*LIST OF CONTENTS*

Introduction
History
Studio Centre
 Broadcast studio
 Mixing
 Announcer console
 Control Room
 Recording room
 Dubbing room
Microphone
 Types of Microphone
 Impedance Matching
Hard Disk based recording system
 Details of software provided with the system
 Broadcast details of soundcard
 PCMCIA card
 Sound forge studio 6.0
Wave propogation
 Ground wave
 Sky wave
 Space wave
 Amplitude modulation
 Medium wave
 Short wave
 Frequency Modulation
Radio Transmitter
 Antenna System
 MW Antenna System
 SW Antenna System
 FM Antenna System

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Receiver radio system
 C- Band
 Crystal Radio Receiver
 Regenerative Receiver
 Super Heterodyne Receiver
Air conditioning System
 Air conditioning system
 Refrigerant process cycle
 Air cycle
 Condenser
 Compressor
 Evaporator
 Expansion valve
 Cooling tower
 Water treatment
Power Supply System
 AC power supply
 DC power Supply
 Switch mode power supply
Earthing

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Introduction
All India Radio (AIR), officially known since 1956 as Ākāsha Vānī ("Voice from the Sky"),
is the national public radio broadcaster of India and is a division of Prasar Bharati. It was
established in 1930. It is the sister service of Prasar Bharati's Doordarshan, an Indian
television broadcaster. Headquartered in the Akashvani Bhavan building in New Delhi, it
houses the Drama Section, the FM Section, the National Service, and is also home to the
Indian television station Doordarshan Kendra, (Delhi).

All India Radio is the largest radio network in the world, and one of the largest broadcasting
organizations in the world in terms of the number of languages broadcast and the spectrum of
socio-economic and cultural diversity it serves. AIR’s home service comprises 420 stations
located across the country, reaching nearly 92% of the country’s area and 99.19% of the total
population. AIR originates programming in 23 languages and 179 dialects.

History
Broadcasting began in June 1923 during the British Raj with programs by the Bombay
Presidency Radio Club and other radio clubs. According to an agreement on 23 July 1927,
the private Indian Broadcasting Company Ltd (IBC) was authorized to operate two radio
stations: the Bombay station which began on 23 July 1927, and the Calcutta station which
followed on 26 August 1927. The company went into liquidation on 1 March 1930. The
government took over the broadcasting facilities and began the Indian State Broadcasting
Service (ISBS) on 1 April 1930 on an experimental basis for two years, and permanently in
May 1932 it then went on to become All India Radio on 8 June 1936.

On 1 October 1939, the External Service began with a broadcast in Pushtu. It was intended to
counter radio propaganda from Germany directed at Afghanistan, Persia and Arab nations.
1939 also saw the opening of the Dhaka station of Eastern India, in what is now Bangladesh.
This station catered and nurtured the pioneers of Bengali intellectuals. The foremost among
them, Natyaguru Nurul Momen, became the trail-blazer of the talk-show in 1939. He wrote
and directed the first modern radio-play for this station in 1942. When India became
independent in 1947, the AIR network had only six stations (Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta,
Madras, Lucknow, and Tiruchirappalli). The three radio stations at Lahore, Peshawar and
Dhaka remained in what became Pakistan after the division. The total number of radio sets in
India at that time was about 275,000. On 3 October 1957, the Vividh Bharati Service was
launched, to compete with Radio Ceylon. Television broadcasting began in Delhi in 1959 as
part of AIR, but was split off from the radio network as Doordarshan on 1 April 1976. FM
broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, and expanded during the 1990s.

Deccan Radio (Nizam Radio 1932), the first radio station in Hyderabad State (now
Hyderabad, India), went live on air on 3 February 1935. It was launched by Mir Osman Ali
Khan the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad with a transmitting power of 200 Watts. On 1 April 1950,
Deccan Radio was taken over by the Indian Government, and in 1956 it was merged with All
India Radio (AIR). Since then, it has been known as AIR-Hyderabad (100 kW).

3
Studio Centre
In AIR the studio centres are categorized as Type I, II, III and IV. The number of studios and
facilities provided in each type are different. But basically, a studio centre comprises of a
number of studios like transmission studio, Talk studio, Music studio, Drama studio etc.
Control room is the heart of any studio centre as all studios are connected to it for
control/selection of programs for further routing to transmitter and other destination. The
size of such a Centre and the number of studios provided depends on the programme
activities of the station. For example, a type I studio centre has a transmission studio, music
studio with announcer booth, a talk studio with announcer booth, one recording/dubbing
room and a Read Over Room. Type II has one additional drama studio. The other types have
more studios progressively.

Broadcast Studio
A broadcast studio is an acoustically treated room, it is necessary that the place where a
programme for broadcast purposes is being produced should be free of external noises.
This is possible only if the area of room is insulated from outside sound. Further, the
microphone which is the first equipment that picks up the sound, is no table to distinguish
between wanted and unwanted signals and will pick up the sound not from artists and
instrument but from sound reflected by the walls. Therefore, the studio is properly
constructed with sound proofing and perforated walls walls at an angle so that sond
reverberation is not there.
the studios are to be specially treated to give an optimum reverberation time and minimum noise
level. RT is measured in seconds and it is different for different types of studio. It normally varies
from 0.5 to 1 sec.
The entry to the studios is generally through sound isolating lobby called sound lock. Outside of
every studio entrance, there is a warning lamp, which glows ‘Red’ when the studio is ‘ON-AIR’ or
recording in progress. The studios have separate announcers booths attached to them where first
level fading, mixing and cueing facilities are provided.

Mixing
As already mentioned various equipments are available in a studio to generate programme
as given below
Microphone provides gain of -70 dBm
Turntable provides O/P 0 dBm
Tape decks provides 0 dBm
CD and R-DAT 0 dBm
The first and foremost requirement is that we must select the O/P. the level of microphone
is low so it needs to amplified to bring it to the level of tape recorder so a pre amplifier is

4
used for this purpose required equipments are used for low level mic=xing but this is not
commonly used nowadays.
Low level O/P from each instrument is amplified and mixed this is called high level mixing.

Announcer Console
Most of the studios have attached booths which are called Transmission Booth or
Announcer Booth or play back studio. The Announcer Console is used for mixing and
controlling the programmes that are being produced in the studio using artist microphones,
DAW and CD /DVD players. This is used for transmission of programmes either live or
recorded.
The technical facilities provided in a typical announcer booth, besides an Announcer
Console are one or two microphones for making announcements, two DAWs and two
CD/DVD Players and one tape playback for recorded programmes on tapes (seldom used
now).
Recently, Cd and Rotary Head Audio Tape Recorder are also included in transmission.

Control Room
Control room is the heart of any studio centre as all studios are connected to it for control/selection
of programs for further routing to transmitter and other destination. The size of such a Centre and
the number of studios provided depends on the programme activities of the station.

