File F

Quick Sand Condition and
Seepage
• Point to be noted for quick sand
condition:
 Quick sand is not a type of sand. It is a
hydraulic condition.
 A sand soil becomes quick when the flow
is upward under a hydraulic gradient
which reduces effective stress to zero.
 In a typical sand soil, the critical hydraulic
gradient is about 1.
 Quicksand condition occurs mainly in fine
 High artesian pressure in a coarse sand is
one of the most important reasons for the
development of quicksand condition.
 In clays the shear strength of soil does
not get reduced to zero even when the
effective stress becomes zero, due to its
cohesion. Hence, quicksand condition
does not occur in clays.
 Quicksand condition may occur on the d/s
of the dam.
Seepage
6
One-dimensional flow
Discharge = Q = v. A = k . i . A= k
(h/L). A
7
One-dimensional flow
Water In
Head Loss or
Head
Difference or
Energy Loss
h =hA - hB
Pressure Head
i = Hydraulic
Gradient
hA
Total Head
(q)
Pressure Head
Water
out
hB
A
Total Head
Soil
B
Elevation Head
Elevation Head
L = Drai
ZA nage Path ZB
Datum
Laplace equation of Continuity
• In reality, the flow of water through soil is not in one direction
only, nor is it uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the
flow.
• The flow of water in two dimensional is described using
Laplace equation.
• Laplace equation is the combination of the equation of

continuity and Darcy’s law.
9
• In reality, the flow of water through soil is not in one direction
only, nor is it uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the
flow.
• The flow of water in two dimensional is described using
Laplace equation.
• Laplace equation is the combination of the equation of

continuity and Darcy’s law.
10
Flow in: v x dydz v z dxdy
 v   vz 
Flow out:  v x  x dx  dydz  vz  dz  dxdy
 x   z 
Flow in = Flow out (Continuity equation)
By simplification, we get
 v x   v 
 vx  dx  dydz   v z  z dz  dxdy  v x dydz  v z dxdy
 x   z 
v x v
dxdydz  z dxdydz  0
x z
v x vz
 0
x z
11
From Darcy’s Law:
dh dh
vx  k x vz  k z
dx dz
Replace in the continuity equation

 2h  2h
kx 2  kz 2  0
x z
If soil is isotropic (i.e. kx = kz = k)
 2h  2h
 2 0
x 2
z
Laplace
equation
This equation governs the steady
flow condition for a given point in 12
the soil mass
Seepage Analysis
Objective:
To estimate the quantity of seepage (rate of leakage) through dam using Flow Net
Assumptions:
1. Soil is homogeneous (Coefficient of permeability is constant everywhere)
2. Soil is isotropic (Coefficient of permeability is same in all directions)
3. Size of pore spaces do not change
4. Darcy’s law is valid (Flow is laminar) Q=kiA
5. Soil is completely saturated (Degree of saturation is 100%)
6. Hydraulic boundary conditions at entry and exit are known
7. During flow, volume of soil and water remains constant
Flow Net
A flow net is a graphical representation of the paths taken by water in passing
through soil.
Characteristics of Flow Net:
1. Flow lines represent flow paths of particles of water
2. Flow lines and equipotential line are orthogonal to each other
3. The area between two flow lines is called a flow channel
4. The rate of flow in a flow channel is constant (∆q)
5. Flow cannot occur across flow lines
6. An equipotential line is a line joining points with the same head
7. The velocity of flow is normal to the equipotential line
8. The difference in head between two equipotential lines is called the potential
drop or head loss (∆h)
9. A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
10. An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential line
Phreatic Line is a seepage line separating saturated and unsaturated
zones
Flow Line
Top Flow Line or Phreatic

Line
Equipotential
Line
Field
Flow Net for an Earth Dam

Where k’ = Equivalent Permeability of the transformed
field
Flow nets
• Flow nets are the combination of flow lines and equipotential
lines.
• To complete the graphic construction of a flow net, one must
draw the flow and equipotential lines in such away that:
1. The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right
angles.
2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares.
Flow channe
Flow line
Equipotential
line
18
Flow Net Drawing Technique
1. Draw to a convenient scale the geometry of the problem.
2. Establish constant head and no flow boundary conditions and
draw flow and equipotential lines near boundaries.
•. Constant head boundaries (water levels) represent initial or
final equipotentials
•. Impermeable (no-flow) boundaries are flow lines
3. Sketch flow lines by smooth curves (3 to 5 flow lines).
•. Flow lines should not intersect each other or impervious
boundary
4. Draw equipotential lines by smooth curves adhering to right
angle intersections and square grids conditions (aspect ratio
=1).
5. Continue sketching and re-adjusting until you get squares
almost everywhere. Successive trials will result in a
reasonably consistent flow net.
19
Boundary
Conditions
20
STRESSES IN SOILS
• Stress distribution - soil media –
• Boussinesq theory
• Use of Newmarks influence chart
• Westergaards theory
By: Kamal Tawfiq, Ph.D., P.E
Added
Stress
Stress Distribution in Soils
Geostatic
Stress
Geostatic Stresses Added Stresses (Point, line, strip, triangular, circular, rectangular)
Total Stress Westergaard’s Method

Effective Stress (For Pavement)
Pore Water Pressure Bossinisque Equations
1.Point Load
2.Line Load y Approximate Method
Total Stress= Effective Stress+ Pore Water Pressure 3.Strip Load x 1:2 Method
4.Triangular Load xy
total =eff + u 5.Circular Load
6.Rectangular Load
Stress Bulbs
Influence Charts Newmark Charts
A
CONTENT
• TOTAL STRESS
• EFFECTIVE STRESS
• STRESS DISTRIBUTION
TOTAL NORMAL STRESS
• Generated by the mass in the soil body, calculated by sum up

the unit weight of all the material (soil solids + water) multiflied by
soil thickness or depth.
• Denoted as , v, Po
• The unit weight of soil is in natural condition and the water
influence is ignored.
    t .z
z = The depth of point
EXAMPLE
1m
t,1 = 17 kN/m3 A = t,1 x 1 m
3m · A
= 17 kN/m2
· B B = t,1 x 3 m
t,2 = 18 kN/m3 = 51 kN/m2

4m
C = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
· C
= 123 kN/m2
2m
t,3 = 18 kN/m 3
4m · D
D = t,1 x 3 m + t,2 x 4 m
+ t,3 x 2 m
= 159 kN/m2
EFFECTIVE STRESS
• Defined as soil stress which influenced by water pressure in soil

body.
• Published first time by Terzaghi at 1923 base on the
experimental result
• Applied to saturated soil and has a relationship with two type of
stress i.e.:
– Total Normal Stress ()
– Pore Water Pressure (u)
• Effective stress formula
'    u
EFFECTIVE STRESS
'    u
   t .z u   w .z
'  (  t   w ).z   '.z

EXAMPLE
Sand
h1 = 2 m
d = 13.1 kN/m3
MAT
t = 18.0 kN/m3
h2 = 2.5 m
Clay
h3 = 4.5 m
t = 19.80 kN/m3
x
EXAMPLE
• Total Stress
 = d,1 . h1 + t,1 . h2 + t,2 . h3
 = 13.1 . 2 + 18 . 2.5 + 19.8 . 4.5
= 160.3 kN/m2
• Pore Water Pressure

u = w . (h2+h3)
u = 10 . 7
= 70 kN/m2
• Effective Stress
’ =  - u = 90.3 kN/m2
’ =  d,1 . h1 + ( t,2 -  w) . h2 + ( t,2 -  w) . h3
’ = 13.1 . 2 + (18-10) . 2.5 + (19,8-10) . 4.5
= 90.3 kN/m2
EXAMPLE
Total Stress () Pore Water Pressure (u) Effective Stress (’)
26.2 kPa 26.2 kPa

-2.0
71.2 kPa 25 kPa 46.2 kPa

-4.5
160.3 kPa 70 kPa 90.3 kPa

-9.0
Profile of Vertical Stress

SOIL STRESS CAUSED BY EXTERNAL LOAD
• External Load Types

– Point Load
– Line Load
– Uniform Load
LOAD DISTRIBUTION PATTERN
STRESS CONTOUR
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
• Point Load
P
z 2
1
z
P
z  2
z
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
• Uniform Load
L
z
B
L+z
B+z
q.B.L q.B
z  z 
( B  z )( L  z ) (B  z)
Bina Nusantara
§ 2.4 Stress due to loading
Stresses beneath point load
• Boussinesq published in 1885 a solution for the stresses beneath a
point load on the surface of a material which had the following properties:
• Semi-infinite – this means infinite below the surface therefore providing
no boundaries of the material apart from the surface
• Homogeneous – the same properties at all locations
• Isotropic –the same properties in all directions
• Elastic –a linear stress-strain relationship.

Vertical Stress Increase with Depth
• Allowable settlement, usually set by building codes, may control the
allowable bearing capacity
• The vertical stress increase with depth must be determined to calculate
the amount of settlement that a foundation may undergo
Stress due to a Point Load
 In 1885, Boussinesq developed a mathematical relationship for
vertical stress increase with depth inside a homogenous, elastic and
isotropic material from point loads as follows:
18
Stress due to a Circular Load
• The Boussinesq Equation as stated above may be used to derive a
relationship for stress increase below the center of the footing from a
flexible circular loaded area:
19
Linear elastic assumption
I. The Bulb of Pressure
Force
II. The Boussinesq Equation
B. The Equation:
Where v = Poisson’s
Ratio (0.48)
Also an equation for σy

BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Point Load
P z 

P 3z 3 

2 r 2  z 2  5/ 2
P
 z  2 NB
z z
z
r
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
]
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Line Load
2q z 3
q z 
 x4
x x z2  r2
z
z
r
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Uniform Load
– Square/Rectangular
– Circular
– Trapezoidal
– Triangle
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Rectangular
y
m = x/z
x
n = y/z
qo
 z  qo  2

1  2mn m 2  n 2  1 m 2  n 2  2
 tan
 
1  2mn m  n  1 
2 2  

4  m  n  1  m n

2 2 2
x 2

m n 12
  m 2  n 2  1  m 2n 2 
  
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Rectangular
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Circular
2r
At the center of circle (X = 0)
  2

1 , 5

  r 
 z  qo  1   1     
   z   
For other positions (X  0),

z
Use chart for finding the influence facto
z
x
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Circular
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Trapezoidal
BOUSSINESQ METHOD
• Triangle
Westergaard' s Theory of stress distribution
• Westergaard developed a solution to determine

distribution of stress due to point load in soils composed of
thin layer of granular material that partially prevent lateral
deformation of the soil.
Westergaard' s Theory of stress distribution
• Assumptions:
(1) The soil is elastic and semi-infinite.
(2) Soil is composed of numerous closely spaced
horizontal layers of negligible thickness of an infinite rigid
material.
(3) The rigid material permits only the downward
deformation of mass in which horizontal deformation is
zero.
WESTERGAARD METHOD
• Point Load
P .a 1
z  1  2
2z 2   2

3/ 2
a
 r 2  2

2
a    
  z 
P 1
=0 z 
z 2  2

3/ 2
 r
 1  2   
  z  
WESTERGAARD METHOD
P
 z  2 Nw
z
]
WESTERGAARD METHOD
• Circular Uniform Load
 
 a 
 z  qo  1 


 z
a r
2 


1  2
a
2  2
WESTERGAARD METHOD
BOUSSINESQ VS WESTERGAARD
Newmark’s
Influence Chart
• The Newmark’s Influence Chart method
consists of concentric circles drawn to
scale, each square contributes a
fraction of the stress
• In most charts each square contributes
1/200 (or 0.005) units of stress
(influence value, IV)
• Follow the 5 steps to determine the
stress increase:
1. Determine the depth, z, where you
wish to calculate the stress increase
2. Adopt a scale of z=AB
3. Draw the footing to scale and place
the point of interest over the center
of the chart
4. Count the number of elements that
fall inside the footing, N
5. Calculate the stress increase as:
42
NEWMARK METHOD
 Z  q o .I .N
Where :
qo = Uniform Load
I = Influence factor
N = No. of blocks
NEWMARK METHOD
• Diagram Drawing
  2

1 , 5
   2/ 3

1/ 2
  r  r  
 z  qo  1   1         1  z   1
   z   z   qo  
1. Take  z/qo between 0 and 1, with increment 0.1 or other, then find r/z value
2. Determine the scale of depth and length
Example : 2.5 cm for 6 m
3. Calculate the radius of each circle by r/z value multiplied with depth (z)
4. Draw the circles with radius at step 3 by considering the scale at step 2
NEWMARK METHOD
• Example, the depth of point (z) = 6 m
z/qo r/z Radius (z=6 m) Radius at drawing Operation
0.1 0.27 1.62 m 0.675 cm 1.62/6 x 2.5 cm
0.2 0.40 2.40 m 1 cm 2.4/6 x 2.5 cm
0.3 0.52 3.12 m 1.3 cm 3.12/6 x 2.5 cm
0.4 0.64 3.84 m 1.6 cm 3.84/6 x 2.5 cm
And so on, generally up to z/qo  1 because if z/qo = 1 we get r/z = 

NEWMARK METHOD
EXAMPLE
• A uniform load of 250 kPa is applied to the loaded area shown in next
figure :
• Find the stress at a depth of 80 m below the ground surface due to the
loaded area under point O’
EXAMPLE
Solution :
– Draw the loaded area such that
the length of the line OQ is scaled
to 80 m.
– Place point O’, the point where
the stress is required, over the
center of the influence chart
– The number of blocks are
counted under the loaded area
– The vertical stress at 80 m is then
indicated by : v = qo . I . N
 v = 250 . 0.02 . 8 = 40 kPa

Simplified Methods
• The 2:1 method is an approximate method of calculating the
apparent “dissipation” of stress with depth by averaging the stress
increment onto an increasingly bigger loaded area based on 2V:1H.
• This method assumes that the stress increment is constant across
the area (B+z)·(L+z) and equals zero outside this area.
 The method employs
simple geometry of an
increase in stress
proportional to a slope
of 2 vertical to 1
horizontal
 According to the
method, the increase
in stress is calculated
as follows:
49
EXAMPLE
• The 5 m x 10 m area uniformly loaded with 100 kPa

Y E A
5m
H I
D F
5m
B
C G J
5m 5m 5m
• Question :
1. Find the at a depth of 5 m under point Y
2. Repeat question no.1 if the right half of the 5 x 10 m area were loaded
with an additional 100 kPa
EXAMPLE
Question 1
Item Area
YABC -YAFD -YEGC YEHD
x
y
z
m = x/z
n = y/z
I
z
EXAMPLE
Question 1
Item Area
x 15 15 10 5
y 10 5 5 5
z 5 5 5 5
m = x/z 3 3 2 1
n = y/z 2 1 1 1
I 0.238 0.209 0.206 0.18
z 23.8 - 20.9 -20.6 18.0
 z total = 23.8 – 20.9 – 20.6 + 18 = 0.3 kPa

EXAMPLE
Question 2
Item Area
x 15 15 10 5
y 10 5 5 5
z 5 5 5 5
m = x/z 3 3 2 1
n = y/z 2 1 1 1
I 0.238 0.209 0.206 0.18
z 47.6 - 41.9 -43.8 38.6
 z total = 47.6 – 41.9 – 43.8 + 38.6 = 0.5 kPa

Compiled by: Prof.B.S.Chawhan M.Tech(Geo-Tech Engg), Asst.Professor,CED,Government.Engineering College,Haveri-581110(12/4/2011-Till date)
UNIT-06
COMPACTION OF SOILS
Definition of Compaction:
The densification of soil by the application of mechanical energy is known as compaction. Compaction is the most common and
important method of soil improvement. It is a process by which the soil grains get arranged more closely, the value of air voids gets
reduced and the density of soil increased.
Δh
A A
V2 W V1 W
S S
(a) (b)
Fig.1. a).Before compaction. b).After compaction.

