Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
(BASIC CONCEPTS)
Short Questions :
1. Define molecular ion. How is it formed?
Ans: Definition: - The ion which is produced when a molecule loses or gains one or more than one
electrons, is called molecular ion, e.g. CH4+, CO+, N2+. Cationic molecular ions are more abundant than
anionic molecular ions.
Generation of molecular ions: - These ions can be generated by passing high energy electron beam or
α-particles or X-rays through a gas.
Ans: Definition: - The ion which is produced when a molecule loses or gains one or more than one
electrons, is called molecular ion, e.g. CH4+, CO+, N2+.
Uses: - The breakdown of molecular ions obtained from the natural products can give important
information about their structure.
3. What are isotopes? Why they have same chemical but different physical properties?
Ans: Isotopes: - The isotopes are different kind of atoms of the same element having same atomic
number but different masses. For example, carbon has three isotopes, i.e. 126C, 136C and 146C.
Chemical properties depend upon atomic number so isotopes have same chemical properties. Physical
properties depend upon atomic masses so isotopes have different physical properties.
m/e=H2r2/2E
Where H is the strength of magnetic field, E is the strength of electrical field, r is the radius of circular
path. If E is increased, by keeping H constant then radius will increase and positive ion of a particular
m/e will fall at a different place as compared to the first place.
Ans: Mass Spectrum: -In modern spectrographs, each ion strikes a detector, the ionic current is
amplified and is fed to the recorder. The recorder makes a graph showing the relative abundance of
isotopes plotted against the mass number. This graph is known as mass spectrum.
Example
Ans: Function of Mg (ClO4)2: - Magnesium perchlorate acts as dehydrating agent so it absorbs water
during combustion analysis.
Function of KOH: - Potassium hydroxide has the ability to absorb carbon dioxide so it is used to absorb
CO2 produced during combustion analysis.
7. How does no individual neon atom in the sample of the element has mass 20.18 amu?
Ans: Neon has three isotopes i.e. 2010Ne, 2010Ne and 2010Ne with different relative abundance of 90.92%,
0.26% and 8.82% respectively. Average atomic mass of Ne is calculated as:
Ans: During combustion analysis, an excess of oxygen is provided to make sure that all the organic
compound must be burnt to produce CO2 and H2O. At the end some of oxygen is obtained as extra
amount and is not surely given out by the organic compound only. So oxygen cannot be determined
directly in combustion analysis. We have to subtract total percentage of C and H from 100.
Ans: Magnesium atom (24 amu) is twice heavier than Carbon atom (12amu) because number of
fundamental sub-atomic particles is double in Magnesium as compared with Carbon.
10. How one mg of K2CrO4 has thrice the number of ions than the number of formula units when
ionized.
0.5 mole of H2SO4 yields 1 mole of H+ ions and 0.5 mole of SO42- ions as shown below:
H2SO4 2 H+ + SO42-
The relationship shows that total positive charges are equal to total negative charges because each
SO42- ion has -2 charge and two H+ have also +2 charge. However, the above relationship shows that
number of positive ions are twice as compared to negative ions.
12. 23 g of sodium and 39 g of potassium have equal number of atoms in them. Justify.
Given mass of Na = 23 g
=23/23 = 1 mole
=238/238 = 1 mole
Ans: Definition: - The ion which is produced when a molecule loses or gains one or more than one
electrons, is called molecular ion, e.g. CH4+, CO+, N2+. Cationic molecular ions are more abundant than
anionic molecular ions.
Generation of molecular ions: - These ions can be generated by passing high energy electron beam or α-
particles or X-rays through a gas.
Ans: Isotopes: - The isotopes are different kind of atoms of the same element having same atomic
number but different masses. For example, carbon has three isotopes, i.e. 126C, 136C and 146C.
Chemical properties depend upon atomic number so isotopes have same chemical properties. Physical
properties depend upon atomic masses so isotopes have different physical properties.
Ans: Empirical Formula: - It is the simplest formula that gives the small whole number ratio between
the atoms of different elements present in a compound. For example, the empirical formula of glucose
(C6H12O6) is CH2O and that of benzene (C6H6) is CH.
Molecular Formula: - The formula of a substance which is based on the actual molecule is called
molecular formula. It gives the total number of atoms of different elements present in the molecule of a
compound. For example, the molecular formula of benzene is C 6H6 while the molecular formula of
glucose is C6H12O6.
16. A compound may have same molecular and empirical formula, Justify.
Ans: Empirical formula is the simplest formula that gives the small whole number ratio between the
atoms of different elements present in a compound. For example, the empirical formula of glucose
(C6H12O6) is CH2O and that of benzene (C6H6) is CH.
Molecular formula of a substance which is based on the actual molecule is called molecular formula. It
gives the total number of atoms of different elements present in the molecule of a compound. For
example, the molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 while the molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6.
Some compounds have the molecules in which elements are already present in the simplest whole
number ratio. So such compounds have the same empirical and molecular formula. For example,
empirical and molecular formula for water is H2O and for carbon dioxide is CO2.
Ans: Molecular Formula: - The formula of a substance which is based on the actual molecule is called
molecular formula. It gives the total number of atoms of different elements present in the molecule of a
compound. For example, the molecular formula of benzene is C 6H6 while the molecular formula of
glucose is C6H12O6.
Molecular formula is related with empirical formula by the following relationship:
Where ‘n’ is a simple integer. The value of the ‘n’ is the ratio of the molecular mass and empirical
formula mass of a substance.
Molecular mass
n =
empirical formula mass
18. Law of conservation of mass must be considered during stoichiometric calculations. How? OR
How is law of conservation of mass obeyed during stoichiometric calculations?
Ans: Law of conservation of mass must be obeyed while doing stoichiometric calculations. For example,
in the following reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water, the mass of reactants must be equal
to the mass of the products; for this purpose, the balanced chemical equation is used for stoichiometric
calculations.
2H2 + O2 2H2O
4g 32g 36g
Here 4 gram of hydrogen reacts with 32 g of oxygen to form 36 gram of water, so law of conservation of
mass is obeyed.
Ans: Empirical Formula: - It is the simplest formula that gives the small whole number ratio between
the atoms of different elements present in a compound. For example, the empirical formula of glucose
(C6H12O6) is CH2O and that of benzene (C6H6) is CH.
Molecular Formula: - The formula of a substance which is based on the actual molecule is called
molecular formula. It gives the total number of atoms of different elements present in the molecule of a
compound. For example, the molecular formula of benzene is C 6H6 while the molecular formula of
glucose is C6H12O6.
23. What is Avogadro’s number? Give equation to relate the Avogadro’s number and mass of
element.
Ans: Avogadro’s number is the number of atoms, molecules and ions in one gram atom of an element,
one gram molecule of a compound and one gram ion of a substance, respectively.
For example,
1.008 g of hydrogen = 1 mole of hydrogen = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of H
18 g of water = 1 mole of H2O = 6.02 x 1023 atoms of H
2- 2-
96 g of SO4 = 1 mole of SO4 = 6.02 x 1023 ions of SO42-
Equation:
Mass of the element x NA
Number of atoms of an element =
Atomic mass
24. One mole of H2SO4 should completely react with two moles of NaOH. How does Avogadro’s
number help to explain it?