For two or more studios set up, there would be a provision for further mixing which is
provided by a control console manned by engineers. Such control console is known as
switching console.
Besides the switching console, there are two speech racks housing jack field wiring to
facilitate inputs and outputs to and from the control room.
Facility of high quality monitoring is provided so that audio quality is continuously
monitored. It also receives the programs from R N Terminal room for further relay
(broadcast) such as News. One or two AM/FM receivers are also there for monitoring of
transmitted programs. Signaling and communication facilities are readily available in the
console itself. Broad functions of switching console in control room are as follows:
 Switching of different sources for transmission like News, O.Bs. other satellite based
relays, live broadcast from recording studio.
 Level control.
 Quality monitoring.
 Signaling to the source location.
 Communication link between control room and different studios

Facilities in studio centre

(a) DISTRIBUTION & MONITORING AMPLIFIERS

(b) HIGH QUALITY SPEAKERS

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(c) HEADPHONES

(d) PATCH CHORDS AND JACK FIELDS

(e) AM/FM/ DRM RECEIVERS

(f) SERVICE ROOM

(g) EMERGENCY LIGHTING

Recording room
Recording room is a special room where all the activities of recording is to be done where
different artist records there voices either for the advertisements or for hello Kanpur or
gyanvani show.

Dubbing Room
Dubbing room is a room where editing of all the recording from different studios is done .

Microphone

Microphone plays a very important role in the art of sound broadcasting. It is a transducer
which converts acoustical energy into electrical energy. In the professional broadcasting
field microphones have primarily to be capable of giving the highest fidelity of reproduction
over audio bandwidth.

6
 Table

Differen Type Pattern Freq. Imp Sensitivi Application Remarks

ty
t Types
of
Microp
hones
S.N.
1. AKG-190E Cardioid 30 Hz-16000 Hz 280 1.6 mV/Pa Reporter’s Mic.
2. D-202 -do- 20 Hz- 300 1.6 Studio use Switchable bass
Dynamic 20000 mV/Pa cut (0, -7, -12
Hz dB)
3. D-222 -do- 20 Hz- 320 1.5 Instrumental Switchable bass
Dynamic 18000 mV/Pa Mic. cut (0, -7, -12
Hz dB)
4. D-330 BT Hyper- 50 Hz- 370 1.2 Flute, Switchable bass
Dynamic Cardioid 20000 mV/Pa Harmonica, cut (0, -15,-25
Hz Acoustic dB)
Guitar
5. CK5 Cardioid 20 Hz- 100 9.5 Piano, Boost 0, +2, +4
Condenser 20 kHz mV/Pa Guitar, dB at 4 kHz
Horns
6. D-900 Uni- 60 Hz- 200 + at 3 mV/Pa Distant Pick- Min load Imp.
Dynamic direction 12 kHz 1000 Hz up 500
al
7. Lapel (E/ Omni 30 Hz- 100 + 2.5 Announcers Supply Int/Ext.
condenser) 18 kHz 20% mV/Pa at News
1 kHz Readers
8. D-109 C Omni 120Hz-12000 Hz 220 1.0 mV/Pa OB Coverage
Lavaliere
9. D-130 Omni 50 Hz-13000 Hz 220 + 1.7 mV/Pa Min load imp.
Dynamic 20% at 600
1000 Hz

Based on this we will discuss some here

 DYNAMIC OR MOVING COIL MICROPHONE

This is common broadcast quality microphone which is rugged and can be carried to outside
broadcast/recording etc. It consists of a strong permanent magnet whose pole extensions
form a radial field within a round narrow gap. A moving coil is supported within this gap and
a dome shaped diaphragm usually of aluminium foil is attached to the coil.
With sound pressure variations, the diaphragm and coil move in the magnetic field,
therefore, emf is induced in the voice coil, which is proportional to the incoming sound.

 RIBBON/ VELOCITY MICROPHONE

Corrugated aluminium foil of about 0.1 mm thick forms a ribbon which is suspended within
two insulated supports. The ribbon is placed within the extended poles of a strong horse
shoe magnet. The ribbon moves due to the difference in pressure (at right angles to its
surface) i.e. from the front or rear of the mike. There exists the maximum pressure
difference between the front and rear of ribbon because of maximum path difference.

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  ELECTROSTATIC OR CONDENSER MICROPHONE

This consists of a thick metallic plate insulated from the body of the microphone and
connected to polarising voltage through a resistance. Another thin foil is fitted close to the
above plate forming a condenser.
The sound pressure variations on the foil change the capacitance due to increase and
decrease of distance between foil and the plate. With fixed DC voltages across the two, the
quantity of charge changes due to the variation of capacity. The changes in electrical charge
form the sound signals and are picked up through a coupling capacitor.

 ELECTRET MICROPHONE
It is a modified form of condenser microphone in which the polarising voltage is avoided. In fact a
plastic polymer containing metallic dust keeps the metal particles permanently charged within the
plastic insulation and such a polymer within the diaphragm foil or fixed plate delivers the electrical
signal on the principle of the condenser mike. The hissing noise gets avoided since there is no
external polarising resistor as a load. The microphone has high impedance and is generally having
FET pre-amplifier. The microphone costs very little but develops excellent quality designs in many
forms.

Impedance matching in microphone

(TERMINATION IMPEDANCE)

The microphone must have proper impedance and a balanced or unbalanced output suited
to the pre-amplifier. In the broadcast chain the microphone lines cover long distances,
therefore, the impedance is chosen in the range of 50 ohms to 60 ohms at the microphone
terminals. The commercial microphones in public address system do not require lengthy
mike cables and prefer high electrical output across high impedance which is generally
above 5 k ohms.

Moreover, broadcasting microphones use balanced output with Mike cable containing two
live conductors and earth shield. Commercial microphones have unbalanced an output
connected to single core of mike cable which is shielded.

The above arrangement used in commercial practice is not suitable for broadcasting set-up
mainly because, the noise pick up on unbalanced lines and high impedance of circuit
become objectionable and prone to loss of high frequencies when the cable is long.
Therefore, the termination of broadcast type of microphone will have balanced output with
impedance in the range of 50, 70, 100, 200, 300 or 600 ohms to suitably match the input
impedance of the pre-amplifier.

In some modern microphones, the pre-amplifier is an integral part of microphone and high
level output is brought out.

8
HDBRS SYSTEM (hard disk based recording system)

Most of the AIR studios have already completed the process of migration from analogue to
digital. The old ‘Tape recording system’ has been completely replaced by Hard Disc Based
System, at each station in the AIR network.
A hard disk recorder (HDR) is a system that uses a high-capacity hard disk to record digital
audio or digital video. Hard disk recording systems represent an alternative to reel-to-reel
audio tape recording and video tape recorders, and provide editing capabilities unavailable
to tape recorders. Audio HDR systems, which can be standalone or computer-based,
typically include provisions for digital mixing and processing of the audio signal.

One major advantage of recording audio to a hard disk is that it allows for non-linear
editing. Audio data can be accessed randomly and therefore can be edited non-
destructively, that is, the original material is not changed in any way. Non-linear editing is
not inherent to every hard-disk recording system, however. Different manufacturers
implement different degrees of this facility.

Hard disk recorders are often combined with a digital mixing console and are an integral
part of a digital audio workstation (DAW). In this form, complex tasks can be automated,
freeing the audio engineer from performing a final mix in real time.

A personal computer can be used as a hard disk recorder with appropriate software;
nowadays this solution is often preferred, as it provides a more flexible interface to the
studio engineer. Many studio-grade systems provide external hardware, particularly for the
analog to digital conversion stages, while less expensive software systems can use the sound
card included with any modern computer.