Compaction generally leads to an increase in shear strength and helps improve the stability and the bearing capacity of a soil. It
also reduces the compressibility and permeability of the soil. Detrimental settlements can be prevented and undesirable volume
changes through swelling and shrinkage can be controlled.
Laboratory Compaction Test:
The compaction characteristics and the degree of compaction can be obtained from the laboratory. In these tests, a specified
amount of compactive effort is applied to a constant volume of soil mass. The compactive energy is reported in J/m3. In the laboratory,
impact compaction is most commonly used; a hammer (rammer) is dropped several times on a soil sample in a mould. In the field,
compactive effort is the number of passes or coverages of a roller of a certain kind and eight on a given volume of soil.
In the laboratory two types of tests are conducted for compaction test.
a. Standard proctor Test
b.The Modified proctor test.
a. Standard proctor Test.
In 1933 proctor first introduced a laboratory compaction test which is still the most widely used test. The Proctor test, adopted by
the BIS the light compaction test(As per IS: 2720 (Part-7&8), 1974), consists in compacting soil at various water contents into a
cylindrical metal mould, having an internal diameter of 10cm, and internal effective height of 12.73cm and a capacity of 1000cm3. the
soil is compacted in three equal layers, each layer being given 25 blows of a 2.6kg rammer dropped from a height of 31cm above the
soil. The following figure shows a mould and a rammer for the Proctor test.
By knowing the weight of compacted soil and its water content, the dry density for each test is determined.
The following figure shows about standard proctor test;
5cm
5cm
2.5kg
10cm or
2.6kg 31 cm
capacity=
1000cm3
12.73cm
Fig.2. Mould and

rammer .
MDD
Apex point
Dry density
(gm/cc)
Dry
Side Wet Side
OMC
w(%) water content

Fig.3. Water content-dry density curve.
Density= weight of compacted soil
Volume of the soil mass
γ= W/V
Dry density, γd= γ/1+w in KN/m3 or gm/cc or t/m3.
The result of the compaction test are presented in the form of a compaction curve plotted between water contents as abscissa(X-
axis) & corresponding dry density as ordinates(Y-axis).
The dry density corresponding to the maximum point on the water content-dry density curve obtained for a specified amount of
compaction is called the maximum dry density (MDD).
The water content at which a physical amount of compaction produces a maximum dry density is known as the optimum water
content (OMC).
Air Voids line (ηa=0):
Y
Sr=100%
Dry density
(gm/cc)
Water content w(%)

Fig.4. water content Vs dry density.
A line which shows the water contents, dry density relation for the compaction acting soil containing a constant percentage air voids is
known as an air-void line and can be obtained for the following relation
(1 − η a )Gγ w
γd = (1)
1 + wG
Vv
n= (2)
V
Vv
and ηa = (3)
V
where, ηa=percentage air voids.
w= water content for compaction soil in %.
γw= density of water in g/cm3 or KN/m3.
G=Specific gravity of soil solids.
*The theoretical max compaction for any given water content corresponds to zero air voids condition ηa=0*
Zero Air voids line (ηa=0):
The line showing the dry density is a function water content for soil containing no air voids is called zero air voids line or
saturation line which is given by the relation i.e.,
(1 − η a )Gγ w
γd = (4) Put ηa=0
1 + wG
Gγ w
*γ d = * (5)
1 + wG
Alternatively, a line showing the relation between water content and dry density for a constant degree of saturation (Sr) is given by the
equation,
Gγ w
γd =
1 + wG
Gγ w
γd = (6)
wG
1+
Sr
Modified proctor test: Fig.5. Typical standard and modified proctor test shown above and below.
Y
80%Degree of saturation
100%Degree of saturation
Zero air voids line i.e ηa=0
Sr=100%
Line of optimum
Modified proctor test
Standard proctor test

Dry density
(gm/cc) A
x
w(%)
Modified proctor test as to better simulate the compaction required for airfields to support heavier aircraft. The test employed a
heavier hammer,4.5kg with a height of fall of 457.2mm and 5 layers tamped 56 blows into a modified proctor mould of internal
diameter-150mm and effective height-127.3mm.
The Indian Standard equivalent of the Modified proctor test is called the heavier compaction test(IS:2720-partVIII-1983).
Application of Compaction:
Compaction of soils increases their density, shear strength, bearing capacity but reduces their void ratio, porosity, permeability
and settlements.
The results of the compaction test are useful in the stability of field problems like earthen dams, embankments, roads and
airfields. In such constructions, the soils are compacted. The moisture content at which the soils are compacted in the field is
controlled by the value of optimum moisture content determined by the laboratory proctor compaction test.
The compaction energy to be given by the field compaction unit is also controlled by the maximum dry density determined in the
laboratory.
In other words, the laboratory compaction tests results are used to write the compaction specification for field compaction of soils.
Factors affecting compaction:
Following are the factors affecting compaction.
a. Water content.
b. Compactive effort.
c. Type of soil.
d. Method of compaction.
e). Admixtures.
a. Water content (w):
As the water content increases, the particles develop large and larger water films around them, which tend to lubricate the
particles and make them easier to be worked around, to move close into a denser configuration, resulting in a higher dry unit weight
and lower air voids. The dry unit weight continues to increase till the optimum moisture content is reached, a stage when the
lubrication effect is the maximum with further increase in moisture content, however, the water starts to replace the soil particles and
since γw<< γsat, the unit weight starts decreasing.
The dry unit weight can also be related to the water content and degree of saturation by following equation,
Gγ w
γd =
1 + wG
Gγ w
γd = (7).
wG
1+
Sr
For a given water content, the theoretical maximum value of dry unit weight for a compacted soil is obtained corresponding to the
situation when no air voids are left, i.e., when the degree of saturation becomes equal to 100%. If the zero air void density is
calculated for different water content values and plotted along the compaction curve. It is more convenient to draw lines
corresponding to different percentage air voids, ηa. From following equation,
Gγ w
γd = (8).
1 + wG
The zero air void line obtained for Sr=100% in eqn (7) and for ηa=0% in Eqn(8) are identical. However, it can be seen that 100%
air void line & 90% saturation line are not identical.
b. Compactive effort:
For all types of soil and with all methods of compaction, the effect of increasing the compactive energy is to increase the
maximum dry density and to decrease the optimum water content.
According to figure (5), compaction curve B corresponding to the higher compactive effort in a Modified proctor test. Comparing
it with the compaction curve A for a standard proctor test, one can see that the compaction curve shifts to the top and to the left when
the compactive effort is increased.
The margin of increase becomes smaller and smaller even on the dry side of OMC (Optimum Moisture Content), while on the wet
side of OMC, there is hardly any increase at all. If the peaks of compaction curves for different compactive efforts are joined together,
a’ line of optimums’ is obtained in figure (5). The line of optimum is nearly parallel to the zero air void curve.
c. Type of soil:
Following figure shows the different type of soils
1
2
3
4
Dry density 7
(gm/cc)
8
w(%) water content

Fig.6. Description of different types of soil compaction curve.
Compaction curve Description of soil Group Symbol Proctor compaction
MDD(gm/cc) OMC(%)
1 Well graded to loamy sand(SW-SM) SW 1.907±0.080 13.3±2.5
2 Well graded sandy loam(SM) SM 1.827±0.016 14.5±0.40
3 Med-graded sandy loam(SM) CL-ML 1.747±0.032 16.3±0.70
4 Lean sandy silt clay(CL) CL
5 Lean silty clay(CI) CI
6 Loessial silt(ML) ML 1.651±0.016 19.2±0.7
7 Heavy clay
8 Poorly graded sand(SP) SP 1.763±0.032 12.4±1.0
Fullsaturation
Air-Dry
Dry density
(gm/cc) X
Water content ( %)
Fig.7. A typical compaction curve for cohesion less sand shown above.
Dry density
(gm/cc)
w(%) water content
Fig.8 A typical compaction curve for a fat clay.
The maximum dry density which can be obtained by compaction depends upon the type of soil. Well graded coarse grained soils
attain a much higher density than the fine- grained soils require more water for their lubrication and thus higher optimum water
contents.
A typical pattern of the water content-density curve obtained during laboratory compaction of a cohesion less, uniformly graded
fine sand is shown in Figure (7).
The initial decrease of dry density at lower water contents is also observed with highly swelling clays such as block cotton soils,
and some other fat clays.
d. Method of compaction:
Different compaction methods, both in the laboratory and the field, develop their own lines of optimums which may be very much
different from one another. The weight of the equipments, the rammer of operation, such as dynamic (impact), static, kneading or
rolling, the time and the area of contact between the compacting element and the soil are apparently important variables.
e. Admixture:
A number of admixtures other than soil materials are incorporated in soil to modify its compaction properties. The admixtures
have a special application in stabilized soil construction.
The different types of admixtures are given below;
a. Mechanical stabilization.
b. Cement stabilization.
c. Lime stabilization.
d. Bitumen stabilization.
e. Complex stabilization.
f. Thermal stabilization.
g. Miscellaneous chemicals.
h. Electrical stabilization.
i. stabilizing by grouting.
j. water retentive chemicals.
Soil stabilization is a technique aimed to increasing or maintaining the stability of a soil mass or otherwise improving its
engineering properties.
Soil stabilization is used in a variety for engineering works, i.e., for the construction of cheap roads, for providing bases of
even the highest type of pavements where good rocks and crushed gravel normally employed for such bases are not economically
available.
Effect of compaction on soils properties:
The effect of compaction on soil properties depends very much upon the structure which a soil attains during compaction. The
structure of a compacted soil is, therefore, first described, and afterwards some of the properties of compacted soils.
a. Structure.
b. Permeability.
c. Shrinkage and swelling.
d.Compressibility.
e. Pore pressure
f. Stress-strain characteristic.
g. Shear strength.
a. Structure:
The structure of compacted soil depends upon the type of soil, moulding water content, and the type and amount of compaction.
One can summarize the influence of compaction on soil structure as below;
MDD
E
D
A C
Compacted
unit weight
gm/cc
moulding water content (%)
Fig.9. Effect of compactive on structure.

b. Compressibility:
The following figure show about the compressibility of compaction,
Y Y
Dry compacted or undisturbed

sample
Dry compacted or undisturbed sample
Wet compacted or remoulded

sample
Void
Void ratio ratio
X X
Wet compacted or remolded sample Rebound for both sample
(a) Lo-stress consolidation (b) High-stress consolidation
Fig.10. Effect of compaction on compressibility.

c. Stress-strain characteristics:
Dry compacted.
Deviator stress(KN/m2
Wet
compacted
Axial strain(%)
Fig.11. Effect of compaction on stress-strain characteristic.

d. Shrinkage and swelling:
Swelling: A soil on the dry side of optimum (point A in fig.(9) has a higher deficiency and a more random particle arrangement. It
can, therefore, imbibe more water than a soil on the wet optimum (point C) and in the process, sell more.
Shrinkage: Soils compacted on the wet of optimum tend to exhibit more shrinkage upon drying than those compacted dry of
optimum. The more orderly, nearly parallel orientation of particles (point C and D in fig.9) allows the particles to pack more
efficiently as compared to the randomly oriented particles on the dry side of optimum.
Field Compaction:
Various types of soils can be compacted in the field by three methods
a. Ramming.
b. Rolling.
c. Vibration.
d. Lift Thickness.
Corresponding to these, the various compacting equipments can be grouped under these categories.
a. Rollers
i. Smooth-heel rollers
ii. Sheep-foot rollers
iii. Pneumatic rollers
iv. Lorries and Pneumatic tiered consumption on planet.
v. Truck laying vehicles.
a.Rollers:
i. Smooth-wheel rollers:
These rollers are either three-wheel type with two large smooth faced steel wheels in the rear & one smaller smooth faced drum in the
front. The usual weights range from about 2 to 15t. Heavier rollers upto about 20t are also in use.
These rollers are used for the type of soil i.e. Crushed rocks, gravels and sands.
These are used for road construction project etc.
ii. Sheep-foot rollers:
The sheep-foot rollers consists of a hollow cylindrical steel drum to which are attached the numerous projections known as feet. The
loaded weight per drum ranges from about 2.5 to about 13t. The foot pressure range from about 8 to 35kg/cm2. The sheep foot rollers
are also termed as tamping rollers.
Sheep foot rollers are suitable for the clayey soil and these are used for core of earth dams..
iii. Pneumatic rollers:
These rollers consist of a box or platform mounted between two axles and which is loaded with Kent ledge. The gross weight of the
smaller rollers is of the order of 5 to 15t and they usually have 9 to 11 wheels on the two axles, the rear axle having one more wheel
than the front. The tyre pressures in the smaller rollers are in the order of 2.5kg/cm2 and in the heavier rollers, the pressures range
from 4 to 10.5kg/cm2.
Pneumatic tyred rollers are suitable for sands, gravel, silts. Clayey soils.
These rollers are used for base, sub-base and embankment compaction for highways, airfields, earth dams etc.
b. Vibrators:
A roller with a vibrating unit incorporated is known as a vibratory roller. The weight of vibratory rollers ranges from 120 to 300KN.
The vibratory rollers are suitable for sandy soils.
These rollers are applicable for embankments for soil storage tanks,etc.
c. Ramming:
The simplest is a hand rammer which has a block of iron or stone weighing 3 to 4kg and attached to a wooden handle.
Mechanical rammers are pneumatic or internal combustion types weighing from 30 to 150kg. Internal combustion type jumping
rammers known as frog rammers weight upto one tonne.
d. Lift Thickness:
The density of a compacted layer decreases with increasing depth. To minimize non-uniformity of density distribution across the
layer, the compacted thickness of the layer or the lift thickness has to be restricted for each method of compaction.
Generally, the compacted lift thickness is limited to 15cm (or 20-22cm loose). The lift thickness for dams where heavy pneumatic-
tyred rollers are used is increased upto 22cm. in cohesion less soils; thicker lifts upto 30cm or more may be allowed.
Number of Passes: The compaction of a soil increases with an increase in the number of passes made,. However, beyond a certain
limit, the increase in the density with an increase in the number of passes is not applicable. From economic consideration, the number
of passes is generally restricted to a reasonable limit between 5 to 15.
Proctor needle:
The Proctor needle approach given here is an efficient and fast one for the simultaneous determination of in-situ unit weight and
in-situ moisture content, it is also called ‘penetration needle. The apparatus basically consists of a needle attached to a spring-loaded
plunger through a shank. An array of interchangeable needle tips is available, ranging from 6.45 to 645 mm2, to facilitate the
measurement of a wide range of penetration resistance values. A calibration of penetration against dry unit weight and water content is
obtained by pushing the needle into specially prepared samples for which these values are known and noting the penetration. The
penetration of the needle and resistance (load applied) may be shown on a graduated scale on the shank and stem of handle
respectively.
A sample calibration curve is shown below;
Y 1.20
6.00 1.00
5.00 0.80
Penetration resistance
4.00 0.60
3.00
0.40
2.00
0.20
γd 1.00 compaction curve
kN/cum N/mm2
0.00 0.00
X
w (%)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Fig.13. Calibration curve for proctor needle.