It is clear from the above calculations that the number of H+ and OH- ions formed are same although the
number of moles of H2SO4 and NaOH are different that is why 1 mole of H2SO4 reacts completely with 2
moles of NaOH.
25. One mole of H2O has 2 moles of bonds, 3 moles of atoms, 10 moles of electrons and 28 moles of
total fundamental particles preset in it.
H O
It is clear from this structure that one molecule of water has two covalent bonds, two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom. So one mole of water shall contain:
26. How N2 and CO have same number of electrons, protons and neutrons.
Ans: Both N2 and CO have same number of electrons, protons and neutrons as it is clear from the
following explanation.
For N2
Number of electrons = 7 + 7 = 14
Number of protons = 7 + 7 = 14
Number of neutrons = 7 + 7 = 14
For CO
Number of electrons or protons or neutron in C = 6
Number of electrons or protons or neutron in O = 8
Number of electrons or protons or neutron in CO = 6 + 8 = 14
Solution:
0.06 moles of Mg(NO3)2 contain moles of O atoms = 0.06 x 6 = 0.36 moles of O atoms
28. Calculate the mass in grams of 2.74 moles of KMnO 4 (At.wt. K=39 amu, Mn 55 amu, O=16 amu)
Solution
29.Why do 2 g of H2, 16g of CH4, 44g of CO2 occupy separately the volume of 22.414 dm3 although the
sizes and masses of molecules of three gases are very different from each other?
According to Avogadro’s law, equal number of molecules of all gases occupy same volumes at same
temperature and pressure. Since H2, CH4 and CO2 have same number of molecules that is why these
occupy same volume.
Ans: Limiting Reactant: - A reactant which is consumed earlier due to its lesser quantity and gives less
amount of product in a chemical reaction is called a limiting reactant.
Example: - The burning of a piece of paper in the atmosphere is common example in which paper is
limiting reactant and atmospheric oxygen is in excess.
31. How do many chemical reactions taking place in our surrounding involve limiting reactants?
Ans: There are many reactions taking place in our surrounding which involve limiting reactant. Some of
them are given here:
32. Define actual yield. Write formula for the calculation of % age yield.
Ans: Actual Yield:- The amount of the products obtained in a chemical reaction is known as actual yield.
Formula
The formula to calculate, percentage yield is as follows:
Actual yield
% age yield = x molar mass of SO2
Theoretical Yield
33. Why theoretical yield is greater than actual yield?
1. A practically inexperienced worker has many shortcomings and cannot get the expected
yield.
2. Leakage of gaseous products due to effervescence and bubbling
3. Impurities present in reactants
4. Side reactions leading to formation of side products (un-expected products)
5. The processes like filtration, separation by distillation, separation by a separating funnel,
washing, drying and crystallization if not properly carried out, decreases the actual yield.
Ans: A chemist is usually interested in the efficiency of a reaction. The efficiency of a reaction is
expressed by comparing the actual and theoretical yields in the form of percentage yield.
Actual yield
% age yield = x molar mass of SO2
Theoretical Yield
CHEMISTRY (XI) CHAPTER 2 (EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES IN CHEMISTRY)
Short Questions:
Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the complete chemical characterization of a chemical
compound.
In Qualitative analysis, a chemist is only concern with the detection or identification of elements present in a compound.
Where as in quantitative analysis, a chemist is also concern with the exact amount of elements present in the compound.
3. Name the various experimental techniques used for the purification of the substances.
(i) Filtration (ii) Crystallization (iii) Sublimation (iv) Solvent Extraction (v) Chromatography
4. In solvent extraction technique, repeated extractions using small portions of solvent are more
efficient than using a single extraction but with larger volume of solvent. Comment.
The benefit of repeated extractions using small portion of solvent is that, we can extract almost all solute. Where as some
traces are left if we use single extraction with large volume.
5. Why concentrated KMnO4 and HCl solutions can’t be filtered by Gooch crucible?
KMnO4 and HCl are not filtered by Gooch crucible because both these chemicals can react with filter paper used in Gooch
crucible.
In Gooch crucible, a filter paper or Asbestos mat is needed to cover the perforations of crucible. Where as in Sintered glass
crucible, porous glass is sealed with the bottom and it does not require any filter paper or asbestos mat.
Desiccator is slow but safest method of drying, because in this method, crystals preserve their shape and identity. Where
as if we use other methods of drying, crystals can be crushed or contaminated. Crystals are placed in a vacuum desiccator
for several hours. Drying agents that can be used in desiccator are CaCl2, Silica gel or Phosphorous Pentoxide.
Crude products contain many contaminations that need to be removed. So, the crystallization process is used for this
purpose.
10. How crystallized substances are dried?
Safest and reliable method for drying of crystals is using vacuumed desiccator.
13. Write the names of eight solvents used for the crystallization.
(i) Water
(ii) Rectified Spirit (95% Ethanol)
(iii) Absolute Alcohol
(iv) Diethyl Ether
(v) Acetone
(vi) Chloroform
(vii) Carbon Tetrachloride
(viii) Acetic Acid
Process in which a solid, on heated, directly converts into vapors without passing through liquid phase, is called
Sublimation.
Partition law states that a solute distributes itself between two immiscible liquids in a constant ratio of concentration,
irrespective of amount of solute added.
Solid substances can be purified by sublimation. Examples of such solids are Ammonium Chloride, Iodine, Naphthalene,
Benzoic acid etc.
Sublimate is the pure solid substance which is obtained after sublimation of impure solid substance.
18. What is solvent extraction?
Solvent extraction is a technique to separate the solute from the solution by shaking the solution with a solvent in which
solute is more soluble, and the added solvent does not mix with the solution.
For the separation of two component, when we use the technique Chromatography, a term Retardation factor is used
which depends upon the distribution coefficient of each component. Retardation factor is denoted as Rf value. Since it is
a ratio of distance travelled by component from original spot to the distance travelled by solvent from original spot, so it
has no unit.
It is also used to separate and identify the organic and inorganic compounds from a mixture.
21. How does the rate of filtration increase by using fluted filter paper?
In fluted filter paper, filter paper is folded in such a way that a fan like arrangement with alternate elevations and
depressions at various folds is obtained. In such a way, contact area of filter paper is increased due to which rate of
filtration is also increased.
Chromatography is originating from Greek word “Khromatos” means color writing. It is mainly used for separation and
purification.
Chromatography in which stationary phase is a liquid, is call partition chromatography. Whereas chromatography in which
stationary phase is a solid, is called adsorption chromatography.
3. The plot of PV Vs P is a straight line at constant temperature and with a fixed number of moles of
an ideal gas. Justify.
Ans: The plot of PV Vs P is a straight line at constant temperature and with a fixed number of moles of
an ideal gas showing that ‘k’ is a constant quantity. At higher constant temperature, the volume
increases and value of product PV should increase due to increase of volume at same pressure, but PV
remains constant at this new temperature and a straight line parallel to the pressure axis is obtained.
13. Hydrogen and Helium are ideal at room temperature but SO 2 and Cl2 are non-ideal.
Ans: Gases are non- ideal at high pressure and low temperature because under these conditions,
intermolecular forces become stronger. In helium and hydrogen, already there are weaker van der
Waal’s forces because these are non-polar and their particle sized is very small, so they behave ideally at
room temperature.
Whereas SO2 and Cl2 are either polar (SO2) or having bigger molecules (both SO2 and Cl2), so there are
stronger intermolecular forces in them which make them non-ideal at room temperature.