The major constraints on any hard disk recording system are the storage capacity, transfer
rate, and processor speed. Some systems use lossy audio compression to minimize the first
two factors. This solution is becoming increasingly rare, thanks to rapid increases in hard
disk capacity.

Details of soft. Used

OS: win 7 professional
Studio: sound forge ver 6.0
Editing: sound forge ver 6.0; creative wave studio 4.2.6
Playback: win media player

Sound card
A sound card (also known as an audio card) is an internal expansion card that provides input
and output of audio signals to and from a computer under control of computer programs.

9
The term sound card is also applied to external audio interfaces used for professional audio
applications.

Sound functionality can also be integrated onto the motherboard, using components similar
to those found on plug-in cards. The integrated sound system is often still referred to as a
sound card. Sound processing hardware is also present on modern video cards with HDMI to
output sound along with the video using that connector; previously they used a S/PDIF
connection to the motherboard or sound card.

Typical uses of sound cards or sound card functionality include providing the audio
component for multimedia applications such as music composition, editing video or audio,
presentation, education and entertainment (games) and video projection. Sound cards are
also used for computer-based communication such as voice over IP and teleconferencing.

Sound cards use a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), which converts recorded or generated
digital signal data into an analog format. The output signal is connected to an amplifier,
headphones, or external device using standard interconnects, such as a TRS phone
connector. If the number and size of connectors is too large for the space on the backplate,
the connectors will be off-board, typically using a breakout box, an auxiliary backplate, or a
panel mounted at the front. Some cards include a sound chip to support production of
synthesized sounds, usually for real-time generation of music and sound effects using
minimal data and CPU time.

A common external connector is the microphone connector, for signals from a microphone
or other low-level input device. Input through a microphone jack can be used, for example,
by speech recognition or voice over IP applications. Most sound cards have a line in
connector for an analog input from a cassette tape or other sound source that has higher
voltage levels than a microphone. In either case, the sound card uses an analog-to-digital
converter to digitize this signal. The card may use direct memory access to transfer the
samples to the main memory, from where a recording software may write it to the hard disk
for storage, editing, or further processing. Over here we use sound card PCM 2902.

PCMCIA Cards
A PCMCIA card is a credit card-size memory or I/O device that connects to a personal
computer, usually a notebook or laptop computer. Probably the most common example of a
PCMCIA card is the 28.8 Kbps modem for notebook computers.

The Personal Computer Memory Card International Association was organized in 1989 to
promote standards for both memory and I/O integrated circuit cards. The PCMCIA 2.1
Standard was published in 1993. As a result, PC users can be assured of standard
attachments for any peripheral device that follows the standard.

A PCMCIA card has a 68-pin connector that connects into a slot in the PC. There are three
sizes (or "Types") of PCMCIA cards:

10
 Thickness
Type Typical use
(mm)
I 3.3 Memory
Modems, LANs. SCSI,
II 5.0
sound
III 10.5 ATA hard drive

The Type I and II cards work in a Type III slot and a Type I card will work in a Type II slot. (On
the other hand, the thicker cards can't be fitted into the slots for the thinner cards.)

The PCMCIA standard is most commonly applied to portable PCs but it can also be used on
desktop computers. The PCMCIA card is not to be confused with another credit-size
electronic card, the smart card.

Sound Forge Studio

Sound Forge (formerly known as Sonic Foundry Sound Forge and later as Sony Sound
Forge is a digital audio editing suite by Magix Software GmbH which is aimed at the
professional and semi-professional markets. There are two versions of Sound Forge: Sound
Forge Pro 12 released in April 2018 and Sound Forge Audio Studio 13 (formerly known as
Sonic Foundry's Sound Forge LE) released in January 2019 Both are well known digital
audio editor and offer recording, audio editing, audio mastering and processing audio.

In 2003, Sonic Foundry, the former parent company of Sound Forge, faced losses and tough
competition from much larger companies; and, as a result, agreed to sell its desktop audio and
music production product family to Sony Pictures Digital for $18 million.The software
initially had Windows 3.x support, but after version 3.0 all support for 16-bit Windows was
dropped. Additionally, Windows 95 support was dropped after Sound Forge 5.0.

On May 20, 2016 Sony announced that they would be selling the bulk of their creative
software suite, including Sound Forge Pro, to Magix GmbH & Co. Magix announced via
facebook that their first new version of Sound Forge Audio Studio (Sound Forge Audio
Studio 12) is set to be released in Aug of 2017.

Wave Propagation
Electromagnetic Waves are generated by the radiated power from the current carrying
conductor. In conductors, a part of the generated power escapes and propagates into free space
in the form of Electromagnetic wave, which has a time-varying electrical field, magnetic field,
and direction of propagation orthogonal to each other.

Radiated from an isotropic transmitter, these wave travels through different paths to reach
the receiver. The path taken by the wave to travel from the transmitter and reach the receiver
is known as Wave Propagation.

11
Types of Wave Propagation

The electromagnetic waves or radio waves propagation, passing through the environment of
the earth depend not only on the properties of themselves but also on the properties of the
environment. There are different paths of propagation by which the transmitted waves can
reach the receiver. All these modes depend on the frequency of operation, the distance between
transmitter and receiver etc…

Wave Propagation

 The waves that propagate near the earth’s surface are called GROUND WAVES. This
type of propagation is possible when the transmitting and receiving antenna both are
closed to the earth’s surface.

12
  The ground waves which travel without any reflection are called Direct waves or Space
waves.
 The ground waves which propagate to the receiving antenna through the reflection from
the earth’s surface are called Ground Reflected waves or Surface waves.
 The waves which reach the receiving antenna due to scattering and reflection by the
ionization in the upper atmosphere are called Skywaves.
 The waves which are reflected or scattered in the troposphere before reaching antenna
are called troposphere waves.

 Ground Wave or Surface Wave Propagation

A ground wave travels along the surface of the earth. These waves are vertically polarized. So,
vertical antennas are useful for these waves. If a horizontally polarized wave is propagated as
a ground wave, due to the conductivity of the earth, the electric field of the wave gets short-
circuited.

As the ground wave travels away from the transmitting antenna it gets attenuated. To minimize
this loss the transmission path must be over the ground with high conductivity. With respect to
this condition, sea water should be the best conductor but it was observed that large storage of
water in ponds, sandy or rocky soil shows maximum losses.

 Sky Wave Propagation

Every long radio communication of medium and high frequencies are conducted using
skywave propagation. In this mode reflection of EM waves from the ionized region in the upper
part of the atmosphere of the earth is used for transmission of waves to longer distances.

This part of the atmosphere is called ionosphere which is at about 70-400 km height.
Ionosphere reflects back the EM waves if the frequency is between 2 to 30 MHz’s. Hence, this
mode of propagation is also called as Short wave propagation.

 Space Wave Propagation

When we are dealing with EM waves of frequency between 30 MHz to 300 MHz, then space
wave propagation is useful. Here properties of Troposphere are used for transmission.

When operating in space wave propagation mode, the wave reaches the receiving antenna
directly from the transmitter or after reflection from troposphere which is present at about 16km
above the earth surface. Hence space wave mode consists of two components .i.e. direct wave
and indirect wave.

