SAPTANGA THEORY

HISTORY PROJECT

DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

VISHAKAPATNAM
OCTOBER 2018
ACKOWLEDGEMENT

I would sincerely like to put forward my heartfelt appreciation to our respected History
professor Prof.Viswachandra Nath Madasu for giving me a golden opportunity to take upthis
project regarding – Mauryan empire.I have tried my best to collect information about the
project in various possible ways to depict clear picture about the given project topic.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
KAUTILYA : SAPTANGA THEORY OF STATE
THE SAPTANGA THEORY : ELEMENTS OF STATE
ROLE OF KING
SYSTEM OF LAW
MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT
PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMNISTRATION
PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY
LOCAL ADMINISTRATION – URBAN AND RURAL
PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION
LEGAL ADMINISTRATION
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
OTHER ASPECTS OF ADMINISTRATION
A CRITICAL APPRAISAL
KAUTILYA AND MACHIAVELLI
THE MANY FIRSTS OF KAUTILYA
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KAUTILYA : SAPTANGA THEORY OF STATE

Political thought is primarily concerned with the state and its functions. The historical record
to tell us how and when man originally came to live under stable conditions of a political
system.in the absence of historical evidence, political thinkers have, however ,made various
suggestions to explain how state originated.

There are differences of opinion among various political thinkers regarding the meaning,
origin , nature , functions, objectives and elements of the state. the word ‘state’ and it’s
cognates in other European languages – uages - stato in Italian; etat in French; staat in
German and Estado in Spanish ar.d Portuguese. The word 'state' drives from the Latin Statvs,
literally "standing" but meaning "condition" or "status".
The idea of the state as an organized society goes back to the Greek city-states. Aristotle
described it as the natural growth of family and village. The theory is prior in nature, family
being older in time. The Romans borrowed the idea of state from the Greeks but applied it to
a bigger geographic unit. The Roman term Status Rei Publicae means the state of public
concern. In its modern sense, the term Was first used by Machiavelli during the 16th century
as general term for a body politic. C.L. Weyper divides the theories of the state into three
broad categories viz.,
• The state as organism
• The state as machine
• The state as class
It was for the first time, in ancient India, that the Arthasastra of Kautilya provided a
definition of the state. According to him 'no territory deserves the name of kingdom (state)
unless it is full of people and controlled by an agglomeration of power with absolute
authority over the territory
Kautilya's Arthasastra is not a theoretical treatise on political science. It does not directly
concern itself with the question of the origin of the state. The entire teaching of the
Arthashastra is addressed to the king, the single ruler of a state.
THE SAPTANGA THEORY : ELEMENTS OF STATE

Kautilya used the word 'Rajya' which according to Spellman, corresponds to the English
word 'State'. The state is defined for the first time in the Arthasastra of Kautilya as consisting
of seven elements, a definition which becomes an axiom in the later sources. The state as
seven limbed is contemplated by the ancient Hindu thinkers. In Manusmriti, Manu deals with
seven prakritis of the state like king, the ministers, the capital, the realm, the treasures, the
army and the ally. But Kautilya in his Arthasashtra put the same In a different order like the
Swami, the Amatyas, the Janapada, the Durgas, the Kosha, the Danda, the Mitra and the
Satru. He changed the previous order of priority and added a new element viz. the enemy.
Kautilya also reduced the elements at the state when he writes 'the king and his kingdom are
the primary elements of the state' because all other elements evolves round these two
elements. Kautilya restated the relative importance of the different elements of state and then
ultimately reduced their number in the following words 'Swami-Amatya-Janapada-Durga-
Kasha-Danda-Mitrani Prakritayan to seven.

1.SWAMI (THE RULER)