The procedure for the use of the Proctor ‘plasticity’ needle, as it is called, is obvious. The spring-loaded plunger is pressed into
the compacted layer in the field with an appropriate plasticity needle. The penetration resistance is recorded for a standard depth of
penetration at a standard time-rate of penetration. Against this penetration resistance, the corresponding values of water content and
dry unit weight are obtained from the calibration curve. S
The size of the needle to be chosen depends upon the type of soil such that the resistance to be read is neither to large nor too
small.
Compacting equipments:
1. By Vibrofloatation.
2. By Terra Probe method.
3. By Pounding.
4. By Explosives.
1. By Vibrofloatation.
Refer the following figure,
Vibrofloatation is used for compacting thick deposits of loose, sandy soils upto 30m depth. A vibrofloat consists of a cylindrical tube,
about 2m diameter, fitted with water jets at the top and the bottom. It contains a rotating eccentric mass which develops a horizontal
vibratory motion.
The vibrofloat is sunk into the loose soil upto the desired depth using the lower water jet (shown in above fig. a.). As water
comes out of the jet, it creates a momentary quick condition ahead of the vibrofloat settles due to its own mass. When the desired
depth has been reached, the vibrator is achieved. The vibrofloat then vibrates laterally and causes the compaction of the soil in the
horizontal direction to a radius of about 1.5m.
The water from the lower jet is transferred to the top jet and the pressure is reduced so that it is just enough to carry the sand
poured at the top to the bottom of the hole (shown in above fig. b). Vibration continues as the vibrofloat is slowly raised to the surface.
Additional sand is continuously backfilling, the entire depth of the soils is compacted (shown in fig. c).
The spacing of the holes is usually kept between 2 to 3m on a grid pattern. The relative density (density index) achieved for
the sandy soils is 70% or more. In soft, cohesive soils, vibrofloatation is not effective. For cohesive soils, it can be used to form a sand
pile to reinforce the deposit and to accelerate consolidation and thus improve its engineering properties.
2. By Terra Probe method.
Terra probe method in many respects is similar to the vibrofloatation method. The terra probe consists of an open-ended pipe,
about 75cm diameter. It is provided with a vibratory pile drive. The vibratory pile driver when activated gives vertical vibrations to the
terra probe and it goes down. After reaching the desired depth, the terra probe is gradually raised upward while the vibrodriver
continues to operate. Thus, the soil within and around the term terra probe is densified.
The terra probe method has been successfully used upto depth of 20m. The spacing of the holes is usually kept about 1.5m.
Saturated soil conditions are ideal for the success of the method. For the sites where the water table is deep, water jets are fitted to the
term terra probe to assist the penetration and densification of the soil.
3. By Pounding.
To densify large deposits of loose, sandy soils, the pounding method has also been recently used. The method is also known as
heavy tamping, dynamic compaction or high-energy compaction. Pounding is done by dropping a heavy mass (2 to 50Mg) from a
large height (7 to 35m) on the ground surface. The actual mass and the height are selected depending upon the crane available and the
depth of the soil deposit. A closely spaced grid pattern is selected for the pounding locations. At each location, 5 to 10 poundings are
given.
The pounding method is used to compact the soil deposits to a great depth. It is very effective for densifying loose sandy deposits.
Recently, the method has been successfully used to compact fine-grained soil deposits as well. The depth (D) in meters upto which the
method is effective can be determined from the following relation:
D = C MH ------------------------(9)
where, C=coefficient (0.5 to 0.75), M=mass (Mg), H=height of drop (m).
While using the pounding method, care shall be taken that harmful vibrations are not transferred to the adjacent buildings. The
radious of influence (R) in metres beyond which no harmful vibrations are transmitted can be determined from the relation.
R = 130 MH ----------------------(10)
where, M=mass (Mg), and H=height of drop (m).
4. By Explosives.
Buried explosives are sometimes used to density cohesionless soils. The shock wave and vibrations produced by explosives are
somewhat similar to that produced by vibratory, compaction equipment. The method is quite effective when the cohesionless soil is
fully saturated. The shock waves cause liquefaction of sand, which is followed by densification. In partially saturated cohesionless
soils, compressive stresses develop due to capillary action and prevent the soil particles from taking closer positions. The method is
not effective for partially saturated soils.
Explosive charges usually consist of about 60% dynamite and 30% special gelatin dynamite and ammonite. The charges are
placed at two-thirds the thickness of the stratum to be densified. The spacing of the explosive points is kept between 3 to 8m. Three to
five blasts are generally required at each location.
The radius of influence ® of compaction can be determined using the relation
R= M ( C) 1
3
------------------------(11)
where, R=radius of influence (m), M=mass of charge (kg), C=Constant (=0.04 for 60% dynamite).
Jan/2005
1. During a compaction test, a soil attains a maximum dry density of 18KN/m3 at water content of 12%. The specific
gravity of soil is 2.67. Determine the degree of saturation, percentage air voids at maximum dry density. Also find the
theoretical maximum dry density corresponding to zero air void at the optimum moisture content.
Solution: Given data;
a.γdmax=18KN/m3, b.w=12% , c.Gs=2.67
To find: a, Sr=?. b. ac=?, c. ηa=?, d.γther=?
Procedure:
Gγ w
1. Dry density, γ d =
1+ e
Gγ Gγ w wG Gγ w wG 0.12 * 2.67
1+ e = ∴e = − 1∴ = − 1∴ S r = = =0.7039 or 70.39%
γd γd Sr γd Gγ W 2.67 * 9.81
−1 − 1
γd 18
2. Percentage air voids (ηa):
(1 − η a )Gγ w ⎛ 1 + wG ⎞ ⎛ 1 + wG ⎞
γd = ∴1 − η a = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟γ d ∴η a = 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟γ d
1 + wG ⎝ Gγ w ⎠ ⎝ Gγ w ⎠
⎛ 1 + 0.12 * 2.67 ⎞
ηa =1- ⎜ ⎟ *18 =0.0926 or 9.26%
⎝ 2.67 * 9.81 ⎠
3. Air content (ac):
ac=1-Sr=1-0.7039=0.2961 or 29.61%.
4. For theoretical maximum dry density (γd):
Gγ w 2.67 * 9.81
γd = = = 19.836 KN / m 3
1 + wG 1 + 0.12 * 2.67
2. During a compaction test, a soil attains a maximum dry density of 18.6KN/m3 at a water content of 15percent. The specific
gravity of soil is 2.70. Determine the degree of saturation and percentage air voids at the maximum dry density. What would
be the theoretical maximum dry density corresponding to zero air voids at the optimum water content?.
a.γdmax=18.6KN/m3,b.w=15%,c.Gs=2.70
Procedure:
Gγ w
1+ e
1+ e = ∴e = − 1∴ = − 1∴ S r = = =0.9551 or 95.51 %
γd γd Sr γd Gγ W 2.70 * 9.81
−1 −1
γd 18.6
(1 − η a )Gγ w ⎛ 1 + wG ⎞ ⎛ 1 + wG ⎞
γd = ∴1 − η a = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟γ d ∴η a = 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟γ d =
1 + wG ⎝ Gγ w ⎠ ⎝ Gγ w ⎠
⎛ 1 + 0.15 * 2.70 ⎞
ηa =1- ⎜ ⎟ *18.6 =0.0133 or 1.33%
⎝ 2.70 * 9.81 ⎠
ac=1-Sr=1-0.955=0.045 or 4.50%.
Gγ w 2.70 * 9.81
γd = = = 18.85 KN / m 3
1 + wG 1 + 0.15 * 2.7
Jan/2007
3. A laboratory compaction test on a soil having G=2.68 gave a maximum dry density of 17.85KN/m3 and the moisture content
17%. Find the degree of saturation, air content and percentage of air voids at the maximum dry density. Also find the
theoretical maximum dry density with respect to zero-air voids at O.M.C.
a.γdmax=17.85KN/m3,b.w=17%,c.Gs=2.68
Procedure:
Gγ w
1+ e
1+ e = ∴e = − 1∴ = − 1∴ S r = = =0.9636 or 96.36 %
γd γd Sr γd Gγ W 2.68 * 9.81
−1 −1
γd 17.85
(1 − η a )Gγ w ⎛ 1 + wG ⎞ ⎛ 1 + wG ⎞
γd = ∴1 − η a = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟γ d ∴η a = 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟γ d =
1 + wG ⎝ Gγ w ⎠ ⎝ Gγ w ⎠
⎛ 1 + 0.17 * 2.68 ⎞
ηa =1- ⎜ ⎟ *17.85 =0.0121 or 1.21%
⎝ 2.68 * 9.81 ⎠
ac=1-Sr=1-0.955=0.045 or 4.50%.
Gγ w 2.68 * 9.81
γd = = = 18.069 KN / m 3
1 + wG 1 + 0.17 * 2.68
Jan/2004
4. Standard Proctor compaction test, conducted on a soil yielded the following results.
Bulk density(KN/m3) 18.0 19.0 19.6 20.45 21.0 20.50 20.1
Water content (%) 9.6 11.0 12.5 14.0 16. 18.0 19.5
Find the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content by plotting the compaction curve. Also plot 100% and 80%
saturation lines.
a. Sr=100%=1,b. Sr=80%=0.80
To find; a. MDD=?, b. OMC=?.
Procedure:
γ
1. Dry density, γd = KN / m 3 ……(γ=bulk density).
1+ w
γ 18
a. γd = = = 16.42kN / m 3
1+ w 1 + 0.096
γ 19
b. γd = = = 17.11kN / m 3
1+ w 1 + 0.11
γ 19.6
c. γd = = = 17.42kN / m 3
1+ w 1 + 0.125
γ 20.45
d. γd = = = 17.93kN / m 3
1+ w 1 + 0.14
γ 20
e. γd = = = 18.10kN / m 3
1+ w 1 + 0.16
γ 20.50
f. γd = = = 17.37kN / m 3
1+ w 1 + 0.18
γ 20.1
g. γd = = = 16.82kN / m 3
1+ w 1 + 0.195
2. Plot the dry density v/s water content compaction curve.
MDD 100%, saturation line

20
80%, saturation line
18
16
14
γd
kN/cum 14
12 OMC
10 X
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
w (%)
Fig.12. Compaction curve.

3. From the graph;
a. Maximum dry density, MDD=18.1KN/m3.
b. Optimum moisture content, OMC=16%
4. Now calculate 100% saturation line, Sr=1);
a. We know that;
(1 − η a )Gγ w
γd =
wG
1+
Sr
Gγ
γd = ………(Qη a = 0 Assume and G=2.7)
wG
1+
Sr
2.7 * 9.81
i. γd = = 21.03kN / m 3
0.096 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
ii. γd = = 20.42kN / m 3
0.11 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
iii. γd = = 19.80kN / m 3
0.125 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
iv. γd = = 19.22kN / m 3
0.14 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
v. γd = = 18.49kN / m 3
0.16 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
vi. γd = = 17.82kN / m 3
0.18 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
vii. γd = = 17.35kN / m 3
0.195 * 2.7
1+
1
5. For 80% saturation line;
2.7 * 9.81
i. γd = = 20.00kN / m 3
0.096 * 2.7
1+
0 .8
2.7 * 9.81
ii. γd = = 19.31kN / m 3
0.11 * 2.7
1+
0.80
2.7 * 9.81
iii. γd = = 18.62kN / m 3
0.125 * 2.7
1+
0.80
2.7 * 9.81
iv. γd = = 17.98kN / m 3
0.14 * 2.7
1+
0.80
2.7 * 9.81
v. γd = = 17.19kN / m 3
0.16 * 2.7
1+
0.80
2.7 * 9.81
vi. γd = = 16.47 kN / m 3
0.18 * 2.7
1+
0.80
2.7 * 9.81
vii. γd = = 15.97 kN / m 3
0.195 * 2.7
1+
0.80
July/2005
5. The following data was obtained from proctor compaction test.
Water content (w%) 5.9 7.60 9.61 11.61 13.81
Weight of wet sample (KN) 18.20 19.50 20.00 20.00 19.80
Sp.gr of soil=2.70, volume of mould=9.5*10-4m3. Plot the moisture content dry density curve and zero air void line. Determine
OMC and maximum dry density of the sample.
a. Gs=2.7,b. V=9.5*10-4m3.
To find; a. MDD=?, b. OMC=?, c. Zero air void line i.e., Sr=1 and ηa=0.
Procedure;
1. Wet or bulk density, γ=weight of wet sample/volume of mould
a. γ=18.20/9.5*10-4=19.15*103kN/m3.
b. γ=19.50/9.5*10-4=20.52*103 kN/m3.
c. γ=20.00/9.5*10-4=21.05*103kN/m3.
d. γ=20.00/9.5*10-4=21.05*103kN/m3.
e. γ=19.80/9.5*10-4=20.84*103kN/m3.
γ
2. Dry density, γd = kN/m3.
1+ w
19.15 *10 3
a. γ d = = 18.08 * 10 3 kN / m 3
1 + 0.59
20.52 *10 3
b. γd = = 19.07 * 10 3 kN / m 3 ,
1 + 0.76
21.05 *10 3
c. γd = = 19.20 *10 3 kN / m 3
1 + 0.096
21.05 *10 3
d. γd = = 18.86 *10 3 kN / m 3 ,
1 + 0.1161
20.84 * 10 3
e. γ d = = 18.311 *10 3 kN / m 3
1 + 0.1381
3. Now draw the graph i.e., MDD V/s OMC
MDD
Zero air
34 Void line i.e. Sr=1
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
γd 18
kN/cum 16
14
12 OMC
10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Water content, w (%)
Fig.13. Compaction curve.

4. From the graph;
a. Maximum dry density, MDD, γdmax=19.2*103kN/m3.
b. Optimum moisture content, OMC=9.61%
5. Now calculate zero air void line;
a. We know that;
(1 − η a )Gγ w
γd =
wG
1+
Sr
Gγ
γd = ………(Qη a = 0 Assume and G=2.7)
wG
1+
Sr
2.7 * 9.81
i. γd = = 22.084kN / m 3
0.059 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
ii. γd = = 21.97kN / m 3
0.076 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
iii. γd = = 21.03kN / m 3
0.0961 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
iv. γd = = 20.165kN / m 3
0.1161 * 2.7
1+
1
2.7 * 9.81
v). γd = = 19.29kN / m 3
0.1381 * 2.7
1+
1
July.2007
6.Obtain the value of compactive energy imported to the soil during Modified Proctor compaction test.
Solution:
Compactive energy(E);
E=
(Numberofblowsperlayer ) * (Numberoflayer ) * (Weightofhammer ) * (Heightofdropofhammer )
Volumeofmould
E=
(56) * (5) * (4.55 * 9.81 / 1000) * (0.4572)
2249.8683 * 10 −6
E = 2540.7106kN − m / m 3 ≈ 2541kN − m / m 3 ≈ 2541kj / m 3
7. Obtain the value of compactive energy imported to the soil during Standard Proctor compaction test.
Solution:
Compactive energy(E);
E=
(Numberofblowsperlayer ) * (Numberoflayer ) * (Weightofhammer ) * (Heightofdropofhammer )
Volumeofmould
E=
(25) * (3) * (2.5 * 9.81 / 1000) * (0.305)
944 * 10 −6
E = 594kN − m / m 3 ≈ 600kN − m / m 3 ≈ 600kj / m 3
Dec.2010
8. The following data were obtained from standard proctor test:
Weight of wet soil(kgs) 1.80 1.94 2.00 2.05 2.03 1.98
Water content (%) 8.50 12.20 13.75 15.50 18.20 20.20
i) Plot the compaction curve and obtain maximum dry density and OMC.
ii) Draw 100% saturation line (zero air void line)
iii) What is the degree of saturation and percentage air voids @ OMC?.
Solution:
a. Assume volume of mould, v=1000cm3=1000*10-6m3=0.001m3.
b.1kg=1*9.81/1000=0.00981kN
c.From graph, OMC=15.50% and γdmax=17.75kN/m3
d. At OMC, Sr=85.06%
e.ηa=4.90%.
May/June.2010
9. The observations of a standard proctor test are given below:
Bulk unit weight 18.0 19.0 19.9 20.8 21.0 20.5 20.1
(kN/m3)
Water content (%) 9 11 13 15 16 17 18
Draw the compaction curve and determine OMC and maximum dry density. Also calculate the voids ratio and degree of
saturation at OMC, if G=265 and γw=10kN/m3.
Solution:
a. From graph, OMC=15.50%, γd=18.20kN/m3
b. At OMC, e=(Gγw/γd-1)=0.4286
c. Sr=wG/e=0.9403(94.03%).
Dec-2011
10. Standard proctor’s compaction test was conducted on a soil yielded the following results:
Water content (%) 9 11 13 15 16 17 18
Weight of wet soil (N) 18.0 19.0 19.9 20.8 21.0 20.5 20.1
If G=2.60 and γw=10kN/m3
i) Plot the compaction curve
ii) Report maximum dry density and OMC
iii) Calculate void ratio and degree of saturation at OMC.
Solution:
a.
Water content (%) 9 11 13 15 16 17 18
Weight of wet soil (N) 18.0 19.0 19.9 20.8 21.0 20.5 20.1
γb in kN/m3 18.0 18.0 19.90 20.8 21.0 20.5 20.1
γd= γb /1+w in kN/m3 16.51 17.12 17.61 18.09 18.10 17.52 17.08
b. From graph, MDD=18.20kN/m3 and OMC=15.50%