Amplitude Modulation
If the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating
signal, it is called amplitude modulation. This modulation is shown in figure 1. We can see this
on the screen of oscilloscope.

13
 The transmission of a wave signal
by modulating the amplitude of
the signal is Amplitude
Modulation. What this means that
we only modulate that is
increasing or decreasing the
amplitude of the wave to be
transmitted as a signal so as to not
affect its content but strengthen
the signal and send it over long
distances.

At the source, the signal is modulated and sent and at the receiver, it is received,
demodulated and filtered to remove any obstruction that may have occurred during
transmission to provide the content.

We do amplitude modulation of a signal wave by superimposing it with a carrier generated

signal and this causes a change in its amplitude. It is this modified signal and is sent via a
transmission.

On receiving the signal by the receiver the signal is demodulated by removing the carrier
signal and the original data is seen again at the receiver end. This system is very simple and
straightforward. In fact, this was the main method used in initial radio applications.

Medium wave
Medium wave (MW) is the part of the medium frequency (MF) radio band used mainly for AM radio
broadcasting. For Europe the MW band ranges from 526.5 kHz to 1606.5 kHz, using channels spaced
every 9 kHz, and in North America an extended MW broadcast band ranges from 525 kHz to
1705 kHz, using 10 kHz spaced channels. The term is a historic one, dating from the early 20th
century, when the radio spectrum was divided on the basis of the wavelength of the waves into long
wave (LW), medium wave, and short wave (SW) radio bands.

medium wave or mediumwave (MW) is a part of the Medium frequency (MF) radio band used for
AM broadcasting. The band is sometimes referred to as the AM band, even though it is not the only
frequency range to use amplitude modulation.

Medium-wave radio is generally used for local broadcasts and is perfect for rural communities. With
a medium transmission range, it can reach isolated areas with a strong, reliable signal. Medium-

14
wave transmissions can be broadcast through established radio networks - where these networks
exist.

In northern India, local cultural beliefs leave women marginalised and many are confined to their
homes. To women in this position, transmissions from Feba North India (using an established radio
network) are a crucial link with the outside world. Its values-based programming provides education,
healthcare guidance and input on women’s rights, prompting conversations around spirituality with
women who contact the station. In this context, radio is bringing a message of hope and
empowerment to women listening at home.

Short wave
Shortwave radio is radio transmission using shortwave radio frequencies. There is no official
definition of the band, but the range always includes all of the high frequency band (HF),
and generally extends from 30–3 MHz (10 to 100 metres); above the medium frequency
band (MF), to the end of the HF band.

Radio waves in the shortwave band can be reflected or refracted from a layer of electrically
charged atoms in the atmosphere called the ionosphere. Therefore, short waves directed at
an angle into the sky can be reflected back to Earth at great distances, beyond the horizon.
This is called skywave or "skip" propagation. Thus shortwave radio can be used for very long
distance communication, in contrast to radio waves of higher frequency which travel in
straight lines (line-of-sight propagation) and are limited by the visual horizon, about 64 km
(40 miles). Shortwave radio is used for broadcasting of voice and music to shortwave
listeners over very large areas; sometimes entire continents or beyond. It is also used for
military over-the-horizon radar, diplomatic communication, and two-way international
communication by amateur radio enthusiasts for hobby, educational and emergency
purposes, as well as for long distance aviation and marine communications.

Shortwave radio has a huge range – it can be received thousands of miles from the
transmitter, and transmissions can cross oceans and mountain ranges. This makes it ideal
for reaching nations without a radio network or where Christian broadcasting is prohibited.
Put simply, shortwave radio overcomes boundaries, whether geographical or political. SW
transmissions are easy to receive, too: even cheap, simple radios are able to pick up a signal.

The strengths of shortwave radio make it well suited for Feba's key focus area of the
Persecuted Church. For example, in areas of North East Africa where religious broadcasting
is banned inside the country, our local partners can create audio content, send it out of the
country and have it beamed back in via a SW transmission without risk of prosecution.

Yemen is currently experiencing a severe and violent crisis with the conflict causing a
massive humanitarian emergency. As well as providing spiritual encouragement, our
partners broadcast material addressing current social, health and wellbeing issues from a
Christian perspective. In a country where Christians make up just 0.08% of the population
and experience persecution because of their faith, Reality Church is a weekly 30 minute
shortwave radio feature that supports Yemeni believers in local dialect. Listeners can access
supportive radio broadcasts in private and anonymously.

15
A powerful way to reach marginalised communities across borders, shortwave is highly
effective at reaching a remote audience with the Gospel and, in areas where Christians are
persecuted, leaves listeners and broadcasters free from fear of reprisal.

Frequency Modulation
In telecommunications and signal processing, frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of
information in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.

In analog frequency modulation, such as FM radio broadcasting of an audio signal

representing voice or music, the instantaneous frequency deviation, the difference between
the frequency of the carrier and its center frequency, is proportional to the modulating
signal.

Digital data can be encoded and transmitted via FM by shifting the carrier's frequency
among a predefined set of frequencies representing digits – for example one frequency can
represent a binary 1 and a second can represent binary 0. This modulation technique is
known as frequency-shift keying (FSK). FSK is widely used in modems such as fax modems,
and can also be used to send Morse code. Radioteletype also uses FSK.

Frequency modulation is widely used for FM radio broadcasting. It is also used in telemetry,
radar, seismic prospecting, and monitoring newborns for seizures via EEG two-way radio
systems, music synthesis, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission
systems. In radio transmission, an advantage of frequency modulation is that it has a larger
signal-to-noise ratio and therefore rejects radio frequency interference better than an equal
power amplitude modulation (AM) signal. For this reason, most music is broadcast over FM
radio.

Frequency modulation and phase modulation are the two complementary principal
methods of angle modulation; phase modulation is often used as an intermediate step to
achieve frequency modulation. These methods contrast with amplitude modulation, in
which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency and phase remain
constant.

For a community-based radio station, FM is king! Radio Umoja FM in the DRC recently
launched, aiming to give the community a voice. FM provides a short-range signal -
generally to anywhere within sight of the transmitter, with excellent sound quality. It can
typically cover the area of a small city or large town - making it perfect for a radio station
focusing on a limited geographical area speaking into local issues. While shortwave and
medium-wave stations can be expensive to operate, a license for a community-based FM
station is much cheaper.

16
Radio Antenna System

Radio waves travel from a transmitter to a receiving antenna by different modes of propagation.
These are mainly ground waves, sky waves and space waves. Medium wave signals travel through
ground waves. Short wave signals travel through sky waves and FM signals travel through space
waves.

Launching of modulated electrical signal into the space is done by the antenna. The purpose of
antenna is to convert the carrier signal into an electro-magnetic wave. This means the EM wave has
got one electric and one magnetic component, or fields. The orientation of electric field is called
polarization. If electric field is horizontal, we call it horizontally polarized and if it is vertical, it is
called vertically polarized. An EM wave can be

- Horizontally polarized
- Vertically polarized
- Circularly polarized
- Elliptically polarized

Polarization of the wave is depending on the type of antenna and its orientation. Horizontally
polarized wave is used for SW & TV transmission. Vertically polarized wave is employed for MW and
circularly polarized for FM transmission.