Kingship or monarchy was the widely accepted and prevalent form of government in ancient
India. King was synonymous with the state. For Kautilya too the king was the supreme
authority In the state. Kautilya has gone to the extent of saying that, the king and the state
epitomize the prakrtis (the seven limbs). The king, according to him was the symbol of the
state. The rise and fall of the prakrtis very much depended on the king. Because, he happened
to be the principal among the seven prakrtis of the state. All the prakrtis were guided and
moulded by him. That is why Kautilya, mentions the king of the first element of the state.
The success of the government and prosperity of the people depended largely on the king.
Kautilya being realist kew it very well that a ruler born with all these qualities must
ideed be rare. Therefore ,he prescribed vinaya-training of the ruler as essential. He insisited
that the king should study Anvisiki(philosophical disciplines) , Trayi (vedic lore) ,
Vartta(economics) , and Dandaniti (political science). He should also learn from the people ,
the theory of various trades and professions. However , Kautilya attached the highest
importance to the study of Anviksiki, represented by the three philosophical systems of
samkhya, yoga and lokuyata, besides, Kautilya says king must strenuously exert himself to
conquer his indriyajaya (senses). He should shun all vices which flow from lust, anger,
avarice and pride. Presuming that no ruler possesses by birth the qualities of a good ruler,
training of the crown prince was tough indispensable by Kautilya.
According to Kautilya the king must be un-remitting in the performance of his duty.
He must perform his duties. Therefore, he laid down a very disciplined life for the king. He
also prescribed a daily time-table for the king from 1.30 a.m. to 10.30 p.m.
An ideal king is one who has the highest qualities of leadership, intellect, energy and
personal attributes. The qualities of leadership are: birth in a noble family, good fortune,
intellect and prowess, being righteous, truthful, resolute, enthusiastic and disciplined, not
breaking his promises, showing gratitude, having lofty aims, not being dilatory, being
stronger than neighbourer kings and having ministers of high quality.
The qualities of Intellect are: desire to learn, listening to others, retaining,
understanding thoroughly and reflecting on knowledge, rejecting false views and adhering to
the true one. An energetic king is one who is valorous, determined, quick.6 The king of the
sovereign head of the state has different types of duties like the appointment of ministers,
protection of the people, ability to give justice and inflict punishment on the wicked.
Happiness of the king lies in happiness of the people. Thus Kautilya's head of the state
resembles modern head of the state who is all powerful provided he does his duty. According
to Kautilya, the king is the most important as he is preserver of dharma. He insists that the
king must posses wisdom and foresight and should have his senses under control.The
assertion of Kautilya that the king is the state should not be misunderstood so as to deny any
effective place to the people. In the Kautilyan state the kingship and the law did conceive of
the king's authority as that of a father. Kautilya suggests the king not to make himself in
accessible to his people causing thereby public dissatisfaction. The king should take note to
public reaction to his administrative measures. The threat of the people dissatisfaction was
one of the deterrents against the tyranny of heavy taxation, according to Kautilya. He hold the
view that the influence of dharma, the identity of interests and the highly refined character of
the king are mainly responsible in restraining the Kautilyan prince from abusing absolute
sovereignty with which he is supposed to be invested. Finally it is pointed out that the king is
rightly called the highest and most important organ of the state because he is the prime source
of its unity. Unity is an indispensable feature of the state and has to be preserved at all costs.
The monarch at the top who is responsible for the efficient and smooth functioning of the
machinery of government and stands as a father and mother to the people is its most natural
symbol. He is the pivot round which the entire state machinery revolves. A good and wise
king ruling benevolently becomes a blessing to the people who prosper under him.
2. AMATYAS (THE MINISTER)

Amatya constitute the second element of the state. But Kautilya refers to amatya
in a different sense. It generally means Council of Ministers. In the Arthashastra, amatya
constitute a regular cadre of service. The importance of ministers as counsellors or advisors,
helpers, colleagues, guides etc. to the king has been widely acknowledge by the political
thinkers of ancient India. Kautilya was no exception to it. He says that the state affairs cannot
be conducted by the king without the assistance of competent councillors in the same manner
as the carriage with one wheel cannot move. Thus, the king should employ amatyas or
ministers and hear their advice.9 Therefore, the state functionary next in importance to the
king is the amatya or the mantrin. The term appears to stand for all high officers, whether
councillors or executive. heads of departments. Kautilya asserts that the king should appoint
three or four counsellors, neither more nor less. It is argued that a single mantrin would be
difficult to control, two might quarrel and ruin the state or conspire against the king. At the
same time, a larger number would affect the secrecy of counsel, on which naturally great
stress is laid. The king is supreme in the matter of arriving at decisions.
Kautilya has divided the Amatyas into two categories according to their qualities.
Those who were of indigenous origin, noble family, firm determination and retentive
memory, and artists economists, wise, cleaver, orator, powerful, debater, charming, tolerant,
enthusiastic, impressive, gentle, capable, loyal to the king, healthy, steadfast etc. were
considered worthy of being the prime minister. Those, who possessed either one fourth or
half of these qualities were taken as minister of middle or lower grade. Amatyas had to
undergo different kinds of tests before their appointment. Only those amatyas who passed all
these tests were appointed as ministers. And those who failed in all the tests were made
incharge of different mines, forests and elephant force etc. In the opinion of Kautilya the
number of ministers should be determined according to the discretion of the king, the
prevailing situation in the state and the necessity arising out of it, etc.
3. JANAPADA(THE POPULATION)