14. Some of the postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory are faulty. Justify
OR Write down two faulty assumptions of KMT of gases.
Ans: The faulty assumptions of KMT are:
1. There are no forces of attraction among the molecules of a gas.
2. The actual volume of gas molecules is negligible as compared to the volume of the gas.
R = PV/nT
= 101325 Nm-2 x 0.022414 m3/ 1 mol x 273.16 K
= 8.3143 Nm K-1 mol-1
= 8.3143 J K-1 mol-1
R = PV/nT
= 1 atm x 22.414 dm3 / 1 mol x 273.16 K
= 0.0821 atm dm3 K-1 mol-1
17. Derive expression for the molecular mass of the gas using general gas equation.
Ans: Relationship for molecular mass of a gas
According to the general gas equation:
PV = nRT
But n = m/M , putting in above equation
PV = m RT / M
M = mRT/PV
18. Derive expression for the density of the gas using general gas equation.
Ans: Relationship for density of a gas
According to the general gas equation:
PV = nRT
But n = m/M , putting in above equation
PV = m RT / M√
And d = m/V
So above equation becomes
m/V = PM/RT
or d = PM/RT
√ _c2 α r
So r α √3P/d
At constant pressure
r α √1/d
which is Graham’s law of diffusion.
25. H2 and He behave ideally while Cl2 and SO2 do not. Why?
Ans: Gases are non- ideal at high pressure and low temperature because under these conditions,
intermolecular forces become stronger. In helium and hydrogen, already there are weaker van der
Waal’s forces because these are non-polar and their particle sized is very small, so they behave ideally at
room temperature.
Whereas SO2 and Cl2 are either polar (SO2) or having bigger molecules (both SO2 and Cl2), so there are
stronger intermolecular forces in them which make them non-ideal at room temperature.
28. Pressure of ammonia gas at given conditions is less as calculated by Vander Waal equation than
that calculated by general gas equation. Why?
Ans: Vander Waal’s equation accounts for intermolecular forces which decrease the observed pressure
of a gas. So pressure of NH3 gas calculated with this equation shall be mathematically lesser as
compared to the value of pressure calculated from ideal gas equation PV = nRT. Vander Waal’s equation
is as follows:
(P + n2a/V2) (V – nb) = nRT
33. What is physical significance of Vander Waal’s constants ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Ans: ‘a’ is the attraction per unit volume and is called co-efficient of attraction for one mole of a gas. Its
value depends directly upon the strength of intermolecular forces among gas particles. Greater the
value of ‘a’, stronger are the attractive forces and greater is the non- ideal behavior of the gas.
‘b’ is effective volume or excluded or incompressible volume per mole. Its value depends on the size of
the gas molecules. Greater is the size of gas molecules, greater the value of ‘b’ and greater is the non-
ideal behavior.
34. What are the units of Vander Waal’s constants ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Ans: Units of constant ‘a’: Common units of a = atm dm6 mol-2
SI units of a = Nm+4 mol-2
36. How is fluorescent light bulb different from ordinary light bulb?
Ans: A fluorescent light bulb is not like regular light bulbs. Inside the long tube is the gas. When the light
is turned on, electricity flows through the tube. This electricity acts as special energy and charges up the
gas. This charging and excitation of the atoms create a glowing plasma inside the tube.
CHEMISTRY CHAPTER 4:
(LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS)
Short Questions:
5. Lower alcohols are soluble into water but hydrocarbons not. Give reason.
Ans: Lower alcohols are soluble in water as they can form hydrogen bonds with each other.
Hydrocarbons are not soluble in water because they are non- polar compounds and there is no chance
of hydrogen bonding between water and hydrocarbon molecules.
12. Why boiling point of water is different at Murree Hills and at Mount Everest?
Ans: When vapor pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the external pressure then the liquid boils, so
when external pressure is changed, boiling point will also be changed. Therefore, water boils at 980C at
Murree hills due to external pressure of 700 torr while at the top of Mount Everest, water boils at only
690C at 323 torr.
13. Why different liquids evaporate at different rates even at the same temperature.
Ans: There are many factors which control the rate of evaporation of the liquids even at the same
temperature. These factors include attractive forces among molecules of the liquid and surface area of
the liquid. If attractive forces are weak, the rate of evaporation is faster, e.g. gasoline having weaker
forces of attraction than water evaporates much faster than water. Similarly, if surface area is increased,
then more molecules are able to escape and liquid evaporates more quickly.
14. Vacuum distillation can be used to avoid decomposition of sensitive liquids. Explain.
Ans: The decomposition of many compounds can be avoided by vacuum distillation. For example
glycerin boils at 2900C at 760 torr pressure but decomposes at this temperature. Hence, glycerin cannot
be distilled at this temperature. Under vacuum, the boiling temperature of glycerin decreases to 210 0C
at 50 torr. It is distilled at this temperature without decomposition and hence can be purified easily.
16. Ionic solids do not conduct electricity in solid state. Give reason.
Ans: Ionic solids do not conduct electricity in solid state because on account of electrostatic force
existing between them, the cations and anions remain tightly held together and hence occupy fixed
positions. Ionic crystals conduct electricity when they are in the molten state.
24. How the liquid crystals help in the detection of blockages in veins and arteries.
OR
How are liquid crystals used to locate veins, arteries, infections and tumors?
Ans: Liquid crystals are used to locate veins, arteries, infections and tumors. The reason is that these
parts of the body are warmer than the surrounding tissues. Specialists can use the technique of skin
thermography to detect blockages in veins and arteries. When a layer of liquid crystals is painted on the
surface of the breast, a tumor shows up as a hot area which is coloured blue. This technique has been
successful in the early diagnosis of breast cancer.
27. Transition temperature is the term used for elements as well as compounds. Explain.
Ans: It is the temperature at which two crystalline forms of the same substance can co-exist in
equilibrium with each other. At this temperature, one crystalline form of a substance changes to
another. Above and below this temperature, only on form exists. For example, transition temperature of
tin is 13.20C at which Grey tin having cubic crystals and White tin having tetragonal crystals co-exist.
Similarly, transition temperature of Sulphur rhombic and monoclinic crystals is 95.50C. There are many
compounds which show transition temperature. For example, KNO3 has transition temperature of
32.380C having orthorhombic and rhombohedral crystals. Thus transition temperature is the term used
for elements as well as compounds.
29. The vapor pressure of diethyl ethyl is higher than water at same temperature?
Ans: The forces of attraction are weaker in diethyl ether whereas water has strong hydrogen bonding
between its molecules. Thus, diethyl ether evaporates more quickly than water and its vapor pressure is
higher than water.
2. Why it is important (necessary) to decrease the pressure in the discharge tube to get the
cathode rays?
The pressure in discharge tube is decreased to allow the cathode rays to move freely from one
electrode to the other. In this way, the possibility of collisions between rays and the gas
molecules are minimized. OR
The current does not flow through the gas at ordinary pressure even at high voltage about
500 volts. However when the pressure inside the tube is decreased, the gas in the tube
begins to conduct electricity at low pressure. Therefore it is necessary to decrease the
pressure in the discharge tube to get the cathode rays.