c. At OMC, e=(Gγw/γd-1)=(2.60*10/18.20)-1=0.43
c. Sr=wG/e=0.155*2.60/0.43=0.9430=94.30%.
Dec.09/Jan.10
11. Following are the observation of a compaction test:
Water content (%) 7.7 11.5 14.6 17.5 19.5 21.2
Weight of wet soil (N) 16.67 18.54 19.92 19.52 19.23 18.83
If the volume of compaction mould is 950CC, assuming G=2.65.
iv) Draw the compaction curve
v) Report the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content
vi) Draw 100% saturation line.
Solution:
a. From graph, MDD=18.30kN/m3+ and OMC=14.60%
b. e=(Gγw/γd-1)=(2.65*10/18.30)-1=0.448
c. Sr=wG/e=0.155*2.65/0.448=0.9168
Dec.08/Jan.09
12. During a compaction test, a soil attains a maximum dry density of 18kN/m3 at a water content of 12%. Determine the
degree of saturation and percent air voids at maximum dry density . Also find the theoretical maximum dry density
corresponding to zero air voids at optimum moisture content. Take G=2.67.
Solution:
a. e=0.455, b.Sr=70.39%, c.ηa=9.26%, d.γd=19.836kN/m3.
2002scheme.May/June.2010
13. A cohesive soil yields a maximum dry density of 1.8g/cc at an OMC of 16% during a standard proctor test. If the value of
G is 2.65, what is the degree of saturation?. What is the maximum dry density it can further compacted to?.
Solution:
a. e=0.4722, b.Sr=0.8979=89.79%, c.γd=1.86g/cc when Sr=1.
2002scheme.June-July.2009
14. The following data were obtained from standard compaction test:
Water content (%) 9.5 11 12 14 16 18 19.5
Bulk unit weight kN/m3 18 19 19.6 20.5 21 20.5 20.0
Plot the moisture content versus dry unit weight and zero air void line. Determine OMC and maximum dry unit weight of
sample. G=2.7.
Solution:
a. From graph, OMC=16% and γd=18.10kN/m3, b. Plot the zero air void line i.e Sr=100%.
July.2007
15. A standard proctor compaction test was conducted on a soil whose G=2.85 and following results were obtained:
Bulk unit weight, kN/m3 18 19 19.6 20.45 21 20.5 20.10
Water content, % 9.6 11 12.5 14 16 18 19.50
i) Draw the compaction curve and obtain the values of maximum dry unit weight and OMC.
ii) Draw the zero air voids lin.
iii) Draw 10% air voids line. Show specimen calculations for these(ii and iii).
Solution:
a. γd=γb/1+w, b.γdmax=18.275kN/m3., c.OMC=15.20%., d.for ZAV; γd=Gγw/1+ calculate and plot, e.for 10% air void line;
γd=(1-ηa)Gγw/1+wG calculate and plot.
16. In an earth embankment is compacted at a water content of 18% to a bulk density of 19.2KN/m3. If the specific gravity of
the sand is 2.7, find the void ratio and the degree of saturation of the compacted embankment.
17. A moist soil sample compacted into a mould of 1000cm3 capacity and weight 35N, weighs 53.5N with the mould. A
representative sample of soil taken from it has an initial weight of 0.187N and even dry weight of 0.169N. Determine a.
water content, d, wet density, c. dry density, d. void ratio and e. degree of saturation of sample.
18. a soil in the borrow pit has a void ratio of 0.90. A fill-in-place volume of 20,000m3 is to be constructed with an in-place dry
density of 18.84KN/m3. If the owner of borrows area is to be compensated at Rs 1.5 per cubic meter of excavation,
determine the cost of compensation.
19. A soil in the borrow pit at a dry density of 17KN/m3 with a moisture content of 10%. The soil is excavated from this pit and
compacted in a embankment to a dry density of 18KN/m3 with a moisture content of 15%. Compute the quantity of soil to
be excavated from the borrow pit and the amount of water to be added for 100m3 of compacted soil in the embankment.
20. The following data have been obtained in a standard laboratory proctor compaction test on glacial till;
Water content in w% 5.02 8.81 11.25 13.05 14.40 19.25
Weight of container and compacted soil in KN 35.80 37.30 39.32 40.00 40.07 39.07
The specific gravity of the soil particles is 2.77. The container is 9.44cm3 in volume and its weight is 19.78N. Plot the
compaction curve and determine the optimum moisture content. Also compute the void ratio and degree of saturation at
optimum condition.
21. Given standard soil compaction test results as follows;
Trial No Moisture content in % by dry weight Wet unit weight of compacted soil in KN/m3
1 8.3 19.80
2 10.50 21.30
3 11.30 21.60
4 13.40 21.20
5 13.80 20.80
22. For a compacted soil, Gs=2.72, w=18%,and γd=0.9 γw. Determine the dry unit weight of the compacted soil.
23. The laboratory test results of standard proctor test are given in the following table;
Volume of mould in m3 Weight of moist soil in mould in KN Moisture content, w in %
1/30 3.63 10
1/30 3.86 12
1/30 4.02 14
1/30 3.98 16
1/30 3.88 18
1/30 3.73 20
24. A proctor compaction test was conducted on a soil sample, and the following observations were made;
Water content in w% 7.7 11.5 14.60 17.50 19.70 21.20
Mass of wet soil in gm 1739 1919 2081 2033 1986 1948
If the volume of the mould was 950cm3 and the specific gravity of soils grains was 2.65, make necessary calculations and
draw i. compaction curve and ii. 80% and iii. 100% saturation lines.
GOOD-LUCK
UNIT-07
CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS
Definition:
Consolidation may be defined as the gradual expulsion of pore water from voids is defined as consolidation. or
1. It is a line-dependent phenomenon.
2. Soil is completely saturated.
3. Volume reduction is due to expulsion of pore water from voids.
4. It occurs on account of load placed on the soil is called consolidation..
Δh
W W
V1 S S
V2
(a) (b)
Fig.1. Before consolidation After consolidation
Terzaghi’s One dimensional consolidation theory:
Assumptions:
The following are the assumptions of one dimensional consolidation theory;
a.The soil is homogeneous and fully saturated.
b.Soil particles and water are incompressible.
c.Darcy’s law for the velocity of flow of water through soil is perfectly valid.
d.Coefficient of permeability,k is constant during the process.
e.Soil is laterally confined so that the compression is one dimensional.
f.Excess pore water drains out only in a vertical direction.
g.Linear relationship between effective pressure and void ratio exist are constant for every stage of consolidation.
h.The time log of consolidation is due entirely to the low permeability of soil, and thus the secondary consolidation is disregarded.
The following figure shows one dimensional consolidation theory;
Sand
Drainage face Δσ total vertical stress
A Ui=ΔσIz d
dx
dy H/2 t=0t4 t4 t3 t2 t1
Clay σIz t=00
Uz t=00
H
Consolidated layer H/2
Sand b c
Fig.a. Section of clay layer Fig.b. Excess pore pressure distribution.
σIz=Vertical effective pressure at depth Z.
Uz=Pore pressure at depth Z.
Fig.2.
A layer of clay is shown sandwiched between two sand strata. The clay layer is subjected to an increase in total vertical stress Δσ
distributed uniformly a semi-infinite area. At the instant of loading, that is,t=0, the excess pore pressure will increase uniformly
by ui (ui= Δσ) over the thickness H of the layer as shown by abcd in figure(b). After a time t has elapsed, because of the drainage into
the sand layers above and below, the distribution of excess pore water pressure will have changed to the shape shown by the unshaded
portion in figure(b).
H is the maximum distance that water has to travel to reach a drainage face; that is, the length of the longest drainage path. If
there are two drainage surfaces, one of the top and another at bottom of the consolidation layer, it is called double drainage layer and
H will then be equal to half of the thickness of the clay layer(H=H/2). If there is only one drainage surface, it is called single drainage
layer and H will be equal to the thickness of clay layer (i.e. H=H).
In the Terzaghi’s solution, he consider the three factors i.e.,
a. Drainage path(H)
b. Time factor(Tv)
c. Coefficient of Consolidation(Cv). i.e.,
Cv t
Time factor Tv = (1)
H2
k
Cv = (2)
mv γ w
k (1 + e )
Cv = (3)
a v *γ w
Where, Tv= time factor.
t= time in seconds.
H=Thickness of permeability in cm/sec or m/sec.
k=Co-efficient of volume change in cm2/sec or m2/sec.
mv= Co-efficient of volume change in cm2/gm or m2/KN.
Cv= Co-efficient of consolidation in cm2/sec or m2.sec
γw= Unit weight of water in gm/cm3 or KN/m3.
av= Co-efficient of compressibility.
e=void ratio.
e0 − e f
mv = (4).
(1 + e0 ) * ( p ef − p o )
Normally Consolidated, Under Consolidated and Over Consolidated Soils:
a. Normally Consolidated Soils:
A soil is said to be normally loaded if the present effective overburden pressure Po is the maximum pressure to which the layer
has ever been subjected at any time in its history is called normally consolidated soils.
i.e. Pc=Po
where, Po is called Overburden pressure
Po=γz in KN/m2
Pc=Preconsolidated pressure=Pc=load/area in KN/m2.
(Total load of building)
Pc=structural load
G L
G
γ= density of soil
Z
b
Fig.3. Normally consolidated soils.
b. Over Consolidated soils:

A soil layer is said to be precompressed (over consolidated) if the layer was subjected at one time in its history to a greater
effective over burden pressure is called over consolidated pressure.
(Total load of building)
Pc=structural load
G L
G L
Z=depth of foundation
Clay layer or depth of foundation.
γ= density of soil
Fig.4. Over Consolidated soils:
i.e. Pc>Po
where, Po=γZ in KN/m2.
Pc=Total design load of structure in KN/m2.
c. Under Consolidated Soils:

A soil layer is said to be compressed (under consolidated) if the layer was subjected at one time in its history to a lesser effective
over burden pressure.
i.e. Pc<Po
Pc loose material placed or water logged area
i.e. Pc=Total structural
G L load
G L Po=Overburden
Pressure=γZ
Z γ
Fig.5. Under Consolidated Soils.

d. Over Consolidated ratio (OCR):
Over consolidation ratio may be defined as it is the ratio of preconsolidation pressure to the over burden pressure is called Over
Consolidation ratio.
i.e. OCR=Pc/Po
Therefore for a normally consolidated soil, OCR=1 and for a preconsolidated or over consolidated soil OCR>1. If the OCR<1 then it
is said to be under consolidated soils.
Preconsolidation pressure and its determination by Casagrande’s method and Log-Log method:
Preconsolidation Pressure, Pc:
Preconsolidation pressure may be defined as, it is the total structural load per unit area due to void ratio and effective over burden
pressure is called preconsolidation pressure ,Pc.
The following graph shows pressure-void ratio curve.
Virgin Compression Curve
Void ratio(e) Recompression or shrinkage Curve

c B
D Clay
Expansion or Virgin Curve

swelling Curve
E X
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
σ' (Applied effective pressure) KN/m2
Fig.6. Pressure-void ratio Curve.
Procedure:
1. Now increased the load from A to B then void ratio decreased, then the portion AB called Vergin Compression Curve.
2. Then now decreased or remove the load after certain time then the pressure decreased from point B to C and increased the void ratio
from point B to C then the point BC is called Expansion Curve.
3. Once again increased the pressure C to D point at a certain load and decreased the void ratio from point C to D is called
Recompression Curve.
4.Now then goon increased the vertical load continuously upto point E then the void ratio will decreased continuously upto till end,
point E is called Vergin Curve.
Determination of preconsolidation Pressure,Pc: by
a. Casagrande’s method. b. Log-Log method.
a. Casagrande’s method:
Y
α
Tangent line AC
B Horizontal line AB
A E α/2
α/2 D Bisection line AD

This AD line is required for
c locate the pc' by backward extension
Void ratio(e)
pc'
X
logp'
Fig.7. Pressure-Void ratio Curve.
Procedure:
1. The point A of maximum curvature is selected by inspection on the curved portion.
2. Draw a horizontal line AB and the line AC tangent to the curve are drawn through the point A.
3. The angle BAC is then bisected by the line AD.
4. The point of intersection E of the bisector AD.
5. Now draw the backward extension of the lower straight portion of the curve represents the probable preconsolidation pressure
P c.
b. Log-Log method or Burmister method:
Y
5 F H
A
1
1
C 3 B
Original triangle hatched
2 O 1
D
Void ratio(e)
4 BC-Rebound Curve
CD-Reloaded Curve
6
k E
logp' X
Fig.8. e-logP curve by Burmister method.

Procedure:
1. As soon as the straight line portion of the e-logP curve is approached, the sample is rebounded and
reloaded.
2. Now increased the pressure from A to B.
3. Then unloaded from B to C referred as rebound curve.
4. Now reloaded from C to D referred as reloaded curve.
5. Once again continue the load increased then the void ratio decreased.
6. Now draw the straight line from ED through F then BOD becomes a triangle hatched portion.
7. Then shifted the hatched portion to the above line BF.
8. Now draw the vertical line, point H to point downward then the point k is called Pc (Preconsolidation Pressure).
Laboratory One Dimensional Consolidation Test:
The test results are used for estimating the rate of settlement and amount of settlement of structure.
In addition, the effect of saturation on consolidation, the permeability of the loaded specimen and the amount of swelling when
unloaded, may also be determine in this test.
A thinner specimen requires a short time for consolidation and its side friction is also less.
While the pressure-voids ratio curve is essentially independent of specimen size, the coefficient of consolidation is found to
increase with size. Therefore, some uniformity in the size of the specimens is desirable.
The test specimen is allowed to consolidate under a number of successive increments of vertical pressure, each pressure increment
being maintained constant until the compression vertically ceases, generally 24hours.
The vertical compression of the specimen is measured by means of a dial gauge.i.e.,
Applied Pressure,kg/cm2 or KN/m2 Time in minutes Final dial gauge in mm

0.25 or 25 0.25
0.50 or 50 0.50
1. or 100 1.00
2.0 or 200 2.00
4.0 or 400 4.00
8.0 or 800 8.00
16.0 or 1600 15.00
32.0 or 3200 30.00
64.0 or 6400 60.00
128.0 or 12800 120.00
256.0 or 25600 240.00
512.0 or 51200 480.00
1024.0 or 102400 1440.00
After the completion of consolidation under the desired maximum vertical pressure, the specimen is unloaded and allowed to swell.
After the completion of swelling, the final dial readings are taken and the specimen is taken out the consolidometer and dried to
determine its water content.
Pressure Void ratio Curves for determination of void ratio:
The pressure-void ratio curve can be obtained if the void ratio of the sample at the end of each increment of load is determined.
The following parameters are required to determine void ratio (e);
a. Cross-sectional area of sample A.
b. The specific gravity, G of the solids.
c. The dry weight, Ws of the soil sample.
d. The sample thickness h, at any stage of the test.
Let Vs= Volume of the solids in the sample.
where, Vs= Ws/Gγw or Vs=hsa or hs=Vs/a
where, hs= thickness of solid matter then e is the void ratio of the sample, then;
Ah − Ahs h − hs h − hs
e= = ∴e = (1)
Ahs hs h
where, h=thickness of sample
Determination of Consolidation Characteristics of Soils:

a. Compression Index, Cc:
Compression index Cc is a dimensionless quantity which represents the slope of the linear portion of the pressure-void ratio curve
on a semi-log plot.
By referring the e-logP curve;
eo Cc=compression index
ef
Peo Pef KN/sqm

Fig.9. e-logP curve
eo − e f
Compression Index Cc = (1)
log p f − log p o
And according to Terzaghi’s and Peck formula;
Compression Index C c = 0.009(W L − 10) (2)
b. Co-efficient of Consolidation ,Cv;
Co-efficient of Consolidation is applied to indicate the combined effects of permeability and compressibility of a soil on the rate
of volume change is referred as co-efficient of consolidation, Cv,
k k (1 + eo )
i.e., C v = or in m2/sec. (3)
mv γ w av γ w
c. Co-efficient of Volume Change, mv:

The change in volume of a soil per unit of initial volume due to a given increase in pressure is called co-efficient of volume
change.
eo − e f
i.e., mv = 2
)( p ) in m /KN. (4)
(1 + eo f − po
d. Co-efficient of Compressibility, av:
It is the decrease in void ratio per unit increase in pressure is called coefficient of compressibility av and this is given by the
following relation;
eo − e f
av = (5)
p f − po
e. Degree of Consolidation, U:
The degree of consolidation is depends on the following factors i.e.
a. Number of drainage faces
b. Thickness of clay layer (d)
c. Coefficient of permeability (k)
d. Coefficient of compressibility (av)
e. Magnitude of the consolidating pressure.
Therefore the degree of consolidation may be expressed by the following empirical expressions;
when, U<60%;
2
π⎛U ⎞
Tv = ⎜ ⎟ (6)
4 ⎝ 100 ⎠
when, U>60%
Tv=1.781-0.933log10(100-U%) (7)
Determination of Co-efficient of Consolidation by
a. Square root of time fitting method.
b. Logarithmic time fitting method and .
c. Rectangular hyperbola method.
a. By square root of time fitting method:
Y
(Ro to Rc called initial consolidation)
10
9 Ro
8 (R0=Initial dial gauge reading at
Rc pressure increment, i.e. t=0 or U=0%)
7
6 Rc called corrected zero reading
5 X1
4 X1' X1'=1.15x1 along X-axis
3
Dial gauge2 X2
Reading 1 X2'=1.15X2 along x-axis
(10-2 mm) X3 X3'=1.15X3 along x-axis
X4 X4'=1.15X4 along X-axis
R90, U=90% C
0 Rf
X
√t (minutes)
Fig. 10. Time Consolidation Curve (Square root of Time fitting method).
Procedure:
1. Now plot the t V/s Dial gauge readings in mm and locate the points i.e, x1, x2,x3, x4,……+etc due to
pressure increment.
2. Now locate the Ro point on Y-axis @ initial dial reading.
3. Then draw a line passing through all these points.
4. Now then locate x1'= 1.15x1, x2'= 1.15x2, x3', x4'……….+ xn' along with respect to X-axis.
5. Then now draw a straight line along these points and coincide on a curve and locate the point Re at Y-
axis.
6. Now from this joined point C draw a horizontal line parallel to x-axis and draw a vertical down ward line
at perpendicular to the x-axis.
7. This joined point d is called time t taken at 90% consolidation R90 on the Y-axis.
8. Rf is called approximate 100% consolidation.
For 90% consolidation, the coefficient of consolidation is given by ;
(Tv )90 d 2
Cv = (1)
t 90
where, Tv=Time factor for 90% consolidation (U=90%) from table (10.1) as per Alamsingh and Chawdhary page 26. Tv=0.848
d=Average drainage path or drainage path
0.848d 2
∴ Cv = (2)
t 90
For 50% consolidation then Tv=0.197
0.197d 2
∴ Cv = (3)
t 50
Or
0.197d 2
∴t = (4)
Cv
Hi + H f Hi − ΔH
Where, d = or for double drainage face for t90
4 2
Hi + H f Hi − ΔH
d= or for double drainage face for t50 and ΔH=compression of sample at t50
4 2
Note:-1. Always you locate the dial gauge readings from top to bottom on Y-axis.
2. Always locate the pressure increment from origin O.
3. These square root time fitting method and logarithmic time fitting methods are called Curve fitting methods.
b. By Logarithmic of Time fitting method:
Rc, U(%) Z
R=50,U=50%
DGR in mm
R=100,U=100% B
A
Rf t50, U=50%
t1/4 t1
Logarithmic of time fitting (logt-min)

Fig.11, Logarithmic of time fitting method Curve
Procedure:
1. Two straight portions of the curve intersect at 100% U; the corresponding dial gauge reading designated as R100.
2. A time t1, say 1min, is located on X-axis and locate the point (x) on the early origin curve.
3. A second point correspond to t1/4 is select and locate the point(x) on the curve.
4. A horizontal line at a height equal to the vertical distance between the second point (z=t1-t1/4).
Now the ordinate of this horizontal line is the corrected zero reading Rc.
5. The consolidation from Rc to R100 is called the primary consolidation.
6. From R100 to Rf= is called secondary consolidation
7. Now locate 50% consolidation, U=50% in between Rc to R100 i.e. R50 is on the curve and t50 on the X-
axis.
Therefore, the co-efficient of consolidation is calculated by the equation;
(Tv )50 d 2 0.197d 2
Cv = or = (1)
t 50 t10
C. By Rectangular hyperbola Method:
m
t/ΔH
D
X
O Time, t
Fig.12. t v/s (t/ΔH) Curve.