The Janapada falls in order as third important organ of the state after the
king and the ministers. The territory and population being the pre-requisite conditions for the
creation of a state were always kept in view by ancient Indian scholars. The nature of
Janapada defined in the Arthashastra indicates that both territory and population are intended
to be covered by this expression. The territory should consist of villages with minimum 100
and maximum 500 houses. The distance of one village from the other should not be more
than either one or two krosa, so that they may help each other in necessity. The boundary of a
well settled village should be fixed by planting trees or by rivers, mountains, forests etc. As
far as population is concerned he says that it should be inhabited by industrious sudhras
peasants who are capable of bearing the burden of taxes and punishments. Finally, it should
contain intelligent masters and be predominantly populated by members of the lower classes,
and its people should be loyal and devoted. Kautilya advises the king to induce people from
other countries of migrate and settle in new villages on old sites or on new sites. Kautilya had
divided four administrative units. The smallest unit of a Janapada was Grama. A block
consisting of ten villages was known as 'Samgrahana', two hundred villages as "Kharvatika",
four hundred villages as "Dronamukha" and eight hundred villages as "Sthaniya".
A definite territory was a necessary element of the state. The term
Janapada also signifies population. All economic activities (relating to the fortified cities, the
treasury, the army, waterworks and trade) have their source in the countryside. The kingdom
shall be protected by fortified the capital and towns at the frontiers. The land should not only
be capable of sustaining. the (native) population but also outsiders (when they came into
kingdom) in times of calamities. It should be easy to defend from (attacks by) enemies and
strong enough to control neighbouring kingdoms. It should have productive land (free from
swamps, saline kind, uneven terrain and deserts as well as wild (unruly) groups of people). It
should be beautiful, being endowed with arable land, mines, timber forests, elephant forests.
It should not depend (only on) rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways, tt
should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities and the capacity to
sustain high level of taxation as well as a army. The people shall be predominantly
agriculturists devoted to work, honest, loyal and with intelligent masters and servants.
4.DURGA(The Fortified Capital)

The defence of Janapada was a matter of principal concern for the ancient
Indian scholars. Therefore, the Durga or fort constituted the fourth element of the state. Here
Durga means the fortress and resembles pura, the third element of Manu's state. As a
synonym of pura, it should be understood in the sense of fortified capital. According to
Kautilya, forts should be erected at the frontiers of Janapadas under the guidance of Antapala
for providing security. Besides, some of the forest tribes like the Sabaras, Pulindas and
Candalas were assigned the duties of guarding the frontiers of Janapadas. Kautilya has
referred to four types of Durgas :
• Audaka-durga (surrounded by water on all four sides looking like a delta)
• Paravat-durga (made on the mountains or made of rocks)
• Dhanvana-durga (on the plain surrounded by desert) there forts are built in deserts ,
where there is no water, grass or approach
• Vana-durga (near thick forest).

The first two durgas were useful for protecting Janapada in case of
emergency and the following two shelters to the king and others in the event of any
emergency.
According to Saletore, "Kautilya's theory offerts may be summarized thus:
as between forts and the people, the latter were more important; while as between the fort and
the treasury, it was the former that was more important. He would, therefore, in the last resort
place reliance upon the people, and the fort, and as between these, he would prefer the
people".
5.KOSHA(The Treasury)

The Kosha and the army were the twin pillars of all ancient Indian states.
Kautilya has rightly said that "yatra raja tatra kosah kosadhiana his rajata". Thus, "where
there is a king, there is kosha". Besides, it helps in the pursuit of Dharma and Kama.
According to him both kosha and danda equally important, but comparatively the former is
more important than the latter. Kautilya, while admitting its importance, has also emphasized
the fact that in absence of kosha the army cannot do anything rather they can go against their
own king and joint he hostile forces. Further, the army protects only kosha, but the latter
protects both army and durgas. Kautilya makes mentions of Sannidhata, whose duty was to
set up 'Koshagriha' or treasury-house. In order to increase the resources, the king was
supposed to augment the wealth of the whole rastra, to encourage all kinds of production, to
promote trade and commerce, to collect taxes in time, etc. The Koshadhyaka was not
supposed to violate the rules regarding the collection of state taxes. He was not supposed to
make any mistake regarding the handling of state taxes.
According to Kautilya the treasure accumulated by righteous and legitimate
means should be retained by the king or should be amassed by him in the same manner.
Filled with gold, silver, precious jewels and gems, the treasury should be able to stand the
strain of expenditure during times of adversity, such as famines, etc.
Kautilya rightly remarks that all under the kings depend upon kosha, i.e.,
finance. He expresses the view that treasury is more important than the army. The latter can
be raised and maintained only with the help of a well filled treasury. Sound finances are
essential for any state. Agriculture yields the most important part of revenue. The state is
entitled to the produce of the crown land and one sixth of the produce of other land. Shulka or
custom duty is levied not only on export or import, but it also on indigenous products. The
rates of excise vary from one sixth to one twentieth except on foreign goods which are
charged at the rate of one fifth of their value. When the goods were brought along the
waterways they had to pay duties and other charges at the port. The state also maintains a
fleet on its own that is to be out on hire to traders and fishermen. The taxes should be neither
heavy nor excessive, they should be moderate. The king was advised to follow the example
of the bees or the calf. Just as the bees collect honey from flowers but without damaging them
in any way, the calf drinks milk without in any way bruising the udders of the mother cow, in
the same way, the king should tax the people without in any way injuring or harming them.
He further advised the king to never to forget that nothing would expose him to greater
danger than oppressive taxation. The taxation should be equitable which means, both the state
on its side and the agriculturist and the trader on their side feel that they got a fair and
reasonable deal.
When for some reason, such a costly military adventure, the treasury gets
depleted, efforts become necessary for its reenlistment. Kautilya recommends the following
measures to fill the treasury :
• A levy in agriculturists ranging from one-fourth to one-third of the stocks with them,
according to the productivity of the soil.
 • If this is found insufficient, farmers are to be induced to grow crops as directed by the
state and give part of the produce to the state.
• A levy on traders ranging from 50 panas on dealers in gold, silver etc., to 5 panas on
dealers in vegetables, cooked food etc. Even actors, singers and prostitutes are to pay half
their income.
• A levy on animal-breeders, ranging from half the sock of poultry and pigs to one-tenth of
cattle, horses etc. keepers of brothels are to augment the treasury through the earnings of
beautiful and young maids supplied by the palace.
• If these measures, too, do not suffice, contributions should be requested for specific
undertakings and people should be pressed to contribute to their utmost capacity.
• Rich men should be asked to pay according to their means, conferring on them titles,
decorations and other honours in return.19
These measures are intended to be used only in emergency.
6.DANDA(The Army)