According to Bohr’s proposal, the centrifugal force of the electron is equal to the force of
attraction between nucleus and electron.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑍𝑒 2
=
𝑟 4𝜋ℇ ⃘𝑟 2
Rearranging it,
𝑍𝑒 2
r=
4𝜋ℇ ⃘𝑚𝑣 2
1
The factors are Z, 4, π, ℇ ⃘ and m are constant, so r α
𝑉2
According to this equation, radius and velocities are inverses to each other. Greater the
velocity of the moving electron, smaller the radius.
12. Energy of an electron is inversely proportional to n2 but energies of higher orbits are always
greater than those of the lower orbits. Justify it.
The formula for the energy of an electron revolving in any orbit is given by the equation.
1
E = - 2.18x10-18 j ( 2)
𝑛
Greater the value of ‘n’ greater the value of energy because energy is negative inverse
of n. It becomes more and less negative. The value of energy approaches to zero when
n= ∞
13. What is Plank’s quantum theory? OR Write down any two postulates of Plank’s Quantum
theory.
According to this theory, energy travels in a discontinue manner and it is composed of large
number of tiny discrete units called quanta.
1s22s22p63s23p63d5 4s1
18. What is difference between continuous spectrum and line spectrum?
Continuous Spectrum Line Spectrum
The Spectrum in which the boundary line When an element or its compounds is
between the colors cannot be marked volatized on a flames the light emitted
and the colors diffuse into each other. is seen through a spectrometer we see
distinct lines separated by dark spaces
such a spectrum is called line
spectrum
It is a characteristic of matter in bulk It is the characteristic of an atom
E.g. Hydrogen Spectrum E.g. Rainbow
The atomic number of rare earths have been determined by this law.
Mosely arranged Potassium (K), Argon (Ar), Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co) in a proper way in
Mendeleev’s Periodic table
20. What are the defects (draw backs) in the Rutherford’s atomic model?
Following are the defects of Rutherford Model.
Rutherford’s planet like picture was defective and unsatisfactory because the moving
electron must be accelerated towards the nucleus.
The radius of the orbiting electron should become smaller and smaller and the electron
should fall into the nucleus. Thus, an atomic structure as proposed by Rutherford would
collapse.
If the electron radiates energy continuously, we should get continuous spectrum but, line
spectrum was observed.
21. Justify that distance gaps between different orbitals go on increasing from the lower to higher
orbit.
According to Bohr’s Postulates, radius of revolving electron in nth orbital around the nucleus in
hydrogen atom.
𝑛 2ℎ 2 ℇ ⃘
r = 𝑍𝑒 2 𝜋𝑚
22. Define Zeeman’s effect and Stark’s effect. OR What is Zeeman’s effect?
Zeeman’s effect: The splitting of spectral lines in the presence of strong magnetic field is called
Zeeman’s effect.
Stark’s effect: The splitting of spectral lines in the presence of strong electric field is called
Stark’s effect
There are three values of magnetic quantum number for p-subshell. So, there are three
orientations of P-subshell in space. All the 3p-orbitals namely px, py, pz have dumb-bell shapes.
26. Calculate the number of electrons in s, p, d and f- sub shells from the formula and write
separately.
Following is the formula for calculating the number of electrons in s, p , d, f 2(2l +1)
It is impossible for two electrons residing in the same orbital of a ploy-electron atom to have the
same values of four quantum numbers. Or
It is impossible for two electrons residing in the same orbital of a ploy-electron atom to have the
same values of four quantum numbers. Or
Hund’s rule:
If degenerate orbitals are available and more than one electron are to be placed in them, they
should be placed in separate orbitals with same spin rather than putting them in the orbital with
opposite spin
For Example: The two electrons in 2p subshells of carbon will be distributed as follows:
6C =
For Example: The two electrons in 2p subshells of carbon will be distributed as follows:
6C =
Octet Rule:
The tendency of an atom to attain a maximum of eight electrons in the
valance shell is called octet rule”.
Deviation from octet rule:
There are many compounds in which atoms have no eight electrons
(octet) in the valance shell after chemical combination. For example,
BF3, BCl3, AlCl3, SF6, PF5
When two atoms come close to each other, they have attraction as well
as repulsion between them. These bonded atoms stay at the distance,
where the attraction is maximum. This distance is also called bond
length. These bonded atoms cannot fly apart from each other in
ordinary conditions. In H2 molecule compromised distance between the
two hydrogen atoms is 75.4 pm, which is also called equilibrium bond
distance or bond length of H2 molecule.
Ionic bond:
The electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions
is called ionic bond.
Examples:
Na+Cl-, K+Br -
Justification:
Coordinate covalent bond is just like a single bond. According to
molecular orbital theory, this bond is formed by the empty orbital of H+
and completely filled orbital of Nitrogen. According to Lewis concept,
nitrogen donate a pair of electron to H+, So NH3 is a donor while H+ is
acceptor. Usually this bond is donated by an arrow. Arrow head is from
donor towards acceptor.
Above structure gives impression that one N-H bond is different from other
three N-H bonds. However, it has been shown experimentally that all four
N-H bonds are identical in bond length and bond strength. Therefore
ammonium ion is written as NH4+ and it is that after bond formation the
distinction between coordinate covalent bond and covalent bond
vanishes.
-
5. Why the radius of Cl ion increases from 99 pm to 181 pm.
OR
Why the ionic radius is greater than atomic radius?
Electronegativity:
The measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared
pair of electron towards itself is called the electronegativity.
Example: Electronegativity of Fluorine is 4.
Electron affinity:
The amount of energy evolved and absorbed when an electron is added
to partially filled orbital of an isolated atom to form a negative ion is called
the electron affinity.
Example:
In formation of NH4+ ion, NH3 acts as electron pair donor and H+ act as
electron pair acceptor.
Bond Order:
The no. of bonds formed between two atoms after the atomic orbitals
overlap, is called the bond order.
OR
Half of the difference between the number of bonding electrons and anti-
bonding electrons is called the bond order.
2−0
𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 = =1
2
14. Differentiate between atomic orbital and molecular orbital.
Definition:
“The measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared
pair of electron toward itself is called its electronegativity”.
Trend of Electronegativity in Periodic Table:
The electronegativity values increases from left to right in the periodic
table while it decreases from top to bottom in groups. Thus the most
electronegative atoms are the non-metals at the right portion of periodic
table.
17. How the nature of a chemical bond is predicted with the help of
electronegativity values of two bonded atoms?
Usually cations and anions of ionic bond are considered as hard spheres
with some charge. But when cations and anions approaches to each
other, distortion of electronic clouds of cations and anions take place. This
process is called polarizability. Due to polarization of cations and anions,
sharing of electrons also take place upto some extent. So no bond in
chemistry is 100% ionic in nature. Highest ionic characters are present in
CsF because cesium is least electronegative and fluorine is most
electronegative element. Difference of electronegativity is 4 – 0.7 = 3.3.
Cesium fluoride is 92% ionic and have 8% covalent character in it. NaCl
is 72% ionic and 28% covalent.
19. The bond angles of H2O and NH3 are not 109.5° like that of CH4
although Oxygen and Nitrogen atoms are sp3 hybridized. Why?
According to VSEPR theory, lone pairs occupy more space than bond
pairs and causes more repulsions.
H2O has two lone pairs, so it repels the bond pairs much more and
makes bond angle shorter of 104.5°.