MEDIUM WAVE ANTENNA

When the electromagnetic waves in the medium wave (MW) range are directed towards the
Ionosphere, they are absorbed by the D-region during the day time and are reflected from the E
Induction Course (Sound)
156

17
layer during the night time, which may travel longer distances to cause interferences. The wave
length of MW signals are very large, of the order of few hundred metres, and therefore the antenna
cannot be mounted a few wavelengths above the earth to radiate as space waves. MW antenna,
therefore, should exist close to the surface of the earth so that Radio waves from them travel close
to the earth as ground waves. If the electric vector of such MW radiation is horizontal, they will be
attenuated very fast with distance due to the proximity of the earth.

MW antenna, therefore, should exist close to the surface of the earth so that Radio waves from them
travel close to the earth as ground waves. If the electric vector of such MW radiation is horizontal,
they will be attenuated very fast with distance due to the proximity of the earth. MW antennae should
be placed vertically, so that they radiate vertically polarised signals. MW transmission employs
ground wave propagation. It is for this reason; all the MW antennae are installed vertically close to
the ground. However, vertical wire antenna, inverted 'L' type antenna, top loaded antenna and
umbrella antenna are in operation at a few All India Radio stations. Directional antenna systems also
exist in many All India Radio stations.

TOP LOADED ANTENNA

It is possible to simulate higher electrical length of the MW antenna for any physically smaller MW
antenna by top loading. A large capacitance disc (insulated from the mast, and series resonated by
an inductance connected across the insulator at the top of short mast) effectively increases the
electrical length of the mast.

Another alternative is to use a number of wires in the form of umbrella emanating from the top of
the radiator and secured via insulated rope to the ground as shown in fig. 5. This is particularly
valuable for thin masts. One such umbrella antenna is installed in Nagarcoil; and some other stations
of AIR.

'T' AND 'L' ANTENNA

'T' and 'L' antenna find application in broadcasting. AIR has used such types of MW antennae in the
network. This may perhaps be very handy to rig up one for emergency arrangements. The antenna is
secured on two high (100 to 250m) masts (wood or metal), spaced 100-250 m apart. As shown in
Fig.6 & 7.
The antenna consists of two to sixteen wires spaced 1 to 1.5 m apart. The copper wires are usually 5
to 8 mm in diameter. The supporting towers may be secured by several tiers of guys in which
insulators are inserted. The antenna down leads directly connects the radio transmitter. There may
not be any need for feeder lines if suitably structured.
The disadvantages are:
 Need for two or more masts
 Distortion of radiation pattern caused by the influence of supporting cables.
 The voltage at the base and at the end of wire antenna is very high compared to the mast
antenna,
SHORT WAVE ANTENNA
The short waves (3 to 30 MHz) get attenuated very rapidly with distance if they travel close to the
earth. On the other hand if they are directed towards the ionosphere, they could be reflected under
certain conditions back to the earth. Short waves, therefore, use sky wave for propagation. The SW
antenna are usually formed by wires and they are suspended horizontally between two spaced
towers which help to keep the SW antenna in position even against the wind pressures,

18
The most elementary of them used in broadcasting is the dipole whose physical length is half its
wavelength and is centre fed. Its impedance is about 73 ohms at its centre. The dipole, if kept in free
space far away from the surface of the earth, the directional pattern is described by a figure of eight.
The radiation pattern in three dimensional space is the figure of eight rotation about its centre
(about the length of the dipole). The radiation pattern for the dipole is modified from the free space
conditions depending on its height above the earth. It may be seen that there is no radiation along
the plane perpendicular to the dipole and passing through its centre as shown in figure-9. Radiation
angle “α” is depending on the height of dipole above ground which in turn will also determine
coverage distance. Radiation angle “α” is sometimes also called firing angle.

FM ANTENNA
FM broadcasting takes place in VHF Band-II (87.5 to 108 MHz). In this band, the radio signal
prorogates in the line-of-sight as space wave. Space wave propagation is essential in VHF bands
because signal frequencies get attenuated rapidly with distance, if they travel close to the earth, on
the other hand, the ionosphere is not able to reflect any energy back to the earth in VHF range.
The coverage area of FM Transmitter depends on many factors. But there are two main factors
which influence the coverage most. They are the effective radiated power and the height of antenna

Radio receiver system

In radio communications, a radio receiver, also known as a receiver, wireless or simply
radio is an electronic device that receives radio waves and converts the information carried
by them to a usable form. It is used with an antenna. The antenna intercepts radio waves
(electromagnetic waves) and converts them to tiny alternating currents which are applied to
the receiver, and the receiver extracts the desired information. The receiver uses electronic
filters to separate the desired radio frequency signal from all the other signals picked up by
the antenna, an electronic amplifier to increase the power of the signal for further
processing, and finally recovers the desired information through demodulation.

The information produced by the receiver may be in the form of sound, moving images
(television), or data. A radio receiver may be a separate piece of electronic equipment, or an
electronic circuit within another device. Radio receivers are very widely used in modern
technology, as components of communications, broadcasting, remote control, and wireless
networking systems. In consumer electronics, the terms radio and radio receiver are often
used specifically for receivers designed to reproduce sound transmitted by radio
broadcasting stations, historically the first mass-market commercial radio application.

C-BAND

C-band (Comprise) is a portion of the microwave band ranging from 4-8 GHz, and a
wavelength of around 5 cm. The C-band is commonly used for satellite communications.

The bands available for satellite communications are 3.4-4.2 GHz (space-to-Earth) and 5.925-
6.725 GHz (Earth-to-space). More specifically, the bands 3.7-4.2 GHz (space-to-Earth) and
5.925-6.425 GHz (Earth-to-space) are usually referred to as "Standard" C-band and the bands

19
3.4-3.7 GHz (space-to-Earth) and 6.425-6.725 GHz (Earth-to-space) are usually referred to as
"Extended" C-band.

The band is further used for radar, including weather radar, and Radio LAN in the 5 GHz
range.

The downlink and uplink here are: 3.7-4.2Ghz and 5.9-6.4Ghz respectively.

Crystal Radio Receiver

A crystal radio receiver, also called a crystal set, is a simple radio receiver, popular in the
early days of radio. It uses only the power of the received radio signal to produce sound,
needing no external power. It is named for its most important component, a crystal
detector, originally made from a piece of crystalline mineral such as galena This component
is now called a diode.

Crystal radios are the simplest type of radio receiver and can be made with a few
inexpensive parts, such as a wire for an antenna, a coil of wire, a capacitor, a crystal
detector, and earphones. However, they are passive receivers, while other radios use an
amplifier powered by current from a battery or wall outlet to make the radio signal louder.
Thus, crystal sets produce rather weak sound and must be listened to with sensitive
earphones, and can only receive stations within a limited range.

The rectifying property of a contact between a mineral and a metal was discovered in 1874
by Karl Ferdinand Braun. Crystals were first used as a detector of radio waves in 1894 by
Jagadish Chandra Bose, in his microwave optics experiments. They were first used as a
demodulator for radio communication reception in 1902 by G. W. Pickard. Crystal radios
were the first widely used type of radio receiver, and the main type used during the wireless
telegraphy era. Sold and homemade by the millions, the inexpensive and reliable crystal
radio was a major driving force in the introduction of radio to the public, contributing to the
development of radio as an entertainment medium with the beginning of radio
broadcasting around 1920.