The sixth limb of the state as mentioned by Kautilya is Bala or army. It has
been considered as one of the chief organs of the state. It is hardly necessary to labour the
point that a strong and powerful army is absolutely essential for the existence and security of
a state. Armies are necessary not only for defence against aggression by other states, they are
equally needed for carrying the fight into the enemy's camp which was often unavoidable as a
defence strategy in ancient times when the country was divided into a large number of small
and medium sized states. Kautilya while referring to the qualities of soldiers has observed
that they should be valiant warriors, well versed in the art of war and loyal to the king. He has
also mentioned that there should be maximum number of Ksatriyas in the army. The army
shall consist mostly of men of tested loyalty, Kshtriyas, having come down from the king's
father and grandfather. They should be recruited in the permanent basis. The soldiers should
be strong, obedient, not averse to a long expeditions, power of endurance, skill in handling all
various forms of weapons and should share the weal and woe of the king. He advised the king
to keep their wives and families also contended with the maintenance received from the state.
They should have no interest other than that of the king and should share his prosperity and
adversity. Kshatriyas constitute the main part of the army. Kautilya allows even the lower
castes to join the army provided they have some brave fighters among them, but does not
favour a contingent of Brahmins because they are more prone to be influenced by the
supplications and prayers of the enemy. But the best army should be strong, obedient and
happy. It should be invincible, rained in fighting various kinds of battle.Bala or army is
considered to be an important element of the state in view of the fact that the king was control
both his own subjects and the enemies through it. According to Kautilya, the army may
belonged to the following seven categories:
• Maula (recruited on hereditary ground; permanent wing, maintained by state and whose
duty was to defend the capital).
• Bhrtaka or Bhrta (paid).
• Shreni (a well organised group of soldiers well trained in the art of war).
• Mitra (soldiers of friendly kings).
• Amitra (soldiers of hostile kings or of conquered countries and recruited like slaves).
Atavi or Atavika (tribal soldiers consisting of Nisadas, Mlecchas and other mountain
tribes).
• Autsahika (living in different countries, without any leader and invaders. They used to
attack other countries with or without the consent of king).

Out of the above seven categories of soldiers the first three have been
considered dependable.
 It is in the Arthashastra of Kautilya that there he distinguishes between
several kinds of armies and regards the regular or standing army of the best of all. Hired or
mercenary troops, the troops organised by corporations or srenis, troops belonging to friendly
states, troops consisting of deserters from the enemy and those recruited from wild tribes
constitute the other kinds or types of army. They become less and less dependable as we
descend from the hereditary or standing army at the top downwards. Kautilya divides the
whole army into divisions, sub-divisions, each with its own flag, trumpets, drums etc. He also
provides physicians and surgeons for those wounded on the battlefield.
7. MITRA(Ally and Friend)
The paramount necessity of an ally for a king has been felt in all ages. The ancient
thinkers were guided by practical considerations in including Mitra as one of the elements of
the state. They felt that on most occasion a true friend is a far more important assert than gold
or property in the case of an individual and more valuable than land or gold in the case of a
state. According to Manu's king does not prosper by the acquisition of gold and land so much
as by securing a dependable friend who would be powerful in future.
Kautilya also felt that it was indispensable for a king to make
friends, so as to achieve the goal, that was the prosperity of his state. The king without friends
could easily fall prey to enemies' attack. Kautilya has described three types of friends in
connection with the Saptanga theory :
• Sahaja-mitra: obtained through near relatives.
• Krtrima: acquired by virtue of obliging other king or being obliged by the latter
• Prakrta: living adjacent to the frontiers of neighbouring king.
He added further the eight elements and that is Satru and divided them into three categories :
• Sahaja Satru: found among own relatives.
• Krtrima Satru: always hostile to others.
• Prakrta Satru: neighbouring kings.
Kautilya's concept of Mitra is~base more on ethical considerations. The real ally
should be one with whom there is no possibility of rupture and one who is ready to come to
help when occasion demands it. But on the other hand, one is to be treated as an enemy who
is greedy, possessed with disloyal subjects, loose character, addicted to mean pleasure,
powerless and impotent etc. Ideal allyis one who has the following qualities: constant,
amenable to control, powerful in his area, sharing a common interest, able to mobilise (his
forces) and not a man who double crosses (his friends).
The Saptanga theory of state as expounded by Kautilya bears partial resemblance to
the modern definition of state, infact, it adds some more basic elements of state. To conclude
with some of the elements of state of Bala, Kosha and Mitra described by Kautilya do not
find a place in the modern duly accepted definition of the state. Organic theory of state was
supported by Kautilya but there seems to be one basic difference between his concept and the
modern organic view of the state which was expounded in the nineteenth century by Herbert
Spencer. His object seems to have been to underline the unity of the industrial state, for he
compares the industrial organisation to the elementary organ, commercial organisation to the
circulatory organ, political organisation to the nervo-motor organs, and the legislature to the
cerebrum in man.
On the other hand, the organic conception of the state in ancient India Kautilya was
intended to stress the importance of the different elements in relation to the need of the state,
it seems that the emphasis on the importance of the other elements was due to the growing
independence of the hereditary amatyas and dandanayakas.
 . Sharma argues that most of the basic features of modern day concept of good
governance, responsiveness of the government, efficiency of administration well-being and
prosperity of the people, overall development of political community, good quality of life,
ethical upwardness and economic affluence have got prominent place in the thought process
and administrative structures postulated by Kautilya in his Arthashastra.
Kautilya's concept can be compared with the modern concept of the state. He mentions
one element Janapada which includes population and territory also. It shows that the modern
two elements that is territory and population are covered in one element by Kautilya. The
third element of the state in modern time is government. Kautilya discusses under the
elements, the king and the ministers. Then the elements like Durga, Kosha, Mitras and Danda
also form a part of the government. The fourth modern element is sovereignty. Sovereignty
element of state is said to be all inclusive. The state possesses coercive and tax collecting
authority because of its sovereign character.
 ROLE OF KIING :