In this rectangular hyperbola method, the following procedure is recommended for the determination of Cv.
1. Obtain the curve t and the specimen deformation (ΔH) from the laboratory consolidation test.
2. Plot the graph of t/ ΔH against t as shown in figure above.
3. Identify the straight-lime portion bc and project it back to point d. Determine the intercept D.
4. Determine the slope m of the line bc.
5. Calculate, Cv as
Cv=0.3(mh2dr)/D----------------- (1)
Note that because the unit of D is time/length and the unit of m is (time/length)/time=1/lemgth, the unit of Cv is
(1/length)(length)2=(length)2/time
(time/length)
wher,hdr is drainage path in cm or m, m is slope obtained from graph. If the drainage on bothe side then hdr becomes 0.5times
thickness of drainage path and if the drainage on one side then hdr become thickness of drainage path.
The rectangular hyperbola method is fairly simple to use, and it gives good results for U=60% to 90%.
Determination of settlement:
The probable settlement is given by;
HC c p + Δp
St = * log10 o (2)
1 + eo po
where, St= Total settlement in cm or mm
H=Thickness of layer in cm or mm
eo=Initial void ratio.
po=initial pressure in kg/cm2 or KN/m2
Δp=Excess pressure =pf-po in kg/cm2
Cc=compression Index
This above formula is given on the basis of e-logp curve.
Jan/2005 and Dec.08/Jan.09

1. In a consolidation test the void ratio of soil sample decreases from 1.20 to 1.10 when the pressure is increased from 160 to
320KN/m2. Calculate the co-efficient of consolidation if the co-efficient of permeability is 8X10-7mm/sec.
a.eo=1.20, b.ef=1.10,c.Peo=16kN/m2, d. Pef=320kN/m2, e.k=8*10-7mm/sec=8*10-10m/sec.
eo Cc
ef
Peo Pef
Fig: 13. e-logP curve
To find: i. Cv=?.
Procedure:
a.We have, Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv;
e0 − e f 1.2 − 1.1
mv = = = 2.84 * 10 − 4 m 2 / kN .
(1 + eo ) * ( p ef − p eo ) (1 + 1.2) * (320 − 160)
b. We have, Co-efficient of consolidation, Cv;
k 8 * 10 −10
Cv = = = 2.87 *10 −7 m 2 / sec .
mv * γ w 2.84 * 10 * 9.81
−4
July/2005 and Dec.08/Jan.09

2. In a consolidation test voids ration decreases from 0.7o to 0.65, when the load was changed from 50KN/m2 to 100KN/m2.
Compute compression index and coefficient of volume change.
a.eo=0.70, b. ef=0.65,c. Peo=50KN/m2, d.Pef=100KN/m2.
eo Cc
ef
X
Peo pef
Fig.14. e-logP curve
To find: i) Cv=?.
Procedure:
a. We have, Coefficient of volume compressibility,mv;
e0 − e f 0.70 − 0.65
mv = = = 5.8824 *10 − 4 m 2 / KN
(1 + eo ) * ( pef − peo ) (1 + 0.7 ) * (100 − 50)
b.We have, Co-efficient of consolidation(Cv):
e0 − e f 0.7 − 0.65
Cc = = = 0.116
log10 p ef − lod1 p ef log 10100 − log 50
Jan/2004
3. Saturated soil of 5m thick lies above an impervious stratum below a pervious stratum. It has compression index 0.25 and k
is 3.2*10-10m/sec. Its void ratio at a stress of 147KN/m2 is 1.9, Calculate;
i. The change in void ratio due to increase of stress to 190KN/m2.
ii. Coefficient of volume compressibility,iii. Co-efficient of consolidation, iv. Time required for 50% consolidation.
Solution: Given data
a. H=5m thick=d, b. Cc= 0.25, c. k=3.2*10-10m/sec, d..eo=1.9, e. po=147KN/m2 and f. pf = 196KN/m2.
Impervious
Cc Saturated soil
eo 5m
ef
Peo Pef Pervious

To find: a.Δe=?, b.ef=?, c.mv=?. d.Cv=?, e.t50=?, i.e.U=50%.
Procedure:
eo − e f
1. C c =
log p f − log p o
1 .9 − e f
0.25 = ∴ e f = 1.868
log 196 − log 147
2. Change in void ratio ( Λe) ;
Δe = eo − e f = 1.9 − 1.868 = 0.031
3. Co-efficient of volume compressibility ,mv;
eo − e f 1.9 − 1.868
mv = = 2.25 *10 − 4 m 2 / KN
(1 + eo )( p f − po )
=
(1 + 1.9) * (196 − 147 )
4. Coefficient of consolidation Cv.
k 3.2 *10 −10
Cv = = = 1.448 *10 −7 m 2 / sec
mv γ w 2.25 *10 − 4 * 9.81
4. Time taken t;
Tv d 2 0.197d 2 0.197 * 5 2
∴t = =∴ t 50 = = = 34000175.93 sec or 393.52days.
Cv Cv 1.448 *10 −7
July/2004
4. A saturated soil stratum of 5m thick lies above an impervious stratum. It has a compression index of 0.25 and a Coefficient
of permeability of 3.2*10-3mm/sec. It has a void ratio of 1.9 at normal stress of 0.15N/mm2. Compute;
i. The void ratio due to increase of stress to 0.2N/mm2.
ii. Settlement of soil stratum due to the above increase in stress.
a. H=5m=5000mm=d, b. Cc= 0.25, c. k=3.2*10-3mm/sec, d.eo=1.9, e. po=0.15N/mm2 and f. pf = 0.2N/mm2.
b. Draw the diagram of e-logp curve

c.
Impervious
eo Cc Saturated soil
5m
ef
Peo Pef Pervious

To find: a.Δe=?, b.ef=?, c.mv=?. d.Cv=?, e.t50=?, i.e.U=50%.
Procedure:
eo − e f
1. C c =
log p f − log p o
1 .9 − e f
0.25 = ∴ e f = 1.868
log 0.2 − log 0.15
2. Change in void ratio ( Λe) ;
Δe = eo − e f = 1.9 − 1.868 = 0.0312
3. Co-efficient of volume compressibility (mv);
eo − e f 1.9 − 1.868
mv = = 0.22mm 2 / N
(1 + eo )( p f − po )
=
(1 + 1.9) * (0.2 − 0.15)
4. Settlement of soil stratum due to the above increase in stress is given by;
S t = mv * H * Δp = 0.22 * 5000 * (0.2 − 0.15) = 55.172mm
July/2005
5.In a consolidation test voids ratio decreased from 0.7 to 0.65 hen the load was changed from 50KN/m2 to 100KN/m2.
Compute compression index and co-efficient of volume change.
a. eo=0.7, b. ef=0.65, c. po=50KN/m2, d.pf=100KN/m2.
Cc
eo
ef
Peo Pef

To find: a.Cc=?, b.mv=?
Procedure:
eo − e f
1. C c =
log p f − log p o
0.70 − 0.65
Cc = = 0.166
log 100 − log 50
2. Co-efficient of volume compressibility (mv);
eo − e f 0.70 − 0.65
mv = = 5.882 *10 − 4 m 2 / KN
(1 + eo )( p f − po )
=
(1 + 0.7 ) * (100 − 50)
July/2004
6. A stratum of clay 8 m deep, has WL=45%. The surface of clay is at 10m below the present ground level, w=40% and Gs=2.78
for clay. Between ground surface and clay, the subsoil consists of fine grained sand. The ground water level is 4.5m below
ground level. The average submerged unit weight of sand is 10.4KN/m3 and the unit weight of sand above the water table is
17KN/m3. The clay is normally consolidated. The weight of structure coming on top of the sand above the clay increases the
overburden pressure on clay by 40KN/m2. Calculate the settlement of the building.
Solution; Given data
a. WL=45%, b. H=8m, c.w=40%, d. Gs=2.78, e. depth of W.T=4.5m from GL, f.γ' sand=10.4KN/m3,g).γd sand=17KN/m3, h. The clay
is normally consolidated, Sr=1, i. Δp=40KN/m2.
GL
G
4.5m γd Sand W.T
10m 5.5m γ' Sand
8m Clay layer
Fig.18. Soil Starata.

To find: a. St=?
Procedure:
1. We know that the total settlement is given by the following equation;
HC c ⎡ p + Δp ⎤
St = log10 ⎢ o ⎥ (1)
1 + eo ⎣ po ⎦
2. According to Terzaghi’s;
C c = 0.009(WL − 10) = 0.009(45 − 10) = 0.315
3. Initial void ratio is given by the equation below;
wG 0.4 * 2.78
eo = = = 1.112 …….(Sr=1 for normally consolidated).
Sr 1
4. Overburden pressure Po is given by;
po=4.5*17+5.5*10.4+8/2*(γsat-γw)
⎡ G + eo ⎤ ⎡ 2.78 + 1.112 ⎤
where, γsat= ⎢ ⎥γ w = ⎢ 1 + 1.112⎥ * 9.81 =18.077KN/m3.
⎣ 1 + eo ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
po=133.7+4*(18.077-9.81)=166.768KN/m2.
HC c ⎡ p + Δp ⎤ 8 * 0.315 ⎡166.768 + 40 ⎤
∴ St = log10 ⎢ o ⎥= log10 ⎢ ⎥⎦ = 0.114m or 11.14cm
1 + eo ⎣ p o ⎦ 1 + 1.112 ⎣ 166.768
Jan/2007
7. 20mm thick undisturbed sample of saturated clay is tested in laboratory with drainage allowed through top and bottom.
Sample reaches 50% consolidation in 35minutes. If clay layer from which sample was obtained is 3.0m thick and is free to
drain through top and bottom surfaces, calculate the time required for degree of consolidation in the field. What is the time
required if the drainage in the field is only through the top?
Procedure: Given data
1st Case:
a. 20mm thick sample, b. U=50%, c. t=35minutes, d. H=3m or 300cm thick.
To find: a. Cv=?
2nd Case:
a. Tv=0.197 (U=50%), b. H=3m or 300cm, c. Cv=2.11cm2/sec
To find: a. t=?
Procedure:
1st case; We know that the following equation;
Tv d 2
a. C v =
t
2 2
π⎛U ⎞ π ⎛ 50 ⎞
b. Tv = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.197
4 ⎝ 100 ⎠ 4 ⎝ 50 ⎠
2
⎛ 300 ⎞
0.197 * ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
c. C v = = 2.11cm 2 / sec
35 * 60
2nd Case: We know that the following equation;

2
⎛ 300 ⎞
0.197 * ⎜ ⎟
Tv d 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
a. t = = = 8402.84 sec or 140.047minutes.
Cv 2.11
July/2007.
8. A one dimensional consolidation test was conducted on a clay sample, with double drainage condition. The dial gauge
readings recorded for a pressure increment of 100kpa to 200kpa are shown in the table below. One division of the dial gauge
corresponds to 1*10-3mm. The thickness of the clay sample at 100kpa overburden pressure was 16mm. Determine the value of
coefficient of consolidation of the clay by
rectangular hyperbola method.
Elapsed time, minutes 0 0.25 1 2 4 6 9 12 16 25 36 50 60
Dial readings, divisions 340 360 370 378 386 394 402 410 416 426 434 440 443
Solution:
Procedure:a. Calculate ΔH and t/ ΔH
Elapsed time, 0 0.25 1 2 4 6 9 12 16 25 36 50 60
minutes
ΔH*10-3mm 0 20 30 38 46 54 62 70 76 86 94 100 103
t/ ΔH 0 12.5 33.34 52.6 86.9 11.11 14.51 17.14 21.05 29.06 38.29 50 58.25b.
b. Plot the curve t/ ΔH(Y-axis) v/s t(X-axis) on natural graph sheet;
C
60
50 m m=dy/dx=(55-30)810-2/(56-26.25)=8.4034*10-3
D=8*10-2
40
30
b
20
d
10
D
0 X
O 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Time, t
d. Cv=0.3(mh2dr)/D, where, h2dr=16+(16-0.105)/2*2=7.9737mm

e. Cv=0.30(8.4034*10-3*7.9737*7.9737)/8*10-2=1.985mm2/minute.
Dec.2010
9. A soil sample 20mm thick takes 20min to reach 20% consolidation. Find the time taken for a clay layer of 6m thickness in
the field to reach 40% consolidation. Sample in laboratory and clay in field are same. Assume double drainage in both cases.
Solution:
a. Tv=π/4(U/100)2= π/4(20/100)=0.0314
b. Cv=Tvd2/t=0.0314*3000*3000/(20*60)=2.617*10-3002/sec.
c. Field u=40%, Tv=0.125
d. t=Tv*d2/Cv=5003days.
May/June.2010
10. In a consolidation test, a soil sample 20mm in thickness took 28minutes to reach 90% consolidation under two-way
drainage condition. For the same soil in the field what would be the time taken in days for 50% and 90% consolidation, if the
thickness of soil layer is 4m and if there is i) One way drainage and ii) Two-way drainage?.
Solution:
a. Cv=0.848d2/t90=0.848(400*400)/(28*60)=5.05*10-4cm2/sec
b. t90=3110days for one way drainage and 777.5days for two way drainage.
c. Cv=0.197*d2/t50, then t50=722.4 days for one ways drainage and 180.6days for two ways drainage.
Dec-2011
11. A 20mm thick clay specimen under double drainage undergoes 50% consolidation in 10minutes in the laboratory. Under
the similar drainage conditions, what time is required for 90% consolidation for a 2m thick clay layer in the field?
Ans: 1. Tv=Cvt/H2=0.196. 2. Cv=0.196*12/10=0.0196cm2/min.. 3. T90=Cvt/H2=0.848. 4. t=0.848*1002/0.0196=432653min or 72010Hr
or 300.45days.
2002 scheme.June-July.2009
12. In laboratory consolidation test a clay specimen 20mm thick under double drainage , the time required for 50%
consolidation of the clay is 30minutes. Calculate the coefficient consolidation. Calculate time required for 90% consolidation of
the same clay in field it is 2m thick and drains on one face only. Take T50=0.196; T90=0.848.
Solution:
a. Cv=0.196*10*10/(30*60)=0.0109mm/sec
b.Cv=Tv1*d12/t1= Tv2*d22/t2 then, t2=0.848(2000*2000)/0.0109=311510204.4sec=9.88years.
13. Soil investigation at a site gave the following information. The top soil upto a depth of 10.6m is fine sand, and below this
lies soft clay layer of 7.6m thick. The water table is at 4.6m below the ground surface. The submerged unit weight of sand γb, is
10.4KN/m3, and et unit weight above water table is 17.6KN/m3. the water content of the normally consolidated clay Wn=40%
its liquid limit, WL=45%, and specific gravity of the solid particles is 2.78. The proposed construction will transmit a net stress
of 120KN/m2.
Find the average settlement of the clay layer.
a. WL=45%, b. H=7.6m, c.w=40%, d. Gs=2.78, e. Depth of W.T=4.6m from GL, f.γ' sand=10.4KN/m3, g. γd sand=17.6KN/m3, h. The
clay is normally consolidated, Sr=1, i. Δp=120KN/m2.
GL
G
4.6m γd Sand W.T
10.6m 6m γ' Sand
7.6m Clay layer