Around 1920, crystal sets were superseded by the first amplifying receivers, which used
vacuum tubes. They became obsolete for commercial use but continued to be built by
hobbyists, youth groups, and the Boy Scouts mainly as a way of learning about the
technology of radio. They are still sold as educational devices, and there are groups of
enthusiasts devoted to their construction.

Crystal radios receive amplitude modulated (AM) signals, and can be designed to receive
almost any radio frequency band, but most receive the AM broadcast band. A few receive
shortwave bands, but strong signals are required. The first crystal sets received wireless
telegraphy signals broadcast by spark-gap transmitters at frequencies as low as 20 kHz.

20
Regenerative Circuit
A regenerative circuit is an amplifier circuit that employs positive feedback (also known as
regeneration or reaction). Some of the output of the amplifying device is applied back to its
input so as to add to the input signal, increasing the amplification. One example is the
Schmitt trigger (which is also known as a regenerative comparator), but the most common
use of the term is in RF amplifiers, and especially regenerative receivers, to greatly increase
the gain of a single amplifier stage.

The regenerative receiver was invented in 1912 and patented in 1914 by American electrical
engineer Edwin Armstrong when he was an undergraduate at Columbia University. It was
widely used between 1915 and World War II. Advantages of regenerative receivers include
increased sensitivity with modest hardware requirements, and increased selectivity because
the Q of the tuned circuit will be increased when the amplifying vacuum tube or transistor
has its feedback loop around the tuned circuit (via a "tickler" winding or a tapping on the
coil) because it introduces some negative resistance.

Due partly to its tendency to radiate interference when oscillating, by the 1930s the
regenerative receiver was largely superseded by other TRF receiver designs (for example
"reflex" receivers) and especially by another Armstrong invention - superheterodyne
receivers and is largely considered obsolete. Regeneration (now called positive feedback) is
still widely used in other areas of electronics, such as in oscillators, active filters, and
bootstrapped amplifiers.

A receiver circuit that used larger amounts of regeneration in a more complicated way to
achieve even higher amplification, the super regenerative receiver, was also invented by
Armstrong in 1922. It was never widely used in general commercial receivers, but due to its
small parts count it was used in specialized applications. One widespread use during WWII
was IFF transceivers, where single tuned circuit completed the entire electronics system. It
is still used in a few specialized low data rate applications, such as garage door openers,
wireless networking devices, walkie-talkies and toys.

Superheterodyne Receiver
A super heterodyne receiver, often shortened to superhet, is a type of radio receiver that
uses frequency mixing to convert a received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF)
which can be more conveniently processed than the original carrier frequency. It was
invented by US engineer Edwin Armstrong in 1918 during World War I. Virtually all modern
radio receivers use the super heterodyne principle.

Signals enter the receiver from the antenna and are applied to the RF amplifier where they are
tuned to remove the image signal and also reduce the general level of unwanted signals on
other frequencies that are not required.

21
 Block diagram of a basic super heterodyne receiver

The signals are then applied to the mixer along with the local oscillator where the wanted
signal is converted down to the intermediate frequency. Here significant levels of
amplification are applied and the signals are filtered. This filtering selects signals on one
channel against those on the next. It is much larger than that employed in the front end. The
advantage of the IF filter as opposed to RF filtering is that the filter can be designed for a
fixed frequency. This allows for much better tuning. Variable filters are never able to provide
the same level of selectivity that can be provided by fixed frequency ones.

Once filtered the next block in the super heterodyne receiver is the demodulator. This could
be for amplitude modulation, single sideband, frequency modulation, or indeed any form of
modulation. It is also possible to switch different demodulators in according to the mode
being received.

The final element in the super heterodyne receiver block diagram is shown as an audio
amplifier, although this could be any form of circuit block that is used to process or amplified
the demodulated signal.

Air Conditioning System

The primary function of an air-conditioning system is to maintain conducive conditions for

human comfort. Comfort air-conditioning, is defined as the process by which the
temperature, moisture content, movement and quality of air are maintained within
required limits.
An air-conditioning system has to perform the following functions:
 Cooling and dehumidification for summer conditioning.

22
  Heating and humidification for winter conditioning.
 Air filtration and proper ventilation round the year.

Necessarily, these functions involve control of temperature, humidity, purity and movement
of air.

The capacity of an air-conditioning plant is always expressed as so many Tons of

Refrigeration (TR). One ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of cooling yielded by
melting one ton of ice (assumed as 2,000 lbs) at 32º F to water at 32º F over a 24-hour
period. When one pound of ice at 32º F melts, it absorbs 144 BTU (British Thermal Units).
So, when one ton of ice at 32º F melts, it absorbs 2,000 X 144 = 288,000 BTU. Therefore, one
ton of refrigeration (TR) is equal to 288,000 BTU over a 24-hour period or 12,000 BTU over
an hour or 200 BTU over a minute. The metric equivalent is 3,000 kCal/hour.

There are two cycles in air conditioning

1) Refrigeration cycle
2) Air cycle

Refrigeration cycle
The refrigeration cycle line diagram is shown in Fig. 1. Mechanical refrigeration is achieved
by alternately compressing and expanding the refrigerant with the help of a compressor and
pressure reducing device (such as expansion valve).
Compressor serves two purposes: first, it draws the refrigerant from the evaporator (cooling
coil) and forces it into the condenser and secondly, it increases the pressure of the
refrigerant. By sucking the refrigerant, the compressor reduces the pressure in the cooling
coil and maintains it at a level low enough to permit the refrigerant to boil or vaporize and
consequently absorb heat in the process.
The compressed gas hot vapour flows to the condenser, where it is condensed into liquid at
high pressure giving up heat to atmospheric air or water depending upon whether the
condenser is air cooled or water cooled.
The liquid refrigerant then passes through a pressure reducing device like an expansion
valve (or capillary tube), where its pressure is reduced enabling it to start boiling at the
evaporator, resulting in refrigerating effect.

23
Air cycle
Indoor air may be too cold, too hot, too dry, too wet, too drafty or too still. These conditions
are changed by circulating the air and these treatments are provided in the air-conditioning
air cycle.
Air distribution system directs the treated air from the air-conditioning equipment to the
space to be conditioned and then back to the equipment.
The main components in the air cycle are:
(i) Fan (ii) Supply duct
(iii) Supply Outlets (iv) Return outlets
(v) Return duct (vi) Filter
(vii) Cooling coil (or heating coil).
The total resistance of these components to the flow of the air plus the friction resistance
caused by the air passing through the duct run are major factors in determining the size of
the fan and fan motor and the amount of air pressure that is required. For a Broadcast
Studio setup, this resistance is of the order of 25 mm to 50 mm of water gauge.