Kautilya gives extensive powers to the kings and attaches an element of divinity. His
foremost duty is protection of the subjects and their property. King’s sources of power
revolving around three sources– Prabhu Shakti (the power of the army and the
treasury),Manta Shakti (advice of wise men, specially the council of ministers) and Utsah
Shakti (charisma). Duties of Kings Kautilya’s Arthashastra does not believe in the ‘Theory
of Divine’ origin of the Monarch. According to him, state is a human institution and it should
be manned by a human being. So, the king should be the protector of the dharma of whole
society. Arthashastra pointed out duties of kings are :
 Should follow his rajya dharma.
 Should exhibit attributes, i.e. Atma Vrata (self-control) l Should ease the six enemies—
Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Lobh (greed), Mana (vanity), Mada
(haughtiness), and Harsh (overjoy).

SYSTEM OF LAW :

Although, Kautilya’s state theory states the monarchical democracy, but the sole authority
vested under the king to make law and that it derived from four sources Dharma (sacred
law), Vyavhara (evidence), Charita (history and custom) and Rajasasana (edicts of the
king).
Arthashastra represents a system of civil, criminal and mercantile law. For instance, the
following were codified a procedure for interrogation, torture, trial, the rights of the accused,
Constitution of permissible evidence, a procedure for autopsy in case of death in suspicious
circumstances, Constitution of (deformation) and procedure for claiming damages, invalid
and invalid contract.

MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT :

The Arthashastra catalogues a phalanx of officers called superintendents, lower in importance

than the ministerial officers and much below them, belonging to the sixth order, according to
remuneration. They are not heads of departments. The superintendents might be as chiefs of
sections dealing with various economic and other activities of the government. Most of these
sections are the modern business departments. A dual control is exercised over the
superintendents. As far as control of the services of the personal and collection of revenue are
concerned, they are under the Collector-General.

PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION :

Kautilya attempts to elaborate on general principles for the running of public administration
in a state. These principles can be grouped in two sets; one embodying the essential attributes
of the state and the other linked to the operational principles of administration. The principle
of authority: is the essence of administration along with obedience and discipline. People
consisting of four castes and four orders of religious life will keep to their occupations and
duties when the king guides them with due authority. Authority is obeyed by the people on
account of sanctions backed by a series of punishments. The principle of unity of command:
Unity of command and direction is maintained because of the king’s authority. This is not
merely for the purpose of security of the King’s person, but also 7 for the purpose of
maintaining the integrity and stability of administration against internal dissension and
external aggression. Kautilya outlines an elaborate system of spying and allurements. All
member of the bureaucracy derive their authority from the King, stand before the people as
representatives of royal authority, and are ultimately responsible to the king. This is evident
from the reference in Arthshastra to the enforcement of orders, the sending of writs and the
procedure of forming royal writes. As for the stability of command, Kautilya’s preference is
clearly towards a hereditary monarchy which he believes also helps in the continuity of the
principles of governance and administration

PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION:

