cm in diameter
○ Lies in front of the esophagus rings of cartilage in the walls of the windpie keep
the air passage open
○ Lined with a mucous membrane that bears cells having cillia
• Lungs
○ Large, elastic, spongy sac
○ The right lung is larger than the left lung
○ PLEURA is a protective double-layered membrane that separates the lungs from
the chest wall
• Bronchi and Bronchioles
○ Inside each lung bronchus branches into smaller tubes called bronchioles
○ Bronchial tubes branch repeatedly into smaller microscopic tubes called
bronchioles
○ Each tiny bronchioles open into thin-walled bulbs called airsacs or alveoli
• Diaphragm
○ Dome-shaped muscle that divides the chest from the abdomen
○ During inhalation, it contracts and moves downward to give space to the lungs
○ During exhalation, it returns to its normal dome-shaped position
Photosynthesis
• Photo = light; synthesis = put together
• Process by which plants harness light energy, turn it into chemical energy of sugar
• Chlorophyll
○ Gives green pigment in plants
○ Harnesses light energy
○ Produced in the chloroplasts
§ Contains grana/granum
□ Composed of multiple membrane sheets stacked on top of another
® Each sheet is made up of protein layers of fat and chlorophyll
□ Suspended in gelatinous matrix called stroma
§ May contain carotenoid pigments
□ Carotenes and xanthophylls
□ Ranges in color based on concentration
• Main source of energy = light energy (from the sun)
○ Light as a particle = photons
• Use of carbon dioxide and water results in the manufacture of oxygen and gas
Light energy
○ 6CO2 + 6H2O ————> C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Light-dependent phase
○ Chlorophyll photoactivation
§ Capture of light energy by chlorophyll that results in the release of
energized electrons
§ Chl + light energy —> Chl+ +2e-
○ Photolysis
§ Splitting of water molecules into hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen gas
in the presence of light-activated chlorophyll
§ Excited chlorophyll molecules return to ground state by getting (back)
electrons from the water
Chl
§ 2H20 ——> 4H+ + 4e- +O2
§ Chl+ + 2e- C Chl
§ NADP+ + H+ +2e- —> NADPH
□ NADP+ is a hydrogen carrier and electron acceptor in the cell
□ Accepts hydrogen ion from water and energized electron from
chlorophyll , then it becomes NADPH
○ Photophosphorylation
§ Transfer of energy absorbed by chlorophyll into molecules of Adenine
Triphosphate (ATP)
□ ATP = energy currency of the cell
§ Chlorophyll molecules release energized electrons that move from one
acceptor to another
□ The create an electron gradient that creates a flux of hydrogen
protons
® Provides sufficient energy to add a phosphate group to
Adenine Diphosphate (ADP) to turn it into ATP
◊ Adding phosphate group to ADP = phosphorylation
§ The energy that starts the whole process is light
§ A-P-P + P —> A-P-P-P
ADP ATP
○ Produces:
§ Oxygen Gas as byproduct
§ NADPH from NADP+
§ ATP from ADP
• Light-independent phase
○ Calvin Cycle or Carbon Fixation
§ Discovered by Melvin Calvin and colleagues
○ Involves the use of NADPH and ATP for the conversion of carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates
1. Carbon dioxide is fixed into a prefabricated 5carbon sugar phosphate
§ Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)
2. When RuBP combines with CO2, it becomes an unstable six-carbon compound,
then breaks into two molecules of Phosphoglyceric Acid (PGA)
3. ATP is used to convert PGA into Biphosphoglyceric Acid (BPGA)
§ One phosphate group is taken from ATP and added to PGA, so PGA has
two phosphate groups and is converted into BPGA
4. Using hydrogen from NADPH, BPGA is converted into phosphoglyceraldehyde
(PGAL)
5. Two molecules of PGAL are used to produce glucose (C6H12O6) as final product
and the remaining 10 will be used to replace the six RuBP used in the reaction
§ Possibilities for glucose
1) It may be converted into sucrose (table sugar)
® Disaccharide
® Transported from the leaves into the other parts of the plant
2) It may be converted into starch and stored for future plant use
3) It may provide the raw materials from which other essential organic
substances may be synthesized
4) It may be used as substrate for cellular respiration, and is essentially