Fig.19. Soil Starata.
To find: a. St=?
Procedure:
St = log10 ⎢ o ⎥ (1)
1 + eo ⎣ po ⎦
2. According to Terzaghi’s;
C c = 0.009(WL − 10) = 0.009(45 − 10) = 0.32
3. Initial void ratio is given by the equation below;
wG 0.4 * 2.78
eo = = = 1.112 …….(Sr=1 for normally consolidated).
Sr 1
4. Overburden pressure Po is given by;
po=4.6*17.6+6*10.4+7.6/2*(γsat-γw)
⎡ G + eo ⎤ ⎡ 2.78 + 1.112 ⎤
where, γsat= ⎢ ⎥γ w = ⎢ 1 + 1.112⎥ * 9.81 =18.077KN/m3.
⎣ 1 + eo ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
po=143.36+3.8*(18.077-9.81)=174.90KN/m2.
HC c ⎡ p + Δp ⎤ 7.6 * 0.315 ⎡174.9 + 120 ⎤
∴ St = log10 ⎢ o ⎥= log10 ⎢ = 0.26m or 26cm
1 + eo ⎣ p o ⎦ 1 + 1.112 ⎣ 174.9 ⎥⎦
14. An Odometer test is performed on a 2cm thick clay sample. After 5 minutes, 50% consolidation is reached. After ho long a
time would the same degree of consolidation be achieved in the field where the clay layer is 3.7m thick?. Assume the sample
and the clay layer has the same drainage boundary conditions (double drainage).
1st case: a. d1=H/2=2/2=1cm, b. t1=5minutes, c. U=50% i.e. Tv=0.197
To find; a. Cv=?
2nd case: a. d2=H/2=3.7/2=1.85cm, b. U=50%.
To find: a. t2=?
Procedure:
1st case; a. We know that the following equation;
Tv d 2
Cv = (1)
t
C v 1 * t1 C v 2 * t 2
2
= 2
d1 d2
2 2
⎡d ⎤ ⎡1.85 ⎤
t 2 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ * t1 = ⎢ ⎥ * 5 = 17.1125 min utes
⎣ d1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
15. A normally consolidated clay of thickness 4m is sandwiched between to sand layers with outlets. The stress at the mid-
height of the clay layer was 1.9t/m2 before any loading was placed. However, due to placement of a fill on the ground surface
the stress at the midle-height of the clay layer increases by 1.1t/m2. The initial void ratio and compression index of clay were
1.2 and 0.3 respectively. Determine the total compression of the clay a long time after placement of the fill and time required
for 20% and 80% of ultimate compression if co-efficient of consolidation of clay is 4*10-3cm2/sec.
a. H=4m, b. po=1.9t/m2, c.Δp=1.1t/m2, d. eo= 1.2, e. Cc=0.3, f. Cv=4*10-3cm2/sec.
GL
G
Sand
4m 2m Clay layer
2m
Sand
Fig.20. Soil strata location.
To find: a. St=?. b. t=? for U=20%, c.t=? for U=80%.
Procedure:
St = log10 ⎢ o ⎥ (1)
1 + eo ⎣ po ⎦
4 * 0.3 ⎡1.9 + 1.1⎤
St = log10 ⎢ = 10.82cm or 0.1082m
1 + 1.2 ⎣ 1.9 ⎥⎦
2. For 20% consolidation;
2 2
π⎛U ⎞ π ⎛ 20 ⎞
Tv = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0314
4 ⎝ 100 ⎠ 4 ⎝ 50 ⎠
3. We have;
2
⎛ 400 ⎞
2 0.0314 * ⎜ ⎟
Tv d ⎝ 2 ⎠
t= = = 314159.25 sec or *1/60*60*60=3.636days.
Cv 4 * 10 −3
4. For 80% consolidation;
Tv = 1.781 − 0.933 log(100 − U % ) = 1.781 − 0.933 log(100 − 80) = 0.567
2
⎛ 400 ⎞
2 0.567 * ⎜ ⎟
Tv d ⎝ 2 ⎠
5. t = = = 5671390.14 sec or 65.641days.
Cv 4 * 10 −3
16. During a consolidation test, a sample of fully saturated clay 3m thick is consolidated under a pressure increment of
200KN/m2. When equilibrium is reached, the sample thickness is reduced to 2.6cm, the pressure is then removed and the
sample is allowed to expand and adsorb water . The final thickness is observed as 2.8cm and the final moisture content is
determined as 24%. If the specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.7, find the void ratio of the sample before and after
consolidation.
17. A recently completed fill was 10m thick and its initial average void ratio was 1.0. the fill was loaded on the surface by
constructing an embankment covering a large area of the fill. Some months after the embankment was constructed,
measurements of the fill indicated an average void ratio of 0.8. Estimate the compression of the fill.
18.Soil investigation at a site gave the following information. Fine sand exists to a depth of 10.6m and below this lie a soft clay
layer 7.6m thick. The water table is at 4.6m below the ground surface. The submerged unit weight of sand γb is 10.4KN/m3,
and the wet unit weight above the water table is 17.6KN/m3.The water content of the normally consolidated clay Wn-40%, its
liquid limit WL=45%, and the specific gravity of the solid particles is 2.78. The proposed construction will transmit a net stress
of 120KN/m2 at the centre of the clay layer. Find the average settlement of the clay layer.
19. A strata of normally consolidated clay of thickness 3m is drained on one side only. It has a hydraulic conductivity of
k=5*10-8 cm/sec and a coefficient of volume compressibility mv=125*10-2cm2/sec. Determine the ultimate value of the
compression of the stratum by assuming a uniformity distributed load of 250KN/m2 and determine the time required for
20percent and 80percent consolidation.
GOOD-LUCK
UNIT-05
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
Concept of Shear Strength:
The shear strength of soil is the resistance to deformation by continuous shear displacement of soil particles or on mass upon the
action of a shear stress.
The failure conditions for a soil may be expressed in terms of limiting shear stress, called shear strength or a function of the principal
stresses.
The shearing resistance of a soil is constituted basically of the following components. Page |
1.The structural resistance to displacement of the soil because of the interlocking of the particles. 1
2.The functional resistance to translocation b/n the individual soil particles at their contact points.
3.Cohesion or adhesion between the face of the soil particles.
Shear Strength of Soil:
The shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shearing stresses.
It is usually taken to be equal to the shear stress at failure on the failure plane. It is represented as composed of:
i.Angle of internal friction (Φ).
ii.Cohesion (C).
i.Angle of internal friction (Φ).
The resistance due to interlocking of particles and friction between individual particles at their contact points is called internal friction
(Φ).
ii.Cohesion (C).
The resistance due to interlocking particles forces which tend to hold the particles together in a soil mass.
The shear strength τf=C+σtanΦ (1) is given by Coulomb’s.
Where, σ=total normal stress on the failure plane.
C= Cohesion
Φ=angle of internal friction.
Equation (1) is also referred to define the Coulomb-Mohr’s shear strength theory for soils.
Graphically it is represented by a straight line as shown in below figure;
τf=C+σtanΦ
Shear strength ,τ in kg/cm2
Φ in degree
d d
C in kg/cm2
Normal stress in kg/cm2, σ

Theoretical Consideration:
Mohr’s Stress Circles;
+τ
σy
τxy
+
τyx
α +σ Page |
σ -σ
2
σx
τ σx
τyx -
-τ
τyx
σy
a. Soil element b. Sign convention

Principal Stress:
Principal stresses are the normal or perpendicular stress in the plane without shear stress is referred as Principal stress.
Principal Plane:
Thus in which the principal stresses will be acting are called principal plane.
τmax
Mohr’s circle
D f(σ,τ)
α 2α X
σ2 B A
σx
σy
σ1
Procedure:
1.Given normal stress σx and σy and shear stress τ, required to find normal stresses σ1 and σ2.
2.Consider axis OX, on OX mark a point A from O representing OA=σy to some scale.
3.Similarly mark B, OB= σx (If σx=-ve the B will on lef side on O).
4.From A draw a perpendicular AD representing shear stress τ.
5.Mark the centre C of AB join CD.
6.With CD as radius draw a circle (Mohr’s Circle). Cutting the axis @ P and Q then OP=σ1 and OQ= σ2. i.e normal stress.
Formula:
a.Normal stress, σ= σy+ σx +( σy- σx)cos2α+τxysin2α (2)
2 2
b.Shear stress, τ=( σy- σx)sin2α-τxycos2α (3)
2
σ1
Y
Minor Principal Plane
N Plane of shear
τ G
σ
Failure envelope f(σ,τ) Page |
σ3 σ3 3
X Major Principal Plane
X
O
X
M σ2
σ1 σ1
Mohr’s Strength Theory:
The Mohr’s strength theory is explained below:
i.The ultimate strength of a material is determined by the stress in the planes of slip.
ii.The failure of a material is essentially by shear but the critical shear is governed by the normal stress on the potential failure plane
and the properties of the material.
iii.In a three dimensional stress system, the magnitude of the intermediate principal stress has no effect on the strength of a material, or
in other words, the failure criteria is independent of the intermediate principal stress.
On any plane the shear stress τ is given by:
τ=σtanβ (4).
Where, σ=nrmal stress
Β=angle of obliquity.
Now see the following figure
Failure envelope,τf=C+σtanΦ Limiting circle at failure
τ Mohr’s Circles
β max θf 2θf I II III

O X
σ3
Normal strength ,σ in kg/cm2 σ1
Fig. Mohr’s failure envelope.

The shear strength on the failure plane has then its limiting value τf= σtanβ (5).
Since a failure envelope defines the shear stress at failure as a function of normal stress, failure can occur only hen the Mohr’s circle
for a stress system touches the failure envelope. Such a circle II in above figure is known as the limiting circle, corresponding to
failure. No failure cn occure under a stress condition represented by I in above figure. On the other hand, it is not possible to keep a
material under the stress condition represented by circle III, because prior to the development of such a stress condition the material
would have already failed.
The angle QFD is 2θf. from the triangle OQF;
2θf=90+Φ
∴ θf=45+ Φ/2 (6)
The angle θf defines the orientation of the failure plane PQ with respect to the major principal plane.
Page |
Mohr’s Coulomb failure theory: 4
Following are the essential point of Mohr’s strength theory:
1.Material fails essentially by shear. The critical shear stress causing failure depends upon the properties of the materials as well as on
normal stress on the failure plane.
2.The ultimate strength of the material is determined by the stresses in the potential failure plane (on plane of shear).
3.When the material is subjected to three dimensional principal stresses (i.e. σ1,σ2,σ3) the intermediate principal stress does not have
any influence on the strength of material.
Shear strength, in kg/cm2, τ
Failure envelope
f(σ,τ)
Φ in degree
τ=C+σtanΦ
C in kg/cm2
Normal stress, σ in kg/cm2

τ=C+σtanΦ , called Mohr’s Coulomb equation (7)
where,C=Cohesion in kg/cm2, Φ=Angle of shearing resistance in degree.
Y
Φ=0
C=0
C in kg/cm2
Φ in degree X
0
Normal stress,σ in kg/cm2 Normal stress in kg/cm2
Fig.Cohesionless soil.e.g.,Sand or gravel type of soil. Fig. Purely Cohesive soil.e.g.,Clay or Murrum type of soil.
τ=C+σtanΦ
Φ in degree
Page |
C in kg/cm2 5
Normal stress,σ in kg/cm2

Fig.C-Φ type of soil.i.e., Homogeneous type of soil
Effective Principal Stress:
τ=C+σtanΦ
Shear strength ,τf in kg/cm2
ΦI in degree
CI in kg/cm2
Normal stress,σI in kg/cm2
τ=C+σtanΦ
τ=CI+σItanΦI------------------------------------- -(8)
τf=CI+(σ-u)tanΦI----------------( σ =σI+u)
where,
CI=Effective cohesion intercept.
ΦI=Effective angle of shearing resistance
Cu=C+ σtanΦu---------------------------------------- (9)
Where, Cu=Apparent cohesion
The normal stress σ and shear stress τ on any plane inclined at an angle α to the major principal plane (MPP) can be expressed interms
of effective major principal stress σI and effective minor principal stress σ3I as shown in figure below.
σI1
N τ=C+σtanΦ
σ τ
Shear strength ,τf in
Φ in degree
σI3 σI3
C in kg/cm2
M Normal stress,σ in kg/cm2
σI1
σI=σ1I+σ3I+ σ1I-σ3Icos2α-------------------------- (10)

2 2
τ= σ1I-σ3Isin2α------------------------------------- (11)
2
Substituting the values of σI in eqn (8)
Page |
τf =C+[σ1I+σ3I+ σ1I-σ3I]tanΦI-------------------------- (10) 6
2 2
The normal dangerous plane i.e., the plane on which failure thake place is the one which the difference τf-τ between the strength and
the shear stress is minimum. Therefore,
i.e., τf-τ=C+tanΦI[σ1I+σ3I+ σ1I-σ3Icos2α]-[ σ1I-σ3I]sin2α
2 2 2
Differentiate this with respect to α and equating to 0.
Cot2 α=cot9(90+ΦI)
2 α=90+ΦI
α=45+ΦI/2
i.e., αf=45+ΦI/2
where,αf=failure plane------(exterior angle=sum of two interior angle)
C and Φ are the properties of soil.
τ=CI+σtanΦI
Mohr’s circle
Failure envelope or failure plane
τ ΦI
CI αf 2αf
σI3 A C B σ
σI1
Fig. Coulomb-Mohr’s strength envelope.
2 α=90+ΦI
α=45+ΦI/2
For centre of circle C= σ1I-σ3I, then locate C point.From σ3 point AC as radious
2
Factors affecting shear strength of soils:
a. For Cohesionless soils
1. Shape of Particles-The shearing strength of sands with angular particles having sharp edges is greater than with rounded particles,
other parameters being identical.
2. Gradation-A well-graded sand exhibits greater shear strength than a uniform sand.
3. Denseness-The degree of interlocking increases with an increase in density. Consequently, the greater the denseness, the greater the
strength. The value of φ ′ is related to the relative density (Dr) as φ ′ = 26 + 0.2 D r . However, the ultimate value of φ ′ is not
0
affected by denseness.
4. Confining pressure- The shear strength increases with an increase in confining pressure. However, for the range of pressure in the
common field problems, the effect of confining pressure on the angle of shearing resistance is not significant.
5. Deviator stress- The angle of φ ′ decreases under very high stresses. As the maximum deviator stress is increased from 500 to
5000kN/m2, the value of φ ′ decreases by about 10%. This is due to the crushing of particles.
6. Intermediate principle stress-The intermediate preinciple stress affects the shear strength to a small extent. The friction angle for
dense sands in the plane strain case is about 20 to 40 greater than that obtained from a standard triaxial test. However, for loose sand,
there is practically no difference in the two values.
7. Loading- The angle of shearing resistance of sand is independent of the rate of loading. The increase in the value of φ ′ from the Page |
slowest to the fastest possible rate of loading is only about 1 to 2%. 7
The angle of shearing resistance in loading is approximately equal to that in unloading.
8. Vibrations and Repeated loading- Repeated loading can cause significant changes. A stress much smaller than the static failure
stress if repeated a large number of times can cause a very large strain and hence the failure.
9. Type of minerals- If the sand contains mica, it will have a large void ratio and a lower value of φ ′ . However, it makes no
difference whether the sand is composed of quartz or feldspar minerals.
10. Capillary moisture- The sand may have apparent cohesion due to capillary moisture. The apparent cohesion is destroyed as soon
as the sand becomes saturated.
A person can easily walk on damp sand near the sea beach it possesses strength due to capillary moisture. On the same sand
in saturated conditions, it becomes difficult to walk as the capillary action is destroyed.
Table-A. Gives the representative values of φ ′ for different type of cohesionless soils.
Table-A. Representative values of φ′ for Sands and Silts
Sl.No Soil φ′
1. Sand, round grains, uniform 270 to 340
2. Sand, angular, well-graded 330 to 450
3. Sandy gravels 350 to 500
4. Silt sand 270 to340
5. Inorganic silt 270 to 350
Not- Smaller values are for loose conditions and larger values are for dense conditions.
b. For Cohesive soils
1. Structure of clay- The clay exhibits a definite structure. Even a normally-consolidated clay exhibits a small peak due to structural
strength. In case of over-consolidated clays, the structural strength is predominant.
2. Clay content- The ultimate friction angle φ ′ of the cohesive soil depends upon the clay content. As ultimate condition increases
with an increase in clay content, because the clay particles do not reach a fully oriented face-to-face alignment at peak.
3. Drainage conditions- As the cohesive soils have low permeability, the shear strength will depend whether it is in drained condition
or in undrained conditions. The cohesive soils have very low strength just after the application of the load when undrained
conditions exist.
4. Rate of strain-In the case of normally consolidated clays, the effect of rate of strain upon the angle of shearing resistance is
relatively small. The value of φ ′ is found to increase with a decrease in rate of strain. In the case of over-consolidated clays, some
of the shear strength is always lost when the rate of strain is decreased.
5. Intermediate principle stress- The values of C ′ and φ ′ are affected very little by the magnitude of the intermediate principle
stress.
6. Repeated loading-For clays tested at constant water content, the shear strength is increased due to a large number of repetitions of
the stress. However, if the stress intensities are too high, the cumulative deformations may result in failure.
7. Confining pressure- The shear strength of clays increases with an increase in the confining pressure, provided there is enough
available for the pore water pressure to dissipate.
8. Plasticity index- The value of φ ′ decreases with an increase in plasticity index of the clay. The following relation is commonly
used.
sin φ ′ = 0.814 − 0.234 log 10 I p
9. Stress history- The values of strength parameters depend upon the stress history.
10. Disturbance- The shear strength of disturbed sample is less than that of the undisturbed samples.
Table-B. Gives the representative values of Cu for different types of cohesive soils for undrained conditions.
Table-B. Representative Values of Cu for clay

Sl.No Soil Cohesion Cu (kN/m2)
01. Very soft clay <12
02. Soft to medium clay 12-25
03. Stiff clay 50-100
04. Very stiff 100-200
05. Hard >200 Page |
Sensitivity and Thixotropy of clay.: 8
The unconfined compression strength is greatly reduced when the soils are tested after remolding without any change in the
moisture content. This property of clay soils is called sensitivity.
A clay soil after remolding, a soil specimen is kept in an undisturbed state(that is, without any change in the moisture content), it
will continue to gain strength with time. This phenomenon is referred to as thixotropy.
The degree of sensitivity may be defined as the ratio of the unconfined compression strength in an undisturbed state to that in a
remolded state, or St=qu(undisturbed)/qu(remolded). The sensitivity ratio of most clays ranges from 1 to8.
Measurement of shear parameters or 4 shear strength method.
a. Direct shear strength test. i.e., Cohesion type soil.
b. Triaxial test. i.e., Cohesive type of soil.
c. Unconfined Compression test. i.e., saturated soil.
d. vane shear test. i.e., Very soft type of soil.
Again depending upon the drainage condition, therefore types of shear test have been adopted;
i.Undrained or Quick test.
ii. Consolidated undrained test.
iii. a drained test.
i.Undrained Test:
No drainage is permitted hence there is no dissipation of pore pressure during the entire test. This test is used for foundation
on clay soils, and slopes and cuts.
ii. The drained Test:
The drainage is permitted throught the test during the application of both normal and shear stress. So that full consolidation
accurse and access pore pressure is setup at any stage of the test. The purpose of this test is to simulate field conditions as for as
possible.
iii. Consolidated Undrained Test:
In consolidated undrained test, the drainage is permitted under the initially applied normal stress only and full primary
consolidation is allowed to take place. No drainage is allowed afterwards. This test is used for due to changes in moisture content are
expected to take place due to consolidation before the soil is fully loaded.
a. DIRECT SHEAR TEST:
This test is used for determination of angle of shearing resistance and Cohesion for a given soil sample.
In direct shear test the sample is sheared along a horizontal plane. This indicates that the failure plane is horizontal. The normal stress
σ on this plane is the external vertical load divided by the area of the sample. The shear at failure is the external lateral load divided by
the area of sample.
Normal force
Soil
Shear force
Foundation material
Fig. Direct shear test to determine interface friction angle.