NH3 has one lone pair that repels the three bond pair but not much
effectively and strongly as two lone pairs of water repel the bond
pair so the bond angle between hydrogen atoms of ammonia is
107.5° greater than that of water.
CH4 molecule also has sp3 hybridization but it has no lone pair and
each bond pair repels each other with equal force and bond angle
between two adjacent hydrogen atoms becomes 109.5°.
20. State the geometry of ammonia molecule on the basis of VSEPR
theory.
Definition:
The product of electric charge (q) and the distance between the positive
and negative centers (r) is called dipole moment.
𝜇 =𝑞 ×𝑟
Units:
The common unit of dipole moment is Debye (D). The S.I units of dipole
moment is coulomb meter (Cm). 1D = 3.336 × 10-30 Cm
23. Why the dipole moment of CO2 is Zero but that of SO2 is 1.61 D?
The dipole moment of CO2 is zero, as it has a linear structure where the
dipoles being equal and opposite, cancel out each other’s effect.
SO2 is also a triatomic molecule but it has a lone pair of electron, due to
which it has angular structure. Polarity is not cancelled out so it has a
dipole moment of 1.61 D.
24. Why the dipole moment of SO2 is 1.61D but that of SO3 is zero?
25. Why the dipole moment of CO2 is Zero but that of CO is 0.12 D?
Dipole moment of CO
CO has a permanent pole, hence it shows a dipole moment of 0.12 D.
28. Why the melting points, boiling points, heats of sublimation and
heats of vaporization of electrovalent compounds are higher as
compared with those of covalent compounds?
32. Why the lone pairs of electrons occupy more space than bond
pairs?
Long Questions
1. Define bond energy. Discuss two facts which affect it.
2. Write the main postulates of VSEPR theory and explain the structure
of Ammonia on the basis of this theory.
3. Define hybridization process and explain the structure of ethyne on
the basis of it
4. Explain the structure of CH4 on the basis of hybridization.
5. Explain the molecular orbital structure of following molecules on the
basis of MOT. N2 and O2 molecule.
6. Describe the bonding in O2 according to Molecular orbital theory and
explain its paramagnetic property. Explain important points of Molecular
orbital theory and draw structure of Nitrogen (N2) molecule according to
this theory.
7. Explain paramagnetic behaviour of O2 on the basis of MOT and prove
that MOT is superior to other theories. How does MOT explain the
paramagnetic nature of O2 molecule? Also calculate its bond order.
8. Define electron affinity. Name the factors affecting it. How does it vary
in the periodic table?
9. Discuss the valence bond theory. How the sigma and pi bonds are
formed by the overlapping of different orbitals?
10. Define dipole moment. Give its units. How is it used to determine the
geometry of molecule? Give an example.
CHEMISTRY CHAPTER 7 (Thermochemistry)
Short Questions:
A balanced chemical equation which shows not only the reactants and products but also the
amount of heat energy absorbed or released is known as thermochemical equation.
A balanced chemical equation which shows not only the reactants and products but also the
amount of heat energy absorbed or released is known as thermochemical equation.
The important information that can be drawn from thermochemical equations are:
4. Why it is necessary to mention the physical states of reactants and products in the
thermochemical equation?
The two values of formation of water are due to different physical states of water.
Burning of candle is the examples of 2nd type of reactions which are once started with some
amount of energy but afterwards proceed and complete on their own.
The total energy of a system including all forms of kinetic and potential energies is known as
internal energy.
Mathematically
The law of conservation of energy is a physical law that states energy cannot be created or
destroyed but may be changed from one form to another. Another way of stating this law of
chemistry is to say the total energy of an isolated system remains constant or is conserved
within a given frame of reference.
Hess’s law is defined as if a chemical change takes place by several different routes, the overall
energy change is the same, regardless of the route by which the chemical change occurs,
provided the initial and final conditions are the same.
Enthalpy change or amount of heat energy absorbed when an element is split into one mole
atoms or a molecule is broken down to produce one mole of gaseous atoms under standard
conditions is called standard enthalpy of atomization. It is represented by ΔH°at
Examples:
The standard enthalpy of solution is the amount of heat energy evolved or absorbed when one
mole of a substance is dissolved in so much solvent that further dilution result in no detectable
heat change. It is represented by ΔH°sol
Examples:
NH4Cl (s) + H2O NH4 + (aq) + Cl- (aq) ΔH°sol = + 16.2 KJ mol-1
Na2CO3 (s) + H2O 2Na + (aq) + CO3-2 (aq) ΔH°sol = -25 KJ mol-1
12.Define Enthalpy of solution and enthalpy of neutralization.
The standard enthalpy of solution is the amount of heat energy evolved or absorbed when one
mole of a substance is dissolved in so much solvent that further dilution result in no detectable
heat change. It is represented by ΔH°sol
Examples:
NH4Cl (s) + H2O NH4 + (aq) + Cl- (aq) ΔH°sol = + 16.2 KJ mol-1
The standard enthalpy of neutralization is the amount of heat evolved when one mole of
hydrogen ions [H+] from an acid, reacts with one mole of hydroxide ions [OH-] from a base to
form one mole of water. It is represented by ΔH°n.
H + (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na + (aq) + OH- (aq) Na + (aq) + Cl- (aq)+ H2O(l)
The standard enthalpy of neutralization is the amount of heat evolved when one mole of
hydrogen ions [H+] from an acid, reacts with one mole of hydroxide ions [OH-] from a base to
form one mole of water.
H + (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na + (aq) + OH- (aq) Na + (aq) + Cl- (aq)+ H2O(l) ΔH°n = -57.4 KJ mol-1
Indirect route:
CO (g) + ½O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ΔH1 = -283.7 KJ mol-1
17.Is it true that ∆H and ∆E have the same values for the reaction taking place in solution
state?
In case of solids and liquids the change in volume is negligibly small. Therefore, in equation
ΔH = ΔE + PΔV the factor becomes ΔV = 0 and we are left with
ΔE ≈ ΔH
Hence, it is true that ΔH and ΔE have the same values for the reactions taking place in solution
state.
2. How the direction of a reversible reaction at any instant can be determined by Kc value?
Mathematically
Kc = [Products] for any reaction
[Reactants]
The value of [products]/ [reactants] ratio leads to one of the following three possibilities.
(a) The ratio is less than Kc. This implies that more of the product is required to attain the
equilibrium; therefore, the reaction will proceed in the forward direction.
(b) The ratio is greater than Kc. It means that the reverse reaction will occur to attain the
equilibrium.
(c) When the ratio is equal to Kc, then the reaction is at equilibrium.
3. State Le-Chatelier’s principle. And discuss the effect of change in concentration of a product on
reversible reaction.
Le- Chatelier principle states that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system acts in
such a way so as to nullify, as far as possible, the effect of that stress.
Change in concentration bring two kinds of effects in a reversible reaction
i. If a substance is added among the reactants, or the substance is removed from the products
at equilibrium stage disturbs the equilibrium position and reaction is shifted to the forward
direction.
ii. If a substance is added among the products, or the substance is removed from the reactants
at equilibrium stage disturbs the equilibrium position and reaction is shifted to the
backward direction.
4. How does change of pressure shifts the equilibrium position in the synthesis of ammonia?
During the synthesis of ammonia in Haber’s process the increase in pressure, decrease the volume
of the reaction vessel. Four moles of reactants combine to give two moles of the products. High
pressure will shift the equilibrium position to the right to give more and more ammonia.
6. How the values of equilibrium constant help to predict the direction of a reversible reaction?
Mathematically
Kc = [Products] for any reaction
[Reactants]
The value of [products]/ [reactants] ratio leads to one of the following three possibilities.
(a) The ratio is less than Kc. This implies that more of the product is required to attain the
equilibrium; therefore, the reaction will proceed in the forward direction.
(b) The ratio is greater than Kc. It means that the reverse reaction will occur to attain the
equilibrium.
(c) When the ratio is equal to Kc, then the reaction is at equilibrium.
8. Define pH and pOH. OR Define pOH of a solution. Give its mathematical equation.
pH is defined as the –log of H+ ion concentration
Mathematically
pH = -log [H+]
pOH is defined as the –log of OH- ion concentration
Mathematically
pH = -log [OH-]
Mathematically
pH = -log [H+]
= -log [10-4]
= -(-4)log [10] as log[10] = 1
= 4
10. Calculate the pH of 10-4 mol.dm-3 solution of Ba(OH)2.
Ba(OH)2 Ba 2+ + 2OH-
pH = -log 2×10-4
When an acid or H3O+ is added to this buffer the pH value remains unchanged due to the following
reaction.
All extra H3O+ ions are used tomake weak acid which does not affect buffer’s pH.
Similarly when a base or OH- ions added in it they will react with acid to give back H2O and anion and
the pH value remain almost constant.
There are two classes of buffer solutions i.e. acidic buffer and basic buffer
It is prepared by mixing a weak acid with a salt which (i) produces strong base in water and (ii) provides
a common ion.
Example: CH3COOH + CH3CONa
Preparation of basic buffer:
It is prepared by mixing a weak base with a salt which (i) produces strong acid in water and (ii) provides
a common ion.
Example: NH4OH + NH4Cl
14. What do you mean by Buffer capacity?
The amount of external acid or base which a buffer can absorb without showing significant change in its
pH is called as buffer capacity. Buffer capacity is the capability of a buffer to resist the changes in its pH.
Buffer capacity depends upon the concentrations of its components.
Equilibrium constant of reversible reaction is very informative parameter. It can be used to determine
19. What are buffer solutions? How a basic buffer can be prepared?
The solutions which resist the change in their pH when a small amount of an acid or a base is added to
them, are called buffer solutions.
Preparation of basic buffer:
It is prepared by mixing a weak base with a salt which (i) produces strong acid in water and (ii) provides
a common ion.
Example: NH4OH + NH4Cl
20. Define solubility product. Derive solubility product expression for Ag2CrO4?
The solubility product is the product of the concentrations of ions raised to exponent equal to the co-
efficient of the balanced equation.
21. Define solubility product. Derive solubility product expression for PbCl2?
The solubility product is the product of the concentrations of ions raised to exponent equal to the co-
efficient of the balanced equation.
22. How change in volume disturbs the equilibrium position for some of the gas phase reactions but
not the equilibrium constant?
The change in volume disturbs those reactions in which number of moles of reactants and products are
different. According to Le-Chatelier’s principle, if volume of equilibrium system is decreased at
equilibrium position. The reaction will move in the direction of decreased number of moles and vice
versa. New equilibrium position will be established but the value of Kc ultimately remains constant
because it is only permanently affected by temperature change only.
A catalyst does not affect the equilibrium position of the reaction. It increases the rates of both forward
and backward reactions and this reduces the time to attain the state of equilibrium.
24. What is the formula to calculate the percentage ionization of weak acids?
The percentage ionization of weak acid depends upon the extent of dilution of their aqueous solutions.
The formula to calculate the percentage ionization of weak acids is as follows:
According to this concept acids are those species which donate the proton or have a tendency to donate
and bases are those species which accept the proton or have a tendency to accept the proton.
HA + H2O H3O+ + A
Aicd base conjugate acid conjugate base
Of H2O of HA
A- + H2O HA + OH-
Base acid acid base
26. Prove by equations that what happens when Na2CrO4 is added to saturated solution of PbCrO4.
The presence of a common ion decreases the solubility of a slightly soluble ionic compound. CrO42- is a
common ion, it combines with Pb2+ to form more insoluble PbCrO4. So equilibrium is shifted to the left to
keep Ksp constant.
27. Why solid ice at 0°C can be melted by applying pressure without supply of heat from outside.
When pressure is applied to the broken pieces of ice 0°C,then according to Le-Chatelier’s principle the
ice moves to that direction where its volume should decrease i.e., towards liquid water. Actually ice
occupies 9% more volume than liquid water.
Kc and Kp both are equilibrium constants, Kc is in terms of concentrations of reactants and products in
mol. dm-3 and Kp is in terms of partial pressures in atm or torr e.t.c.
Kp= Kc (RT)∆n
Where R= gas constant T= absolute temperature and n is difference in total moles of products and
reactants.
If a reversible reaction is allowed to continue for a considerable long time without changing the
conditions, there is no further change in composition of the reaction mixture. The reaction is said to
have attained a state of chemical equilibrium.
Solutions
Molarity (M)
Example
Molality (m)
Example
For one molal sucrose solution 342 g of sucrose are dissolved in 1000g of H 2O.
Molarity (M)
Example
Molarity Calculation
1
Molarity (M) = Mass/Molar Mass × 1/volume of soln. in dm3
= 9/180 × 1/0.25
= 0.2 M= 2×10-1M
In molal solutions the mass of the solvent and that of the solute are also fixed. The masses of the
substances are not temperature dependent. In molar solutions we have the volumes of solutions.
Volume of a liquid is temperature dependent. So, the molality is not influenced by temperature
4. One molal solution of glucose is dilute as compared to one molar solution of glucose.
Justify it.
In one molal solution of glucose, 180 g of glucose is dissolved in 1000 g of water. In one molar
solution of glucose, 180 g of glucose is added in water to make total volume of solution as 1000
cm3. As 1000g (1 kg) of solvent is greater than 1000 mL of solvent so molar solution is
5. One molal solution of urea is dilute as compared to one molar solution of urea.
Justify it.
In one molal solution of urea, 60 g of urea is dissolved in 1000 g of water. In one molar solution
of urea, 60 g of urea is added in water to make total volume of solution as 1000 cm3. So the
volume of water in molar solution is less than that in molal solution. Hence, molar solution is
The elevation in boiling point when 1 mole of solute is dissolved to the one kilogram of solvent
2
Relation
When m=1,
Unit
Example
Dissolve 6g of urea in 500g of H2O or 18g of glucose in 500g of H2O both give 0.2 molal
solution and both have same elevation of boiling points i.e. 0.1⁰C.
The relative lowering of vapour pressure and mole fraction of solute are related as:
Vapour pressure and lowering of vapour pressure depend upon temperature. So, when the
temperature of a solution is increased both the factors and Po increase in such a way that the
8. Justify that boiling point of solvents increase due to presence of non-volatile solutes.
The surface of the solution has molecules of solute as well. They do not allow the solvent to
leave the surface as rapidly as in pure solvent. To boil the solutions, we have to increase the
temperature of solutions in comparison to pure solvents. So, the boiling points of solutions are
3
Depression of freezing point is a colligative property as colligative properties depend upon
number of particles. This can be further explained with the help of an example. Suppose there is
6g of urea, 18g of glucose and 34.2g of sucrose and they are dissolved separately in 1kg of
water. This will produce 0.1 molal solution of each substance. Pure water has certain value of
vapour pressure at a given temperature. In these three solutions, the vapour pressures will be
lowered. The reason is that the molecules of a solute present upon the surface of a solution
decrease the evaporating capability. Apparently it seems that sucrose solution should show the
maximum lowering of vapour pressure while urea should have the minimum lowering of vapour
pressure. The reality is that the lowering of vapour pressure in all these solutions will be same at
a given temperature. Actually the number of particles of the solute in the solutions is equal. We
have added 1/10th of Avogadro’s number of particles. The lowering of vapour pressure depends
upon the number of particles and not upon their molar mass and structures. The freezing points
will be depressed for these solutions and the value of depression in these three cases is 0.186⁰C.
Molality (m)
Example
For one molar sucrose solution 342 g of sucrose are dissolved in 1000g of H2O.
11. Why NaCl and KNO3 are used to lower the melting points of ice?
NaCl and KNO3 are electrolytes and are sufficiently soluble in water. They double the number of
particles after dissociation in water. In this way they can manage to decrease the freezing point
4
12. Why Beckman’s thermometer is used to find the depression in freezing point?
Beckmann thermometer can measure up to 1/20th of the degree. The elevation of boiling points
and the depressions of freezing points for dilute solutions are very small quantities. Hence, one
An ideal solution obeys Raoult’s law at all concentrations and at all temperatures, whereas, a
non-ideal solution does not obey Raoult’s law. In an ideal solution solute-solute interaction,
solvent-solvent interaction and solute-solvent interactions are same. In a non-ideal solution the
force of attraction between solute and solvent molecules are changed after making the solution.
So they show positive and negative deviations from Raoult’s law. In an ideal solution, the total
volume of solution is equal to the sum of volumes of all components. In a non-ideal solution, the
total volume of solution is not equal to the sum of volumes of all the individual components. In
an ideal solution, when the components of solution are mixed, there is no evolution or absorption
of heat. In a non-ideal solution, when the components of solution are mixed there is evolution or
absorption of heat. Example of ideal solution is benzene-toluene and that of non-ideal solution is
acetone-methanol.
14. Why is the vapor pressure of a solution lesser than vapor pressure of pure solvent?
The particles of the solute are distributed throughout the bulk of the solution and some of the
particles of the solute are also present on the surface of the solution. The number of molecules of
the solvent per unit area on the surface of the solution becomes less. Hence, the evaporating
tendency of the solvent decreases and vapour pressure of solution becomes less.
5
% by weight = Mass of Solute/Mass of Solution × 100
= 10%
The number of water molecules which combine with compounds as they are crystallized from
Examples
(COOH)2.2H2O
BaCl2.2H2O
Na2CO3.10H2O
Such liquid mixtures which distil with a change in composition are called zeotropic mixtures.
Example
Zeotropic mixtures
Such liquid mixtures which distil with a change in composition are called zeotropic mixtures.
Example
Azeotropic mixtures
Azeotropic mixtures are those which boil at constant temperature and distil over without change
Example
6
ethanol-water mixture.
Molarity (M)
Example
Molality (m)
Example
For one molal sucrose solution 342 g of sucrose are dissolved in 1000g of H 2O.
20. Define upper consulate temperature. Give two examples. Define hydrolysis with
example.
Partially miscible liquids make two distinct layers of conjugate solutions. By changing the
temperature, the two layers become completely miscible and homogeneous solution is produced.
Examples
phenol-water system
methanol-cyclohexane system.
7
Hydrolysis
When a salt is dissolved in water, it dissociates into cations and anions. These ions may react
with water and the resulting solution may be acidic, basic or neutral, depending upon the extent
of hydrolysis.
Example
When NaCl is dissolved in water, the resulting solution is neutral because in solution the
Hydration
Hydration is the process in which water molecules surround and interact with solute ions or
molecules.
Example
Hydrolysis
When a salt is dissolved in water, it dissociates into cations and anions. These ions may react
with water and the resulting solution may be acidic, basic or neutral, depending upon the extent
of hydrolysis.
Example
When NaCl is dissolved in water, the resulting solution is neutral because in solution the
22. What are the names of four major parts of apparatus used in Landsberger’s method
8
1. An inner tube with a hole in its side. This tube is graduated.
2. A boiling flask which sends the solvent vapours into the graduated tube through a
rosehead.
3. An outer tube, which receives hot solvent vapours coming from the side hole of the inner
tube.
23. Why the solubility of glucose into water increases by increasing temperature?
The solubility of glucose into water increases by increasing temperature because the space
between the water molecules increases due to increase in kinetic energy and more glucose
Statement 1
The vapour pressure of a solvent above a solution is equal to the product of vapour pressure of
Relation
P α X1
P=PoX1----(1)
Where Po is vapour pressure of pure solvent. P is the vapour pressure of solvent in solution or of
Statement 2
The lowering of vapour pressure of a solvent is directly proportional to the mole fraction of
solute.
Relation
9
is called relative lowering of vapour pressure and it is more important than lowering of
vapour pressure.
The separation of crystalline substances from a mixture on the basis of their different solubilities.
In this method, the impure solute is dissolved in a hot solvent in which it is less soluble than the
impurities. When this hot solution is cooled the solute being less soluble separates out first from
the mixture while impurities remain in the mother liquor. In this way, pure desired product
As sulphuric acid is a strong acid and copper hydroxide is a weak base so the solution is overall
acidic in nature.
As acetic acid is a weak acid and sodium hydroxide is a strong base so the solution is overall
basic in nature.
10
Chemistry (Part 1)
Short Questions
Q1.What is Electrochemistry?
1. It takes place due to free electrons. 1. It takes place due to movement of ions.
2. Conductance decreases with increase in 2. Conductance increases with increase in
temperature. temperature.
3. No chemical reaction takes place during 3. Redox reactions take place during
conduction. conduction.
4. Chemical composition is not changed 4. Chemical reactions occur so, new pro-
during conduction, so no new substance ducts are produced.
is produced.
5. Example: All metals are conductors. 5. Example: Molten salt eg. NaCl.
1. The electrochemical cell in which electrical 1.The electrochemical cell in which chemical
energy is converted in to chemical energy is energy is converted in to electrical energy is
called electrolytic cell. called Voltaic cell.
2.In this cell, electric current is used to drive 2.In this cell, electric current is produced due
a non spontaneous reaction. to spontaneous reaction.
3. Electrolysis takes place in this cell. 3. Electrical conduction takes place in it.
4. Examples are 4. Examples are
Down’s cell, Nelson’s cell Daniel’s cell, Fuel cell
Q4. Explain how impure Copper can be purified by electrolytic process.
In electrolytic cell anode is made of impure copper and cathode is made of pure copper.
Aqueous solution of CuSO4 is used as an electrolyte. The atoms of Cu from impure Cu anode
are converted to Cu+2 ions, which go to cathode and discharge by accepting electrons and
deposit on it as pure copper. Impurities are left at anode.
Q5. The standard oxidation potential of Zinc is 0.76V and its reduction potential is -0.76. Why?