the major source of energy for various life processes

Cellular Respiration
• Process where energy from food is converted into chemical energy of ATP
○ ATP = source of energy of all living things; complex molecule chemically made up
of a nitrogen base (adenine), 5-carbon sugar (ribose) and three phosphate
groups
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
• Aerobic
○ Occurs in the presence of oxygen
○ Oxygen-dependent
○ Substrate (glucose) Decomposition
§ Glycolysis
□ Breakdown of 6-Carbon sugar (glucose) into two molecules of
Pyruvic Acid (3-carbon atom)
□ Occurs in the cytoplasm
□ Phase I
1. ATP is used to convert glucose to glucose phosphate
2. Glucose phosphate becomes fructose phosphate
3. ATP is used to convert fructose phosphate into fructose
diphosphate
4. Fructose diphosphate splits into half, forming 2 molecules of
Phosphoglyceraldehyde
□ Phase II
1. An electron/hydrogen from PGAL transfers into the NADP+
making it NADPH, and a phosphate group is added in each
PGAL molecule
2. PGAL molecule with 2 phosphate groups become
Diphosphoglyceric Acid
3. Diphosphoglyceric Acid loses one phosphate group which goes
into ADP, turning it into ATP
4. Diphosphoglyceric Acid with one phosphate group is called
Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)
5. PGA loses water molecule (H2O) and is called
Phosphoenolpyruvic Acid
6. Phosphoenolpyruvic Acid loses one phosphate group and is
called Pyruvic Acid
§ Pyruvate Oxidation
□ Pyruvic acid diffuses from the cytoplasm to the mitochondrion
□ Coenzyme A (C21H36N7O16P3S)
® Well-known for it's role in the synthesis and oxidation of fatty
acids and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle
1. One carbon atom is removed from pyruvic acid, leaving a 2-Carbon
fragment behind
2. The 2-carbon fragment combines with a compound, Coeznzyme A
(CoA)
3. The hydrogen released is accepted by NAD to produce NADH
□ Production of Acetyl CoA
§ Krebs Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle/ Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
1. Acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon molecule called oxaloacetic
acid, forming a 6-carbon molecule called citric acid
2. The 6-carbon molecule gives up one carbon molecule, becoming a 5-
carbon molecule
3. The 5-c molecule gives up another carbon atom becoming a 4-c
molecule called Succinyl Acid
4. The Succinyl acid is converted back to Oxaloacetic acid which can
combine with another Acetyl CoA
□ Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
® C27H33N9O15P2
□ Oxaloacetic Acid = 4-C molecule
□ Citric Acid = 6-C molecule
□ Succinyl Acid = 4-C molecule
§ Electron Transport
□ The rest of the energy is contained in electrons carried by NADH and
FADH2 and before it can be used by the cell, the electrons must be
converted to ATP
□ The process by which energy is transformed from NADH and FADH2
to ATP
□ The movement of electrons from NADH and FADH2 occurs along an
electron transport chain in the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion
□ Generates 32 of 36 ATP molecules produced from each glucose
molecule due to some energy loss in the form of heat, aerobic
respiration is relatively inefficient
□ As cells release energy through cellular respiration, they produce
waste products
® Carbon dioxide
® Water
® Heat
□ High levels of carbon dioxide can kill cells, that's why all organisms
have specialized mechanisms for removing this waste product
• Anaerobic
○ Substrate decomposition is not complete
§ Begins with glycolysis
□ Glucose converted to two molecules of pyruvic acid
○ Fermentation
§ NADH does not enter the electron transport chain
○ Alcoholic fermentation
§ Occurs in yeast cells
1. Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid
2. Pyruvic acid is further broken down into Carbon Dioxide and Acetaldehyde
□ Acetaldehyde is the final hydrogen acceptor
3. Acetaldehyde accepts hydrogen to produce a molecule of ethyl alcohol
□ Ethanol = C2H6O
○ Lactic acid fermentation
§ Also occurs in human muscle cells when oxygen supply is inadequate
1. Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid
□ Pyruvic is the final hydrogen acceptor
2. Pyruvic acid accepts hydrogen to form lactic acid
□ Lactic Acid = C3H6O3