σ3 σ1 F
M N Page |
9
σ3
F σ1
Failure envelope
P1 Mohr’s circle
τ=c+σtanΦ P=Pole
τ Minor principal plane

Φ
Major principal plane
C αf 2αf
α
O X
σ3 D C σ1 σ
The point P1 on the stress diagram represents the stress condition on the failure plane. The co-ordinates of the point are,
The normal stress=σ, The shear stress=τ=s.
If it is assumed that the Mohr’s envelope is a straight line through the origin of stress (for cohesionless soil or normally consolidated
clays0, it fallows that the maximum obliquity δm occurs on the failure plane and δm=Φ. Therefore the line op1must be a tangent to the
Mohr’s Circle. AP is called Minor Principal Plane. BP is called Major Principal Plane.
Y Y
Peak value, a Dense sand Dense sand
Dense sand
Φ
τ Loose sand Φ
τ τ
Loose sand
Loose sand
X X
σ σ σ
a. σ v/s τ b. Volume change c. σ v/s τ
Limitations of Direct Shear Box test:

1. The stress conditions are complex primarily because of the non-uniform distribution of normal and shear
stress on the plane.
2. There is virtually no control of the drainage of the soil specimen as the water content of a saturated soil
changes rapidly with stress.
3. The area of the sliding surface at failure will be less than the original area of the soil specimen and strictly
speaking, this should be accounted for. Page |
4. The ridges of the metal gratings embedded on the top and bottom of the specimen, causes distortion of the 10
specimen to same degree.
5. The effect of lateral restraint by the side walls of the shear box is likely to affect the results.
6. The failure plane is predetermined and this may not be the weakest plane. In fact, this is the most important
limitation of the direct shear test.
Advantage and disadvantage of Direct shear box test:
Advantage;
1. The direct shear test is simple test compared to the triaxial test.
2. The thickness of the soil sample small, quick drainage and hence rapid dissipation of pore pressure is
possible.
3. This test is used for determine to co-ordinate of normal stress σ and shear stress τ.
Disadvantages;
1. The failure plane is determined. Therefore the specimen is not allowed to fail along the weakest plane.
2. Shear displacement causes reduction in area under shear. Corrected area should be used in computing normal
and shear stress.
3. The side walls of the shear box can cause lateral restraint on the edges of the specimen.
4. There is little control on drainage of pore water as compared with triaxial compression test.
B.Triaxial Shear test:
In triaxial compression test, a specimen of soil is subjected to three principal compressive stresses at right angle to one another, and
the specimen is failed in shear by increasing or sometimes by decreasing one of the stresses.
σI1=Axial stress
σI1
σI2= σI3
σ τ
Lateral pressure σI3 σI3

σI3 σI3
σI2= σI3
σI1
σI1=Axial stress
Fig. Stress acting on a soil specimen in triaxial compression test.
The specimen is cylindrical in shape and the lateral compressive stresses are applied by a fluid under pressure, which act on all sides
of the specimen. To fail the specimen, additional vertical stress is applied axially on top of the specimen. Under these conditions the
vertical axial stress is the major principal stress σ1,and the intermediate and minor principal stresses (σ2
and σ3 respectively) are both equal to the confining fluid pressure. The above figure shows the stresses acting on a soil specimen in the
triaxial compression test.
This test is used for cohesive and no-cohesive soils to determine the deviator stress,
σd= σ1- σ3-------------( σd=Diviator stress, σ1=Vertical stress, σ3=Pore pressure)
σ1, applying some values and σ3=5,10,15kg/cm2
therefore, σd= σ1- σ3, Now plot the graph.
Y Failure envelope,τf=C+σtanΦ
Page |
Φ Mohr’s circles
11
τ
C
I II III
O X
σ3 σ3 σ3 σ1 σ1 σ1 σ
Types of failure of a Triaxial Compression test specimen:

A triaxial compression test specimen may exhibits a particular pattern or shape as follows to reached, depending upon the nature of the
soil and its conditions, as shown in below figures.
a.Brittle failure b.Semi-plastic failure c.Plastic failure
The first type is a brittle failure with well-defined shear plane, the second type is semi-plastic failure showing shear cones and some
lateral bulging, and the third type is plastic failure with will-expressed lateral bulging.
In the case of plastic failure, the strain goes on increasing slowly at a reduced rate with increasing stress, with no specific stage to pin-
point failure. In such a case, failure is assumed to have taken place when the strain reaches an arbitrary value such as 20%.
Merits and Demerits of Triaxial Tests:
Merits:
The following advantages of triaxial compression test are as follows;
1. There is a complete control over the drainage of specimen and all the three types of shear can be performed
on all types of soils.
2. Precise measurement of pore pressure and volume changes can be made during the test.
3. There is relatively uniform stress distribution on the failure plane and the specimen is free to fail on the
weakest surface.
4. Complete state of stress within the specimen is statically determinate at all stages of the test.
5. The triaxial test apparatus is more adoptable to special requirement and is best suited for research purposes.
Demerits:
1. The chief demerits is that the apparatus is elaborate.
2. Drained tests take a very long time (compare shear box).
3. Rigidity and friction of the end caps restrict the development of uniform stress conditions within the entire specimen.
4. A large strain, corrections for the changes in area of specimen can be made only approximately.
C.Unconfined Compression Test:
The unconfined compression test is a special case of triaxial compression test in which σ2= σ3=0. The cell pressure in the triaxial
cell is also called the confining pressure. Due to the absence of such a confining pressure, the uniaxial test is called the unconfined
compression test. The cylindrical specimen of soil is subjected to major principal stress σ1 till the specimen fails due to shearing along
a critical plane of failure.
Following figure shows the stress conditions, at failure, in the unconfined compression test which is essentially an undrained test (if it
is assumed that moisture is lost from the specimen during the test). Since σ3=0, the Mohr’s circle passes through the origin which is
also the pole.
σ1=Cu
Y Page |
N Failure plane 12
τ Failure envelope
σ τ
F Φu=0
Mohr’s circle
α
Cu τf=qu/2
M
α=450
O X
A C B
σ1=qu σ1=qu
We have,σ1=2Cutanα=2Ctan(45+Φu/2).------------ (11)
In the above equation, there are two unknowns Cu and Φu, which cannot be determined by the unconfined test since a number of
tests on the identical specimens give the same value of σ1. Therefore, the unconfined compression test is generally applicable to
saturated clays for which the apparent angle of shearing resistance Φu is zero.
Hence σ1=2Cu---------------------------------------------------- (12)
When the Mohr’s circle is drawn, its radious is equal to σ1/2=Cu. The failure envelope is horizontal. PF is the failure plane, and the
stresses on the failure plane are σ= σ1/2=qu/2---------- (13)
And τf= σ1/2=qu/2=Cu.-------------------- (14)
Where qu=unconfined compressive strength at failure. The compressive stress is calculated on the basis of changed cross-sectional
area A2 at failure, which is given by
A2=V/L1-ΔL=A1/1- ΔL/L1.--------------- (15)
Where V=initial volume of the specimen; L1=initial length of the specimen, ΔL=change in length at failure.
D. Vane shear Test:

Vane shear test is a quick test, used either in the laboratory or in the field, to determine the undrained shear strength of cohesive
soil. The vane shear teste consists of four thin steel plates, called vanes, welded orthogonally to a steel rod.
The shear strength of the soil is given by the following formula;
τf=T/[πd2(H/2+d/12)] in KN/m2.
Where,T=torque ii radians, d=diameter of vane, H=height of the vane, τf=unit strength of the soil.
1.Following reading is given in table for normal and maximum shear force for the specimens of sandy clay tested in the shear
box, 36cm2in area under undrained conditions,. Plot the graph (failure envelope) for the soil and determine the values of
apparent angles of shearing resistance and the apparent cohesion.
Normal load (N), σ Maximum shear force (N),τ
100 110
200 152
300 193
400 235
Solution: Procedure;
A. Calculation of normal stress, σ:
1.Normal stress, σ=load/Area=100/36=2.77N/cm2. 2. Normal stress, σ=load/Area=200/36=5.55N/cm2.
3. Normal stress, σ=load/Area=300/36=8.33N/cm2. 4. Normal stress, σ=load/Area=400/36=11.11N/cm2.
B.Calculation of shear stress, τ;
1. Shear stress,τ=Load/Area=110/36=3.055N/cm2. 2. Shear stress,τ=Load/Area=152/36=4.220N/cm2.
3. Shear stress,τ=Load/Area=193/36=5.360N/cm2. 4. Shear stress,τ=Load/Area=123536=6.520N/cm2.
C.By using natural graph and select normal stress along X-axis and Shear stress along Y-axis.
10
9 Failure envelope,
8 τ=C+σtanΦ Page |
7 13
6
5
τ
4
3
N/cm2
2 Φu in degree=220
1 C in N/cm2=1.85N/cm2
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 σ in N/cm2
D.Result:
1.Apparent Cohesion,C=1.85N/cm2.
2.Apparent angle of shearing resistance,Φu=220.
2. A specimen of clay, dry, cohesionless sand is tested on shear box and the soil failed at a shear stress of 40KN/m2 when the
normal load on the specimen was 50KN/m2. Determine (a) the angle of shearing resistance (b) the apparent stress during the
failure (c) The direction of the principal planes with respect to the direction of the plane of shearing.
Y Failure envelope,τ=C+σtanΦ
Solution: Mohr’s circle
Procedure:
f(σ,τ) D P Minor principal plane
τ Major principal plane

kN/m2
τ=40KN/m2 Φ=38.50 260 640
σ=50KN/m2 A C B σ in KN/m2
O X
A.By using natural graph and select normal stress along X-axis and Shear stress along Y-axis.
B. Result:
1.Locate CD line perpendicular to the failure plane and CA as radious and draw the Mohr’s circle.
2.Now select pole point P and draw DP parallel to X-axis.
3.Cohesionless soil, C=0.
4.Angle of shearing resistance, Φ=38.50.
5.The direction of the principal planes are;
i. Major principal plane=640. (with respect to X-axis clock wise direction)
ii.Minor principal plane=260. (with respect to X-axis anti clock wise direction)
3. A cylindrical specimen of saturated clay 4cm diameter and 9cm in overall length is tested in an unconfined compression test.
The specimen has coned ends and its length between the apex of cones is 8cm. Find the unconfined compressive of clay, if the
specimen fails under an axial load of 46.5N. The change in length of specimen at failure is 1cm.
Solution: Given data:
a.d=4cm, b.L=9cm, c.Length of cylindrical apex of cone=8cm, d.Axial load=46.5N, e. ΔL=1cm.
To find: Unconfined compressive strength,qu=?.
Procedure:
1.Length of cylindrical of the same volume and diameter (Overal length),
L1=8+9=8.5cm
2
2. Initial cross sectional area,A1=π/4*42=12.566cm2 say 12.57cm2.
3. Area at failure,A2=A1/1- ΔL/L1=12.57/1-1/8.5=14.25cm2.
4. Unconfined compressive strength, qu=Failure load/Failure area=46.5/14.25=3.26N/cm2.
4.Two identical specimens, 4cm in diameter and 8cm in length of partially saturated compacted soil are tested in a triaxial cell
under undrained conditions. The first specimen failed at an additional axial load i.e., deviator load of 720N under cell pressure
of 100KN/m2. The second specimen failed at an additional axial load of 915N under a cell pressure of 200KN/m2. The increase
in volume of the first specimen at failure is 1.2ml and it shortens by 0.6cm at failure. The increase in volume of the second
specimen at failure is 1.6cm and it shortens by 0.8cm at fails. Determine the value apparent cohesion and the angle of shearing Page |
resistance by analytically. 14
Solution; Given data:
1.For the first specimen:
a.d1=4cm,b.L1=8cm, c. σd=720N, d.σ3=100KN/m2, e.ΔV=1.2ml=1.2cm3,f. ΔL=0.6cm.
2. For the second specimen:
a.d1=4cm,b.L1=8cm, c. σd=915N, d.σ3=200KN/m2, e.ΔV=1.6ml=1.6cm3,f. ΔL=0.8cm.
To find: a.C=?, b.Φ=?
Procedure:
1.For the first specimen;
a.Inital area, A1=π/4*42=12.566cm2 say 12.57cm2.
b.Initial volume,V1=A1*L1 =12.57*8=100.56cm2.
c.Area at failure,A1=V1+ΔV/L1-ΔL=100.56+1.2/8-0.6=13.75cm2.
d.Deviator stress at failure, σd=Deviator load/failure area=720/13.75=52.36cm2.
e.We have, σ1= σd+ σ3=523.6+100=623.6KN/m2.
2. For second specimen:
a.Inital area, A2=π/4*42=12.566cm2 say 12.57cm2.
b.Initial volume,V1=A1*L2 =12.57*8=100.56cm2.
c.Area at failure,A1=V1+ΔV/L1-ΔL=100.56+1.6/8-0.8=14.20cm2.
d.Deviator stress at failure, σd=Deviator load/failure area=915/14.20=64.43cm2.
e.We have, σ1= σd+ σ3=523.6+200=844.30KN/m2.
3.By analytically;
σ1= σ3tan2α+2Ctan α
i.e, 623.6=100 tan2α+2Ctan α--------------------- (1)
844.3=200 tan2α+2Ctan α--------------------- (2)
220.3=100 tan2α
α=56.190.
4.We have,α=45+Φ/2
Φ=2(α -45)=2(56.19-45)=22.380.
5.Substituting in eqn (1);
623.6=100 tan256.19+2Ctan56.19
C=136.0KN/m2.
5. Three clay specimens having a small air voids content were tested in a shear box under undrained conditions and the
following observations were made;
Normal stress (KN/m2) 100 200 300
Shear stress (KN/m2) 90 102 108
Find the apparent cohesion and angle of shearing resistance of the clay. What value of apparent cohesion would be obtained
from unconfined compression test on the same soil?.
Solution:
Procedure;
1. By using natural graph and select normal stress along X-axis and shear stress alongY-axis.
2.
P Failure envelope,τ=C+σtanΦ
Φu=60 Mohr’s circle
τ Cu=80KN/m2
α= 480 176KN/m2
A C B σ in KN/m2
3. From graph;
i. Apparent cohesion,Cu=80KN/m2.
ii.Apparent angle of shearing resistance,Φu=60.
4. For unconfined compressive strength test;
i. Failure angle,α=45+ Φu/2=45+6/2=480.
ii.Apparent Cohesion,Cu=176/2=88KN/m2.
6. Following are the results of undrained triaxial compression test on two identical soil specimen at failure;
Lateral pressure,σ3(KN/m2) 100 300 Page |
Total pressure, σ1(KN/m2) 440 760 15
Pore pressure,u(KN/m2) -20 60
Determine the cohesion and angle of shearing resistance a.reffered to total stress, b.reffered to effective stress.
Solution:
Procedure:
1. We have; σ= σI+u
2. For first specimen, σI1= σ1-u=440-(-20)=460KN/m2.
3. σI3= σ3-u=100-(-20)=120KN/m2.
4. For second specimen,σI1= σ1-u=760-60=700KN/m2.
5. σI3= σ3-u=300-60=240KN/m2.
6. Now draw the Mohr’s circle on natural graph sheet, i.e.,
Modified failure envelope,τf=CI+σItanΦI.
Y
Failure envelope,τ=C+σtanΦ
ΦIu=200
Φu=130 Mohr’s circles
CIu=170KN/m2
τ
Cu=110KN/m2
X
σ3 σI3 σ3 σI3 σ1 σI1 σ
σ1 σI1
7.Results:
i. Apparent cohesion,Cu=110KN/m2.
ii. Apparent angle of shearing resistance, Φu=130.
iii. Apparent effective cohesion, CIu=170KN/m2.
iv. Apparent angle of shearing resistance, ΦIu=200.
July.2007
7. Undrained triaxial tests are carried out on four identical specimens of silty clay and the following results are obtained;
Cell pressure, σ3 in KN/m2 50 100 150 200
Deviator stress at failure, σd in KN/m2 350 440 530 610
Pore pressure,u in KN/m2 5 10 12 18
Determine the values of the effective angle of shearing resistance and the cohesion intercept by plotting a.Conventional failure
envelope from Mohr’s circles, b.Modified failure envelope.
Solution: Procedure:
A.Following table shows the necessary calculation of plotting the failure envelope.
Specimen σ3 in u in σd in σ1 in KN/m2 σI1 in σI3 in ½(σI1 + σI3) in ½(σI1 - σI3)
2 2 2
No KN/m KN/m KN/m =σd- σ3 KN/m = σ1- u KN/m = σ3- u KN/m2
2 2
in KN/m2
1 50 5 350 400 395 45 220 175