Centrifugal fan is most commonly used in commercial and residential installations. It

consists of a scroll, a shaft and a wheel. The scroll is actually housing for the shaft and wheel
and the shaft serves as an axle for the wheel. The wheel is cylindrical in shape and has many
blades. Centrifugal fans are available with forward or backward curved blades. A forward
curved fan can deliver required quantity of air at low fan speeds.
The air velocity and speed of the fan wheel (tip speed) not only play a major part in
determining the efficiency of the fan, but also affect the level of noise generated by the fan.
High tip speed and high velocity usually result in more noise.
Remote location of the fan reduces the noise but the system becomes more expensive.
Ducts may be circular, rectangular or square in shape. From the appearance and practical
point of view, rectangular ducts are generally adopted.

24
Ducts are fabricated from a wide variety of materials. Ducts made of sheet metal are very
common. The ducts are lined with glass wool or mineral wool slabs of 25 mm thickness
wrapped in copper naphthanate treated cloth.
Outlets are important from the point of view of appearance, functions and performance.
The primary function of the outlets is to provide properly controlled distribution of air to the
room and removing the air from the room. Ceiling diffusers, grilles and registers are used as
supply outlet and grilles are used as return outlets.

Condenser
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a
substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, by cooling it. In so doing, the latent heat is
given up by the substance and transferred to the surrounding environment. Condensers can
be made according to numerous designs, and come in many sizes ranging from rather small
(hand-held) to very large (industrial-scale units used in plant processes).
For example, a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of
the unit to the outside air. Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical
processes such as distillation, steam power plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of
cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers.

Compressor
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its
volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can
transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces
the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed,
the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

25
Types of compressors

 Reciprocating compressors.
 Ionic liquid piston compressor.
 Rotary screw compressors.
 Rotary vane compressors.
 Rolling piston.
 Scroll compressors.
 Diaphragm compressors.
 Air bubble compressor

Evaporator
An evaporator is a device in a process used to turn the liquid form of a chemical substance such as
water into its gaseous-form/vapor. The liquid is evaporated, or vaporized, into a gas form of the
targeted substance in that process.

There are two types of evap.:

 Forced Convection Type uses a fan or pump to force the liquid being cooled over the
evap.

 Natural Convection Type has the liquid being cooled flows naturally to the evap. due
to the density differences of the chilled and warm liquid.

Evaporator Construction Types

There are three types of evap. construction that are commonly being used
today:

 Bare-Tube and Plate Surface construction have the entire surface in contact with the
evaporating refrigerant inside.

 Finned construction are bare-tube coils upon which fins(metal plates usually
Aluminium) are being installed. A more detailed discussion on this type of design will
be provided here.

Evaporator Design Factors

There are 3 main factors to consider in designing an evap.

 Pressure Drop The evap. must have sufficient space for the circulation of the
refrigerant without too much pressure drop between the outlet and the inlet.

 Temperature The evap. must have enough surface to absorb the required heat load
in order to ensure the temperature difference between the substance being cooled
and the refrigerant is not excessive.

26
  Liquid and Refrigerant Vapor The evap. must have enough space for the liquid
refrigerant and the vapor to separate from the liquid.

Cooling Tower & spray ponds

Cooling towers may be classified as atmospheric draught or natural and mechanical draught.
Natural draught cooling towers are either installed away from buildings or at the top of the
buildings to enable free flow of atmospheric air through the louvers fitted inside. Natural
draught cooling towers are installed in places where reasonable flow of air movement is
there throughout the year for better efficiency. Natural draught cooling tower requires
more space for installation compared to mechanical one.
Mechanical draught cooling towers can be classified as follows:
a. Forced draught
b. Induced draught
In forced draught tower, water from the condenser output is pumped to cooling tower and
is allowed to reach the sump through headers, spreaders and louvers through gravity. Air
from atmosphere is forcibly flown inside the tower with the help of a fan and escapes back
to atmosphere through the top of the tower after absorbing the heat from the water.
Forced draught cooling towers are normally used for lower tonnage capacity plants.
In induced draught, atmospheric air is sucked by a fan fitted on the top through the air inlet
opening provided in the tower. Air passing through the louvers takes away the heat from
the water. Essentially, heat is given away by evaporation of water droplets and,
consequently, the quantity of water in circulation is reduced. This is compensated by
drawing water from the make-up tank.
When air is used to cool water, the role of heat transfer depends upon
 The difference between wet bulb temperature of air and the water temperature.
 The area of the water surface exposed to the air.
 The relative velocity of air and water.

Water Treatment
Algae/slime scale and corrosion on the water side of the heat transfer equipment retards
heat transfer causing general loss of efficiency and breakdowns.

Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide absorbed from the air and dissolved in water
cause corrosion, reducing the capacity of lines, increasing frictional losses and pumping cost.
Hard water causes scaling problem. When heated, the minerals are left behind, which form
a deposit on the heat exchanger surface. The heat transfer rating of the scale is verymuch
lower than metal. Retarded heat transfer results in increased discharge pressure causing
loss in capacity and increased power consumption.

Scaling of condenser tubes in a re-circulated water system is unavoidable. Descaling has to

be carried out as a preventive maintenance once every 12 months or earlier depending on
the hardness of the water. Descaling can be carried out quite conveniently by circulating
mild inhibited acid solution with the help of a small pump connected across the condenser
inlet and the water valves are closed to confine the circulation to the condenser only.

27
Chemical compounds are available, which suspend minerals of dissolved scale. Algae attach
themselves to the surfaces, and since they are living plants, they grow until they clog the
passages of the system. Bacteria forms slime and close the system in much the same way as
algae. Algae/Slime is controlled by use of toxic. A specialist should be consulted to
determine the algae/slime.

Power supply system

A systematic planning of power supply requirement of any particular broadcasting station

of AIR/DD is carried out in the beginning. Loads to be added in future, as per extension of
program of station are also taken into consideration. Major stations of AIR/DD have the
following types of loads:
1) Equipment loads
2) Air conditioning and associated loads
3) Lighting and fans load
4) Workshop load
5) Loads relating to mast light and aerial hut
6) Future provision

The total demand of the station is worked out and then decision is taken whether HT or LT
supply would meet the requirement. HT supply is required in case the maximum demand of
station exceeds 30 kVA.

AC POWER SUPPLY
The electric power at 11 kV is received in the HT substation through underground feeders from the
power supply of the P/S authority. The HT substation is located nearby the studio/transmitter and
generally houses metering facilities for reading maximum demand, power factor and the energy
consumed. It also houses the HT OCB. Separate feeder is provided from the P/S station to our
centres whose total demand exceeds 50 kVA. Standby feeder from the same or other P/S station is
invariably provided.

The incoming power through metering system and HT OCB is fed to the step-down transformer
where voltage is reduced from 11 kV to 400 V, 3 phase 4-wire system. This supply is now called LT
supply. The step down transformer is housed normally in a separate enclosure at a suitable distance
from the bus bar and switchgear room. In some stations two nos. of LT transformers are provided as
shown in fig.2. One is used with normal feeder and the other one with the standby. In such cases
Isolators, ACB, mechanical and electrical interlocks are provided to prevent earthing and back feed.
Power from the secondary of the transformer is fed to the bus bar (sometimes through LT OCB) for
distribution through switchgears. This bus bar is called the main bus bar. The main bus bar feeds
power to the auxiliary bus bar, located in the vicinity of the studio/transmitters.