Arthshastra identifies four different methods of motivation, viz, sama, dama, danda and
bheda. Sama is the persuasion method, dama is the incentive method, bheda is the internal
competition method and danda is the punishment method of motivation. The bureaucracy can
be enthused by any one method or a mix of various combinations of these methods.
Government servants are to be enthused to activity by a sense of responsibility towards the
people. The state motivates them with adequate salary, pension and permanent service. He
underlines a series of qualities, for officers holding different positions of responsibility. Other
Principles: The second set of principles – division of labour, coordination of administration,
hierarchy – governs the machinery of administration. All are needed for the smooth running
of government. The principle of coordination automatically evolves out of the principle of
division of labour. Unless coordination is effected between the parts divided for the sake of
efficiency, the smooth working of division of labour would be futile. The principles of
division of labour and coordination are affected at several levels of the hierarchy of
government. The principle of hierarchy is followed to make coordination and execution
possible. Authority would be diluted if it is not channelized through hierarchical organization
and if it does not reach the lowest levels to oversee the implementation of orders from the
top. Kautilya identifies five elements of good administration, viz, the appropriate means to
start undertakings, the excellence of men and materials, allocation of place and time,
provision against failure and accomplishment of work. Fear, duty and interest, are among a
number of motives behind the act of obedience to the orders of an administrator. Kautilya
believes that good governance is only possible with the cooperation of the people as well as
of the bureaucracy.

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY :

The King is the chief executive and the ministers are selected by the King on the basis of
their qualities and they are individually responsible only to the monarch. The King, the Prime
Minister, the High Priest and a chosen few form the Inner Cabinet whereas there is a larger
body known as the Council of Ministers. Kautilya categorises the amatyas, mantrins and
heads of departments into 18 tirthas. They are:

 Mantrin – Minister

 Purohita – Priest

 Senapati – Commander of the Army

 Yuvaraja – Prince

 Dauvarika – Chief of Palace Attendants

 Antarramsika – Chief of the King’s Guards

 Prasastr – Magistrate
 Samahatr – Collector General

 Samnidhatr – Chief Treasurer  Pradestr – Commissioner

 Nayak – Town Guard

 Paur – Chief of the Town

 Karmanta – Superintendent of Mines

 Mantri Parishad Adhyaksa – Chief of the Council of Ministers
 Dandpala – Officer of the Army Department
 Durgapal – Guardian of the Forts

 Antapala – Officer-in-charge, Boundaries

 Ativanika – Officer-in-charge, Forests

In the hierarchy of Officers, Kautilya attaches importance to the superintendent, lower in

position than the minister and belonging to the sixth order according to remuneration. He is
not head of any department; he is the chief of the section dealing with varied economic and
administrative activities of the government. e.g. the superintendent of commerce is under the
9 dual control of the Collector General (for collection of revenue) and Treasurer General
(Supply of produced and collected commodities). The functions of the government have been
arranged horizontally according to public service delivery needs. Under the Collector General
are the Commissioner, the District officer and the Circle Officer, in charge of a division, a
district and a circle of villages respectively. The major departments of administration were
Revenue, Exchequer, Stores, Armoury, Prisons, Accounts, Agriculture, Mines, Metals,
Forest, Cattle, Shipping, Commerce, Customs, Intelligence, Religions Institutions, Excise,
Weights and Measures etc.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION – URBAN AND RURAL

Another distinctive feature of the administrative system is the marked preference for a
decentralized polity. There are indications that a Janapada is to contain 800 gramas with a
sthanika at its centre. It is also mentioned that a Samahartr (Collector General) should divide
the Janapada into four divisions for revenue and administrative purposes. Under the sthanika,
there are junior officers called gopas each in charge of five or ten villages. With their help,
the samahrta is to maintain a record of all towns and villages. The gopa is responsible for
maintaining a record of all agricultural and other holdings in the village, census etc. For
maintaining order, the samahrta has the pradestrs who are stationed at the headquarters of the
gopa and sthanikas. They operate both as revenue and police officers. Next down the
hierarchy is the village headman who is referred to as the gramika. Power in the rural areas
was to be centred in the hands of the samaharta with subordinates spread over the country
side. Decentralization in Arthshastra was for administrative convenience and efficiency
alone. One cannot deduce a notion of village democracy from a reading of the scheme. Cities
should be kept neat and clean. Kot-Palla was the officer-in-charge of the city and the
Administrator was called Nagaradhyaksha. Each city was divided into 4 parts and each one
was headed by a Sthanik assisted by a junior officer called gopa. Each looked after 20 houses.
Nagarakas were to maintain peace and keep an eye on the income & expenditure of residents
and foreigners. They were to take possession of unclaimed property and see that epidemics
don’t spread, maintain sanitary conditions and keep record of births and deaths. They could
set up 10 committees to take care of separate things like, collect taxes, maintain market
standards, export and import of goods from cities etc. The affairs of the village were looked
after by the Sangrahana. Every 200 villages constituted a Kharwatika, 400 constituted a
Dronamukha and 800 constituted a sthania. Villages had maximum autonomy. Villages were
run by Gramiks and gopas. They negotiated with the central government for getting
development plans approved. Both gramiks and gopas were state employees posted in the
village

PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION :

Arthshastra gives great attention to the education and training of the King and the princes.
Kautilya lays down a series of qualities, differing in number and order of officers holding
different positions in the administrative hierarchy. The important competencies can be
broadly classified as i) technical competence ii) decision making skills particularly during
times of emergency iii) communication skills iv) interpersonal behavioral competence v)
strength of character. Though the word ‘recruitment’ is not really used, Kautilya prescribes
qualifications for each post which goes to prove that certain basic qualifications were made
mandatory for entry into government service e.g. a prince is asked by Kautilya to study
science and to observe its precepts under the authority of specialist teachers. All major
appointments were made by the King himself or assisted by the Inner Cabinet and only
persons having prajna (intelligence) and vakyasakti (power of expression) were to be
considered suitable for state services. He also prescribed tests such as dharmopadha,
arthopadha, bhayopadha and kamopadha. Those who passed the dharma test were to be
appointed as judges and magistrates, those who passed the artha test were to be appointed as
revenue officers, those who passed the bhaya test would work in proximity to the King and
those who passed the kama test would help in entertainment. Ministers were expected to be
conversant with the teachings of the Shastras. Though Arthshastra places great importance to
the training of the prince and the men in army there is very little discussion on the training of
the personnel manning the civil departments. Superintendents were given the power to
regulate the salaries, wages, transfer and appointments of the personnel under them (with
salaries ranging from 100 to 1000 panas per annum). There 11 are no definite rules about
promotion. But the government servants who are loyal and doing good work should be
rewarded according to their contribution. Every government servant is subject to punishment
or transfer if he is found corrupt, slack or insensitive to public grievances. No transfer of
officers were allowed in guarding royal buildings and forts. Salaries were liberal - from the
highest 8000 panas for ministers to 60 panas for attendants. Pension was not allowed except
to the dependents of those who died in harness. A strict code of conduct for civil servants was
specified in Arthshastra.

LEGAL ADMINISTRATION :

Administrative courts consisting of three persons proficient in Dharmshastras and three

ministerial officers in the administration of law are mentioned in Arthshastra. A hierarchy of
courts - from the court catering to a group of ten villages rising upto the King’s court are to
be maintained. Arthshastra contains references to a Code of Law. The code is set forth under
17 heads, including marriage, property, slaves, theft, injury and assault. There are four bases
of law – dharma (sacred law) vyavahara (evidence) charitra (history) and rajasasana (King’s
edicts). In case of conflict, edicts override other bases. Judges should be knowledgeable,
discerning, kind, balanced and incorruptible. Courts are of 2 types, civil and criminal.
Arthshastra contains an elaborate scheme of punishment for all kinds of officers to be
followed in courts of law.

FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION :

A great deal of attention has been paid to financial administration in the Arthshastra. All
undertakings depend on finance, hence foremost attention was paid to matters relating to the
Treasury. Revenue generation and enhancement of the wealth of the nation were the primary
tasks of the king. Loan, fabrication of accounts, self enjoyment, barter and defalcation are the
causes that tend to deplete the Treasury. Increasing revenue was essential in retaining the
support of the King’s army and preventing it from going over to the enemy. The details of a
modern budgeting system as a means to monitor the performance of various departments is
given in Arthshastra. The concerned officer shall communicate the real nature of the work of
his department together with the income and expenditure in detail and in the aggregate. In
case the expenditures exceeds the budgeted grants, the official is personally liable to bear the
excess expenditure. Both revenues and expenditures were classified according to various
parameters such as heads of income, source, period, quantity etc. This is geared towards
monitoring of the 12 revenues and expenditures as well as the other details associated with
them. In addition to the financial information and control system, there is a very detailed
audit and internal control system. A separate office of records and accounts and audit is
assigned for this purpose. Arthshastra classified 67 sources of revenue, based predominantly
on land, and grouped them under seven heads, resting essentially on the location of the
activities and individuals concerned subject to taxation; e.g. those found in fortified and
urban areas and those found in rural situations, those found at sites of minerals, or in pastoral,
forest, or intensely cultivated areas and those situated along traffic carrying roads and
waterways. Kautilya also named seven forms of revenue by type. He divided the kingdom
into four districts, distinguished the urban centres from the villages, and classified the
villages according to size and nature of tax liability

OTHER ASPECTS OF ADMINISTRATION :

Kautilya’s Arthshastra is a comprehensive text attempting to detail every possible aspect of
governance and administration – duties of the King, the structure and functions of the
administrative machinery, municipal government, legal and financial administration,
diplomacy and foreign policy, trade and commerce and social welfare administration. The
king is to provide for the maintenance of the orphans, the aged, the sick and the unemployed.
Special attention is to be given to town planning, housing in villages, maintenance of state
buildings and forts. He also paid special attention to the use of statistics and the census. The
district and circle officers were asked to collect a variety of statistics regarding land, property,
families and persons, social customs and work habits. State intervention was recommended to
regulate markets, fix prices and prevent unfair trade practices.