2 100 10 440 540 530 90 310 220
3 150 12 530 680 668 138 403 265
4 200 18 610 810 792 182 487 305
B. Now plot using natural graph, draw Mohr’s circles and determine C and Φ.
Modified failure envelope

τf=CI+σItanΦI
Page |
Mohr’s Failure envelope 16
ΦI in degree Τ=C+σtanΦ
C in KN/m2
I
Φ in degree Mohr’s circles
τ
C in KN/m2
2
KN/m
σ3 σ3 σ3 σ1 σ1 σ1
σ in KN/m2
C.Now select X-axis and Y-axis scale then select values from table above and determine CI and ΦI.
8. A vane 10cm long and 8cm in diameter was pressed into soft clay at the bottom of a borehole. Torque was applied and
gradually increased to 45N-m when failure takes place. Subsequently the vane rotated rapidly so as to completely remolded
the soil. The remolded soil was shared at a torque of 18N-m. calculate the cohesion of the clay in the natural and remolded
states and also the value of the sensitivity.
A.Natural state;
a.T=4500N-cm, b.H=10cm, c.d=8cm.
B.Remolded state;
a.T=1800N-cm,b.H=10cm,c.d=8cm.
To find: a.τf=?, b.Sensitivity=?.
Procedure:
1.Natural state;
a.We have;
τf=4500/[π*82*(10/2+8/6)]=3.533 N/cm2 or 35.33 KN/m2.
2.Remolded state;
b.We have;
τf=1800/[π*82*(10/2+8/6)]=1.413 N/cm2 or 14.13 KN/m2.
Dec.2010
9. A shear box test on soil sample gave the following data:
(i) (ii)
Normal pressure kN/m2 150 250
Shear stress kN/m2 110 120
What would be the deviator stress at failure, if triaxial test is carried on the same soil with a cell pressure of 150kN/m2.
Solution:
Procedure;
1. We know that, τf=C+σtanΦ
110=C+150tanΦ
120=C+250tanΦ
Then, C=95kN/m2, Φ=5.710.
2. By Triaxial test;
σ1=σ3tanα2+2Ctanα=392.99N/m2, ( σ3=150kN/m2, α=45+Φ/2=45+5.71/2=47.8550)
σd=σ1-σ3=392.99-150=242.99kN/m2.
Dec.2010
10.Unconfined compressive strength of soil is 150kN/m2. A sample of the same soil failed at a deviator stress of 200kN/m2,
when it is tested in triaxial compression test with a cell pressure of 50kN/m2. Determine the shear parameters.
Solution:
Procedure:
1. σ1=2Ctanα---------from unconfined compression test
2. σ1=σ3tanα2+2Ctanα---------from triaxial test
Where, σ3=50kN/m2 , σd=200kN/m2 Page |
Then σ1=σd+σ3=200+50=250kN/m2 17
3. 250=50tanα2+150, then α54.730 and α=45+Φ/2 therefore Φ=19.460.
May/June.2010
11. A direct shear test was conducted on a soil, whose results are given below:
Normal stress (kN/m2) 150 250
Shear stress at failure (kN/m2) 110 120
Plot the graph and determine the shear strength parameters of the soil. If a triaxial test is conducted on the same soil, what
would be the deviator stress at failure when the cell pressure is 150kN/m2.
Solution:
Procedure:
1. From direct shear test graph, Φ=60, C=95kN/m2.
2.α=45+Φ/2=45+6/2=480
3. σ1=σ3tanα2+2Ctanα=150tan482+2Ctan48=396kN/m2
4. σd=σ1-σ3=396-150=246kN/m2
May/June.2010
12. A saturated cohesive soil fails under an axial stress of 150kN/m2 in unconfined compression test. The failure plane makes
an angle of 520 with horizontal. Calculate the shear parameters C and Φ.
Solution:
Procedure:
1. σ1f=qu=150kN/m2
2. α=45+Φ/2=520, then Φ=140
3. Cu=qu/2tanα=58.6kN/m2.
Dec.09/Jan.10
13. A remoulded specimen of soil prepared by compaction to standard proctor maximum dry unit weight at optimum
moisture content, is used for consolidated undrained triaxial test with pore pressure measurements. The test results are given
below.
Test.No Cell pressure kN/m2 Deviator stress at failure, kN/m2 Pore pressure kN/m2
1 040 300 05
2 100 443 10
3 165 615 12
Determine the values of effective shear stress parameters, by
i) Drawing
ii) Drawing modified envelope.
Solution:
Procedure:
1. Make the table
Sl.No σ3f (σ1- σ3)f σ1f uf σI3f σI1f pi qi

1 40 300 340 5 35 335 185 150
2 100 443 543 10 90 533 311.5 221.5
3 165 615 780 12 153 768 460.5 307.5
2. Y
Page |
τ Results: 18
kN/m2 Φi=340
i 0
Φ =34 Ci=60kN/m2
200
ci
X
200 400 600 800
Fig. Mohr’s failure envelope
3.
ψi=290
Results:
di=50
ψi=290
qi Φi=Sin-1(tanψi)=33.660
ci=di/cosΦi=60kN/m2
kN/m2 kfline
di
200 400 600

pi (kN/m2)
Fig. Modified failure envelope

Dec.08/Jan.09
14. In a drained triaxial compression test a saturated sand sample failed at a deviator stress of 360kN/m2 and cell pressure of
100kN/m2. Find the effective shear parameters of sand. If another identical sample is tested under a cell pressure of 200kn/m2.
Determine graphically the deviator stress at which the specimen fails. Check your results analytically.
Solution:
Procedure:
1. σ1=σ3+σd=100+360=460kN/m2
2. σ1=σ3tan2α+2Ctanα-----------------------C=0
460=100tan2(45+Φ/2)
Φ=4000i18.7ii
3. σ1=σ3+σd
σ1=200tan2(45+4000i18.7ii)
σ1=920kN/m2
4. σd=σ1-σ3=920-200=720kN/m2.
5. Check graphically also, i.e Plot the Mohr’s Circles on natural graph sheet.
Dec.08/Jan.09
15. An unconfined compression test was conducted on an undisturbed sample of soil. The sample had a diameter of 40mm was
80mm long. The load at failure was 28N and axial deformation of sample was 12mm. If the failure plane makes an angle of 600
with the horizontal, determine the shear strength parameters of the soil.
Solution:
Procedure:
1. A0=π/4*(40)2=1256.64mm2.
2. Є=ΔL/L=12/80=0.15. Page |
3. Ai=A0/(1-Є)=1256.64/(1-0.15)=1478.4mm2. 19
4. qc=Failure load/Ai=28/1478.4=0.1189N/mm2.
5. C=qc/2tanα=0.0189/2tan60=5.46X10-3N/mm2.
6.α=(45+Φ/2), then Φ=300.
7. C=5.46X10-3N/mm2=5.46kN/m2 and Φ=300
2002scheme
.May/June.2010
16. Two identical soil specimen were ina triaxial apparatus. First specimen failed at a deviator stress of 770kN/m2 under a cell
pressure of 400kN/m2. Determine the value of C and Φ analytically. If the same soil is tested on a direct shear apparatus, with
a normal stress of 600kN/m2, estimate the shear stress at failure.
Solution:
Procedure:
1. First test:
σ1=σ3+σd=200+770=970kN/m2.
970=200tan2α+2Ctanα--------(1)
2. Second test:
σ1=σ3+σd=400+1370=1770kN/m2.
1770=400tan2α+2Ctanα--------(2)
3. From eqn(1) and eqn(2)
200tan2α=800
Then tanα=2 or α=63.430, then Φ=36.870.
4. Putting in eqn(1) & (2)
C=42.5kN/m2.
5. For shear box test
τ=C+σtanΦ=42.5+600tan36.87=492.50kN/m2.
2002schem.June-July.2009
17. The direct shear test conducted on a soil specimens gives following results at failure.
Test No Normal stress(kN/m2 Shear stress (kN/m2)
1 100 50
2 150 70
3 200 90
Draw the Mohr’s envelope. Determine shear parameters and for any one failure point the orientation of principal planes and
stresses. Y
Solution: 100 Results:
Procedure: 75 1.C=10kN/m2
1. 2. Φ=21.80
50
τ
25 Φ=21.80
C
X
25 50 75 100 125 150 200
σ3 σ1
2. From graph;
a. σ3=62.5kN/m2, b.σ1=180kN/m2, c.α=45+Φ/2=45+21.8/2=55.800, d. α=45=145.900.
June/July.2008.
18. A vane shear test was conducted at the bottom of a bore hole by pressing the vane, 10cm long and 8cm in diameter, fully
into the clay. Torque was applied gradually and the failure took place when the torque was 45Nm. After the failure, the vane
was rotated rapidly to remould the clay completely. The remoulded clay was once again subjected to shearing and the failure
was observed at a torque of 10Nm. Calculate the cohesion of the clay in the natural and remoulded states. Also calculate the
value of sensitivity of the clay.
Dec-2011 Page |
19. In a direct shear test on sand, the sample failed at a shear stress of 7okN/m2, when normal stress was 100kN/m2. 20
Dewtermine the angle of internal friction. Determine the major and minor principal stresses. Mark the major and minor
principal planes on Mohr’s circle.
Ans: 1. σ 3 =OA=Minor principal stress=64KN/m2=64kpa.
2. σ 1 =OB=Major principal stress=236KN/m2=236kpa.
3. φ ′ =350
Dec-2011
20. Determine the shear strength parameters of a soil tested in a triaxial test for following data. Use analytical method. Check
your results by graphical method.
Trial 1Trial 2
Cell pressure (kN/m2) 100 200
Axial pressure at failure (kN/m2) 250 390
Ans: 1.
σ31=100 kN/m2 σ32=200 kN/m2
σd1=250 kN/m2 σd2=390 kN/m2
σ11=350 kN/m2 σ12=590 kN/m2
2. σ 1 = σ 3 tan 2 α + 2C tan α
350 = 100 tan 2 α + 2C tan α -------------------(1)
590 = 200 tan 2 α + 2C tan α ------------------ (2)
Solving equation 1 and 2;
We get, α=25.170
Φ=24.30
C=35.5kN/m2
3. Plot by graphically and verify
21. Following are the results of four drained direct shear tests on over consolidated clay. Diameter of
specimen=50mm and height of specimen=25mm.
Test No Normal force, in N Shear force at failure,Speak in N Residual shear force, Rresidual in N
1 150 157.5 44.2
2 250 199.9 56.6
3 350 257.6 102.9
4 550 363.4 144.5
Determine the relationships for peak shear strength (τf) and residual shear strength(τres).
22. For normally consolidated clay, the results of a drained triaxial test are as follows;
Chamber confining pressure=16KN/m2 and deviator stress at failure=25KN/m2.
a. Find the angle of friction,ΦI, and b.Determine the angle α that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.
23. Clean and dry sand samples were tested in a large shear box, 25cm*25cm and the following results
were obtained;
Normal load in KN 05 10 15
Peak shear load in KN 05 10 15
Ultimate shear load in KN 2.9 5.8 8.7
Determine the angle of shearing resistance of the sand in the dense and loose states.
24. The following data were obtained in a direct shear test. Normal pressure=20KN/m2 shear pressure=16KN/m2. Angle of
internal friction=200, cohesion=8KN/m2. Represents the data by Mohr’s Circle and compute the principal stresses and the
direction of the principal planes.
25. In a drained triaxial compression test, a saturated specimen of cohesionless sand fails under a deviator stress of 535KN/m2
when the cell pressure is 150KN/m2. Find the effective angle of shearing resistance of sand and the approximate
inclination of the failure plane to the horizontal. Graphical method is allowed.
26. A thin layer of silt exists at a depth of 18m below the surface of the ground. The soil above this level has an average dry
density of 1.53Mg/m3and an average water content of 36%. The water table is almost at the surface. tests on undisturbed
samples of the silt indicate the following values;
Cu=45KN/m2;Φu=180;CI=35KN/m2; ΦI=270. Estimate the shearing resistance of the silt on a horizontal plane,a.when the Page |
shear stress builds up rapidly and b. when the shear stress builds up very slowly. 21
27. A vane, 10.8cm long, 7.2cm in diameter, was pressed into a soft clay at the bottom of a borehole. Torque was applied and
the value at failure was 45Nm. Find the shear strength of the clay on a horizontal plane.
Good Luck

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Quick Sand Condition and

• Laplace equation is the combination of the equation of

• Laplace equation is the combination of the equation of

Replace in the continuity equation

Top Flow Line or Phreatic

Flow Net for an Earth Dam

Total Stress Westergaard’s Method

• Generated by the mass in the soil body, calculated by sum up

t,2 = 18 kN/m3 = 51 kN/m2

• Defined as soil stress which influenced by water pressure in soil

'  (  t   w ).z   '.z

• Pore Water Pressure

26.2 kPa 26.2 kPa

71.2 kPa 25 kPa 46.2 kPa

160.3 kPa 70 kPa 90.3 kPa

Profile of Vertical Stress

• External Load Types

• Homogeneous – the same properties at all locations

• Isotropic –the same properties in all directions

• Elastic –a linear stress-strain relationship.

Also an equation for σy

For other positions (X  0),

• Westergaard developed a solution to determine

• Circular Uniform Load

• Example, the depth of point (z) = 6 m

z/qo r/z Radius (z=6 m) Radius at drawing Operation

0.1 0.27 1.62 m 0.675 cm 1.62/6 x 2.5 cm

0.2 0.40 2.40 m 1 cm 2.4/6 x 2.5 cm

0.3 0.52 3.12 m 1.3 cm 3.12/6 x 2.5 cm

0.4 0.64 3.84 m 1.6 cm 3.84/6 x 2.5 cm

And so on, generally up to z/qo  1 because if z/qo = 1 we get r/z = 

 v = 250 . 0.02 . 8 = 40 kPa

• The 5 m x 10 m area uniformly loaded with 100 kPa

 z total = 23.8 – 20.9 – 20.6 + 18 = 0.3 kPa

 z total = 47.6 – 41.9 – 43.8 + 38.6 = 0.5 kPa

Fig.1. a).Before compaction. b).After compaction.

Fig.2. Mould and

w(%) water content

Water content w(%)

Standard proctor test

w(%) water content

moulding water content (%)

Fig.9. Effect of compactive on structure.

Dry compacted or undisturbed

Dry compacted or undisturbed sample

Wet compacted or remoulded

(a) Lo-stress consolidation (b) High-stress consolidation

Fig.10. Effect of compaction on compressibility.

Fig.11. Effect of compaction on stress-strain characteristic.

Fig.13. Calibration curve for proctor needle.

MDD 100%, saturation line

Fig.12. Compaction curve.

Fig.13. Compaction curve.

b. From graph, MDD=18.20kN/m3 and OMC=15.50%

b. Over Consolidated soils:

(Total load of building)

c. Under Consolidated Soils:

Fig.5. Under Consolidated Soils.

Virgin Compression Curve

Void ratio(e) Recompression or shrinkage Curve

Expansion or Virgin Curve

α/2 D Bisection line AD

Fig.8. e-logP curve by Burmister method.