When Zn electrode is connected to S.H.E, Zn gives electrons to Hydrogen electrode and gets
oxidized: Zn --> Zn+2 +2e- Eo = +0.76
The standard oxidation potential of Zn is +0.76V as it is a spontaneous process. Its reduction will
be non spontaneous process with reduction potential of -0.76V.
Electrochemical Series:
When elements are arranged in the order of their standard electrode potentials on the
Hydrogen scale, the resulting list is called Electrochemical series.
Applications:
When we look at the electrochemical series ,it is easy to predict whether a particular reaction
will take place or not. For example Cu+2 ion can oxidize solid Zinc but Zn+2 ion cannot oxidize
solid copper. Standard reduction potential values of Copper and Zinc are shown below.
Metal will displace another metal from the aqueous solution of its salt, if it lies above the
electrochemical series. For example Fe can displace Cu from CuSO4 but Zn does not displace
Mg from solution of MgSO4.
Q7. A salt bridge maintains the electrical neutrality in the cell. Explain.
In Galvanic cell the salt bridge connects the two half cells together and maintains the electrical
neutrality in both the half cells by transferring certain ions from one half cell to the other and
thus preventing the accumulation of ions in either of the half cell. If salt bridge is not connected
the cell will stop working very soon.
Same as above.
Q9. A porous plate or a salt bridge is not required in Lead acid storage battery.
A porous plate or a salt bridge is not required in a Lead storage battery because all the cells are
dipped in the same electrolyte (30% H2SO4 solution/ d= 1.25gcm-3).Salt bridge usually
separates the two electrodes in which different electrolytes are used.
When elements are arranged in the order of their standard electrode potentials on the
hydrogen scale, the resulting list is called Electrochemical series.
a. Salt bridge brings about the transference of ions between the two electrodes to prevent the
accumulation of ions in either of the two half cells.
Q12. Write down reactions taking place at the electrodes during discharging of Nickel Cadmium
cell.
At Anode:
At Cathode:
Net reaction:
The potential set up when electrode is in contact with one molar solution of its own ions at
298K is called Standard electrode potential eg. standard electrode potential of Zn is 0.76V.
Q14. Give chemical reactions taking place at anode and cathode of Fuel cell.
At Anode:
At Cathode:
Overall reaction:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
KMnO4
+1 + Mn + (-2)4 = 0
Mn + 1 -8 = 0
Mn = +7
Na2MnO4
(+1)2 + Mn + (-2)4 = 0
+2 +Mn -8 = 0
Mn - 6 = 0
Mn = +6
Cr2(SO4)3
+6 + (S)3 - 24 = 0
(S)3 - 18 = 0
S = +6
SO4-2
S + (-2)4 = -2
S - 8 = -2
S = -2 +8
S = +6
CrCl3
Cr + (-1)3 = 0
Cr - 3 = 0
Cr = +3
HPO3
+1 + P + (-2)3 = 0
+1 + P -6 = 0
P - 5 = 0
P = +5
Q20. Calculate the oxidation no. of the elements underlined in the following compounds.
K2MnO4
(+1)2 + Mn + (-2)4 = 0
+2 + Mn - 8 = 0
Mn - 6 = 0
Mn = +6
Ca(ClO3)2
+2 + (Cl)2 + (-2)6 = 0
+2 + (Cl)2 -12 = 0
(Cl)2 - 12 + 2 = 0
(Cl)2 - 10 = 0
Cl = +5
Q21. What is the difference between Electrolytic cell and Voltaic cell?
Some Voltaic cells are reversible in which electrode reactions can be reversed by using an
external battery. Such cells are rechargeable and are also called secondary cells. eg. lead
storage battery.
In fuel cells H2 is oxidized and O2 is reduced. The electrolyte of the cell is aqueous KOH solution.
Electrodes of the cell are made of porous carbon impregnated with platinum. The following
reactions take place at the respective electrodes to produce electricity.
At Anode:
At Cathode:
Overall reaction:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
a. Fuel cells are light, portable and produce electricity and pure water during space flights.
b. These are environment friendly, efficient and convert about 75% fuel bond energy into
electrical energy.
Q25. Give the chemistry of electrolysis of aqueous solution of Sodium Chloride.
At Anode:
At Cathode:
Electro comes from electricity and lysis means breakdown, so electrolysis is the breakdown of
salts by passing electric current. Moreover, the electrochemical reactions that occur at the
electrodes during the electrolytic conduction constitute the phenomenon of Electrolysis. The
process is carried out in an electrolytic cell.
When a fused salt is electrolyzed the metal ions called cations move to cathode and get
discharged by picking up electrons hence undergoing redction. The anions move towards anode
and also get discharged by losing electrons hence undergoing oxidation.
For example in case of fused lead chloride, the equations for electrode half reactions are as
follows:
During recharging the lead accumulator battery is connected to an external battery through the
electrodes. As a result the electrode half reactions are reversed as follows.
Both the density of the acid and voltage of the battery are restored.
Same as above
Q29. SHE acts as anode when connected with Cu but act as cathode when connected with Zn.
Justify your answer with equations.
The reduction potential of Copper is +0.34V i.e a positive value, so it brings about reduction and
act as cathode and SHE as anode.
The oxidation potential of Zn is +0.76V i.e a positive value so Zn brings about oxidation and act
as anode while SHE act as cathode.
A dry alkaline battery is that which uses an alkali i.e KOH as an electrolyte. Zinc rod serves as
anode and manganese dioxide as cathode. The battery is enclosed in a steel container. The
voltage of the cell is 1.5V which is more than that of a comman dry cell. The electrode reactions
are as follows:
Ans: Rate of Chemical Reaction: - The rate of a reaction is defined as the change in concentration of
a reactant or a product divided by the time taken for the change.
Units: -
Mol dm-3
Rate of reaction = = mold m-3 sec-1
seconds
2. Define specific rate constant. Give equation to support your answer.
Ans: - The rate constant is called as specific rate constant or velocity constant when concentrations
of reactants are unity.
OR
Specific rate constant is the rate of reaction when the concentrations of reactants are unity.
aA + bB → cC + dD
3. What happens to the rate of chemical reaction with the passage of time?
Ans :- According to law of mass action, rate of reaction is directly proportional to concentration of
reactants. In all reactions, concentration of reactants decreases with the passage of time. With the
decreases in concentration of reactants, rates also show continuous decrease from start till
completion of reaction. This justifies the rate of reaction is an ever changing parameter.
[t1/2] α 1/an-1
[t1/2] α 1/ao
Activated Complex: - Activated complex is an unstable combination of all the atoms involved in
the reaction for which the energy id maximum. It is a short lived species and decomposes into the
products immediately. It has a transient existence, that is why it is also called a transition state.
13. How enthalpy change of a reaction and energy of activation are distinguished?
Ans:- Activation Energy:- The minimum amount of energy in addition to average kinetic energy
which is just sufficient to convert the reactants into products is called activation energy.
Enthalpy Change of a Reaction: - The enthalpy change occurs when the certain number of moles
of reactants as indicated by the balanced chemical equation react together completely to give the
products under standard conditions, i.e. 25oC (298 K) and one atmosphere pressure.
Enzyme Aaction:- Enzyme increase the rate of reaction within the body of living organisms by
decreasing the activation energy of reaction.
For example, Urease catalyses the hydrolysis of urea and Lipase catalyses the hydrolysis of fats.
Mn2+
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5 H2C2O4 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O +10 CO2