AVR (Automatic voltage regulator)

Automatic voltage regulator is a very vital part of the power supply system. Power to most of the
loads in studio/transmitter equipment is supplied through AVR, as they require constant voltage all
the time. Notable exceptions are the loads relating to A/C plants and lighting etc. Input to the AVR is
provided through ACB/MCB, depending upon the load rating of AVR from the switchgear
incorporating HRC fuse. The output of AVR is brought to a distribution panel from where the power

28
is distributed to different loads through respective ACBs. The principle and working of an AVR is
described below:
Electrical equipments are designed to operate at certain supply voltage. If the supply voltage is
fluctuating from the rated voltage, the performance of the equipment is bound to suffer. Both under
and over voltages are detrimental to the load and effectiveness of the equipment. Present state of
art to control the fluctuation is with the help of servo stabilizers. A servo stabilizer has four basic
components.

1) Stepless toriodally wound autotransformer.

2) Instantaneous start-stop reversible sync motor.
3) Solid state sensing circuit.
4) Series transformer.

The secondary of the series transformer is connected in series to the input and the primary is fed
through the step-less toriodally wound auto transformer. The tapping of this transformer, which is
coupled with the shaft of the servomotor, is automatically adjusted by its movement. The
movement of the motor is controlled by the solid state comparator, which continuously compares
the output voltage with a fixed reference voltage. In case of error, motor moves in such a direction
so as to correct the error. With the movement of the motor, the voltage supplied to the primary of
the series transformer changes. Thus the voltage of the series transformer is added or subtracted to
the input voltage. The circuit is arranged in such a way that if the output is more than the set voltage
the motor tends to reduce the voltage applied to the primary of the series transformer and vice
versa.

HRC FUSE
In low and medium voltage range HRC (high rupturing capacity) fuse is the most commonly used
interrupting device. It is relatively cheap and occupies less space. It is used as a complementary to
the other circuit breaker. The fuse has a disadvantage that it requires to be replaced after each
operation.
Basically, the HRC fuse has a ceramic body that contains specially designed fuse element. Fuse
element is connected to metal caps. The caps also serve the purpose of sealing the body after it has
been filled up with pure granulated quartz. Vaporization of the metallic elements occurs on melting
and then there is a fusion which leads to rapid extinction.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The devices used for making and breaking an electrical circuit under some pre-determined condition
are called circuit breakers. The functions of a circuit breaker are as follows:
 It must close on and carry full load currents for long period.
 It must open automatically to disconnect the load, on over load under pre-determined
condition.
 It must rapidly interrupt the heavy current, which may flow under a short circuit condition in
any part of the system.
 The circuit breaker must be capable of withstanding the effect of arcing at its contact and
the thermal conditions, which arise due to flow of current. Breaking current capacity is more
important than making current capacity.

DC POWER SUPPLY
Every electronic equipment and operating system need regulated power supply especially at lower
voltages. These constant voltages were earlier provided by the linear regulated power supplies and
recently by switch mode power supplies (SMPS). Without doubt the SMPS has become very popular
with the equipment manufacturers and users because of its various advantages. It is also being said

29
that at last the power supply is also catching up with the technical advancement of the other
devices.

The merits and demerits of this system are as follows

MERITS
1. Very low output noise.
2. Very low ripple.

DEMERITS
1. Because of the bulky transformer the power supply unit is usually bulky.
2. Relatively narrow input voltage range. Normally + 10%.
3. Very low output hold-up time about 1 milli sec.
4. Low efficiency about 40 to 50%.
5. Heat dissipation is more.

THE SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM (SMPS)

We know from the transformer theory that

E = 4.44 x f x B x A x N
Or E α f x B x A
Where E = Voltage
f = Frequency
B x A = Flux density
N = No. of turns.

Because of the inherent limitations, the flux density cannot be increased in power
transformer above 0.97 wb/m, so if the frequency is increased, the transformer size can be
brought down and hence the weight. This is what has been done in SMPS.

The 230 V AC is fed directly to the rectifier and filter through Radio Frequency
interference/electromagnetic interference filter. This dc voltage then chopped by a switching
transistor or FET. This chopped high frequency AC is then applied to a power transformer for
stepping it down. This stepped down voltage is further rectified and filtered and given to the
load.

A sample of the output voltage is taken and compared with a reference voltage. The error
voltage is then given to the base of the switching transistor for increased or decreased
switching action.
Because of higher frequencies and to reduce the core loss ferrite is normally used as the
core. It can also be seen that the switching element is acting like switch (ON and OFF) and
hence the heat dissipation will be low.
The merits and demerits of a SMPS are as follows:
MERITS
 Because of less transformer weight the power supply is light and compact.
 Very wide input voltage range - 90 to 260 V AC.
 Very good hold-up time, typically 25-milli sec.
 Efficiency is quite high 70 to 80%.

DEMERITS

30
  Higher output noise.
 Higher ripple content.
 EMI/RFI generation.
 Higher design complexity.

Earthing
Earthing means connecting that part of electrical apparatus, which does not carry current
under normal condition (dead part), to the general mass of earth in such a manner that
all the times an immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place, for example,
connecting electrical equipment’s frames, enclosures, supports etc. to the ground.
Grounding means connecting the live part (it means the part which carries current under
normal condition) to the earth, for example neutral of power transformer. However, in
practice, the terms earthing and ground are used interchangeably.

PURPOSE OF EARTHING
 To save human life from danger of electrical shock or death by blowing a fuse i.e. to provide
an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger the user.

 To protect buildings, machinery & appliances under fault conditions i.e. to ensure that all
exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential.
 To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short circuit currents.
 To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic equipment i.e. to maintain
the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as to prevent over current
or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.

 To provide protection against static electricity generated by friction.

HOW TO MINIMIZE THE EARTH RESISTANCE

 Electrode should be made of metal having high conductivity.

 Electrode should have high resistance to corrosion so that its resistance does not
increase with time.
 Electrode size should be such that it is able to conduct expected current for expected
duration of time. Further, more the surface area of the electrode in contact with soil,
lesser will be its resistance.
 Electrode should be buried at such a depth where soil has sufficient moisture and
hence better conductivity.
 A location over which or nearby of which water flows continuously should not be
chosen for making earth pit because flowing water normally wash away all the salts
and increase the resistivity of soil.
 Resistivity of soil increases in the following order
i. Marshy lands, lands containing ashes, cinders or brine waste
ii. Clay, loamy soil
iii. Clay, loamy soil with varying proportion of gravel and sands.
iv. Damp and wet sands
v. Dry sand
vi. Gravel and stones
Earth conductivity can be increased by pouring a mixture of charcoal and salts like sodium chloride
and magnesium chloride around the electrode. The treatment is effective but not permanent
because salt is drained out over a period of time. Soil resistance can also be decreased by mixing low

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resistivity material (backfill compounds) with the soil around electrode. Some of the backfill
compounds are as under
 Bentonite
 Marconite
 Gypsum

METHODS OF EARTHING

There are two popular methods of earthing:

i) Pipe Earthing
ii) Plate Earthing

Contact surface area of pipe is more as compared to plate because of its circular cross
section and hence it can take heavy leakage current for the same electrode size. Moreover,
earth wire connection with pipe being above the ground level can be checked physically for
continuity. Plate Earth gives better surface potential distribution and gives higher degree of
protection against shock.

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