A CRITICAL APPRAISAL:

One of the basic reasons for Kautilya’s emphasis on a strong state capable of
creating order and providing good governance to his subjects is his acute awareness of the
dangers of anarchy and being witness to the malady of his times - the prevalence of a number
of small states constantly at war with one another. He was the first thinker who reached the
pivot of realpolitik by stressing on a strong political centre in India and propounding a theory
of politics which dealt with the practical concerns of administration and governance. He
strongly believed that anarchy is worse 13 than the highest tyranny. Although he was in
favour of a powerful ruler, he made it very clear that this power is to be used only for the
welfare of the ruled. The monarch’s powers were to be hedged in with many restrictions. He
was to work 18 hours a day and all questions of political importance would be discussed in
the two houses of parliament (pura-janapada), a powerful instrument to curb the King’s
absolute authority. He also refers to the authority of canon law, customary law, usage and
logical principles. Despite these restrictions on his absolute authority; the king is given the
last say in all important matters of governance. This emphasis on the principle of kingship
became the basis of consolidating perhaps the first centralized government in India.

The seeds of a welfare state are sown into Arthshastra with as much
emphasis as an elaborate discussion on the state structure and the administrative machinery.
There was nothing more important to the king than the welfare of his subjects. The idea of a
welfare state is taken up and the King is authorized to create conditions for a good life by
digging wells, canals, constructing dams, planting trees, providing impetus to trade and
industry road construction and providing navigation facilities. A good state must have right
laws and institutions besides honest and good administrators devoted to public welfare. If a
king is to become a chakravartin, he must have all three assets, namely military power,
financial prudence and wisdom. In his tasks the king must first use right means, but, if they
fail, he may use intrique and treachery. It is the duty of the king to reward the meritorious and
punish the corrupt and in all his roles he should be a model for others. He was convinced that
an unrighteous King who ignores the welfare of his subjects would fall a victim to popular
revolt and become vulnerable to enemies.

For the preservation of the state, Kautilya was convinced that

governance rules had to ignore the ordinary concepts of morality and utilize evil (spies,
deceit, treachery, sex, violence and murder) if necessary for the good of society and the
stability of the state. Kautilya often confused the preservation of the state with the
preservation of the King, a stand which cannot be condoned from a modern democratic
standpoint. However, Kautilya’s famous definition of politics is worth quoting even today:

Politics is the acquisition of what has not been gained, the preservation of what has

been acquired, the increase of what has been preserved, and the bestowal of the surplus

upon the deserved.

His chief concerns-presentation and development of the state in terms

of a certain concept of distributive justice, security of subjects and stability of society have
been clearly stated and these concerns have a modern futuristic vision of politics that is truly
remarkable for his age and times.

His administrative scheme is unsurpassed in every detail: central

administrative machinery, provincial, local, legal and financial administration have all been
dealt with in Arthshastra which remains to this day the oldest and the longest written text of
public administration in the world.
KAUTILYA AND MACHIAVELLI

Kautilya’s Arthshastra is often compared to the Prince of Machiavelli, since the two books
are perhaps the world’s most famous treatises on the art of Kingship. Both writers were in
favour of a strong monarchy with absolute powers. Kautilya however lived and wrote at least
a thousand years before Machiavelli. They lived in similar kind of times: in an age of
anarchy, turbulence and civil war. Machiavelli wrote the Prince with the professed object of
advising Lorenzo de Medici to adopt all kinds of means to become master of unified Italy,
just as Kautilya’s sole object was the expansion of the Mauryan Empire under the aegis of
Chandragupta Maurya. Both approached the problem of politics as scientists who separated
private morality from a public version of the same. To both ends justified the means i.e. the
end being the stability of the Kingdom and the preservation of a strong King. The realist that
Kautilya was he did not attribute the degeneration of state and society to destiny or divinity
but he perceived it as the direct consequence of misrule, misgovernance and lack of a
political vision. Thus he evolved such principles of political conduct and good governance
that would cover all such contingencies. Though he did not theorize about the postulates of
statehood and society, Kautilya was the first political thinker in history to discuss politics in
administrative terms (in the vocabulary of good and bad administration) recognizing the
former as mandatory to the maintenance of a good and just state. A good administration
touches on citizen’s lives and therefore needs to continue on a sound and permanent basis is
the ultimate message of the Arthshastra.

The Many “firsts” Of Kautilya :

 Arthshastra is the first comprehensive text on public administration in world literature

 He was the first to make Political Economy an independent discipline
 He was the first thinker to emphasize on the need for a strong political centre in India
making its administration a major concern.
 First Indian political thinker to separate religion from politics giving the outline of a
secular polity
 He focused on a professional bureaucracy based on merit, rather than caste
considerations. Departmental system and a detailed job classification scheme were the
other innovations of Kautilya
 Recognized the needs of a strong military administration
 Saptanga theory is an original contribution to political science and practice.
CONCLUSION :

The Arthashastra is a textbook of practical politics and statecraft. One of the outstanding
contributions of Kautilya’s Arthashastra to statecraft and governance in a monarchical state.

Hence, Kautilya’s theory of state envisages a rational approach to governance and state craft
which conceptualizes the state and the office of the kingship to be human artifacts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY