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Wave function
In quantum mechanics, wave function collapse (also called collapse of the state
vector or reduction of the wave packet) is the process by which a wave function,
initially in a superposition of different eigenstates, appears to reduce to a single one of
the states after interaction with the external world. It is one of two processes by which
quantum systems evolve in time according to the laws of quantum mechanics as
presented by John von Neumann.[1] The reality of wave function collapse has always
been debated, i.e., whether it is a fundamental physical phenomenon in its own right
or just an epiphenomenon of another process, such as quantum decoherence. In recent
decades the quantum decoherence view has gained popularity.
Mathematical terminology
The state, or wave function, of a physical system at some time can be expressed in
Dirac or bra-ket notation as:
where the s specify the different quantum "alternatives" available (technically, they
form an orthonormal eigenvector basis, which implies ). An observable or
measurable parameter of the system is associated with each eigenbasis, with each
quantum alternative having a specific value or eigenvalue, ei, of the observable.
The are the probability amplitude coefficients, which are complex numbers.
For simplicity we shall assume that our wave function is normalised: , which
implies that
With these definitions it is easy to describe the process of collapse: when an external
agency measures the observable associated with the eigenbasis then the state of the
wave function changes from to just one of the s with Born probability . This
is called collapse because all the other terms in the expansion of the wave function
have vanished or collapsed into nothing. If a more general measurement is made to
detect if the system is in a state then the system makes a "jump" or quantum leap
from the original state to the final state with probability of . Quantum
leaps and wave function collapse are therefore opposite sides of the same coin.
In general, quantum systems exist in superpositions of those basis states that most
closely correspond to classical descriptions, and -- when not being measured or
observed, evolve according to the time dependent Schrödinger equation, relativistic
quantum field theory or some form of quantum gravity or string theory, which is
process (2) mentioned above. However, when the wave function collapses -- process
(1) -- from an observer's perspective the state seems to "leap" or "jump" to just one of
the basis states and uniquely acquire the value of the property being measured, ei, that
is associated with that particular basis state. After the collapse, the system begins to
evolve again according to the Schrödinger equation or some equivalent wave
equation.
By explicitly dealing with the interaction of object and measuring instrument von
Neumann has attempted to prove consistency of the two processes (1) and (2) of wave
function change.
Note also that the physical significance ascribed to the wave function varies from
interpretation to interpretation, and even within an interpretation, such as the
Copenhagen Interpretation. If the wave function merely encodes an observer's
knowledge of the universe then the wave function collapse corresponds to the receipt
of new information -- this is somewhat analogous to the situation in classical physics,
except that the classical "wave function" does not necessarily obey a wave equation.
If the wave function is physically real, in some sense and to some extent, then the
collapse of the wave function is also seen as a real process, to the same extent. One of
the paradoxes of quantum theory is that wave function seems to be more than just
information (otherwise interference effects are hard to explain) and often less than
real, since the collapse seems to take place faster-than-light and triggered by
observers.
Schrodinger equation
In physics, especially quantum mechanics, the Schrödinger equation is an equation
that describes how the quantum state of a physical system changes in time. It is as
central to quantum mechanics as Newton's laws are to classical mechanics.
In the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics, the quantum state, also called a
wavefunction or state vector, is the most complete description that can be given to a
physical system. Solutions to Schrödinger's equation describe atomic and subatomic
systems, electrons and atoms, but also macroscopic systems, possibly even the whole
universe. The equation is named after Erwin Schrödinger, who discovered it in 1926.
The Schrödinger equation takes several different forms, depending on the physical
situation. This section presents the equation for the general case and for the simple
case encountered in many textbooks.
where
where
DeBroglie hypothesized that this is true for all particles, for electrons as well as
photons, that the energy and momentum of an electron are the frequency and
wavenumber of a wave. Assuming that the waves travel roughly along classical paths,
he showed that they form standing waves only for certain discrete frequencies,
discrete energy levels which reproduced the old quantum condition.
Following up on these ideas, Schrödinger decided to find a proper wave equation for
the electron. He was guided by Hamilton's analogy between mechanics and optics,
encoded in the observation that the zero-wavelength limit of optics resembles a
mechanical system--- the trajectories of light rays become sharp tracks which obey an
analog of the principle of least action. Hamilton believed that mechanics was the zero-
wavelength limit of wave propagation, but did not formulate an equation for those
waves. This is what Schrödinger did, and a modern version of his reasoning is
reproduced in the next section. The equation he found is (in natural units):
Using this equation, Schrödinger computed the spectral lines for hydrogen by
treating a hydrogen atom's single negatively charged electron as a wave,
, moving in a potential well, V, created by the positively charged
proton. This computation reproduced the energy levels of the Bohr model.
But this was not enough, since Sommerfeld had already seemingly correctly
reproduced relativistic corrections. Schrödinger used the relativistic energy
momentum relation to find what is now known as the Klein-Gordon equation in a
Coulomb potential:
While there, Schrödinger decided that the earlier nonrelativistic calculations were
novel enough to publish, and decided to leave off the problem of relativistic
corrections for the future. He put together his wave equation and the spectral analysis
of hydrogen in a paper in 1926. The paper was enthusiastically endorsed by Einstein,
who saw the matter-waves as the visualizable antidote to what he considered to be the
overly formal matrix mechanics.
The Schrödinger equation tells you the behaviour of ψ, but does not say what ψ is.
Schrödinger tried unsuccessfully, in his fourth paper, to interpret it as a charge
density. In 1926 Max Born, just a few days after Schrödinger's fourth and final paper
was published, successfully interpreted ψ as a probability amplitude. Schrödinger,
though, always opposed a statistical or probabilistic approach, with its associated
discontinuities; like Einstein, who believed that quantum mechanics was a statistical
approximation to an underlying deterministic theory, Schrödinger was never
reconciled to the Copenhagen interpretation.
Derivation
Short heuristic derivation
Assumptions
This is the classical expression for a particle with mass m where the total
energy E is the sum of the kinetic energy, , and the potential energy V.
The momentum of the particle is p, or mass times velocity. The potential
energy is assumed to vary with position, and possibly time as well.
Note that the energy E and momentum p appear in the following two relations:
(2) Einstein's light quanta hypothesis of 1905, which asserts that the energy E
of a photon is proportional to the frequency f of the corresponding
electromagnetic wave:
then
and
we find:
And by inserting these expressions for the energy and momentum into the classical
formula we started with we get Schrödinger's famed equation for a single particle in
the 3-dimensional case in the presence of a potential V:
Versions
There are several equations which go by Schrödinger's name:
Time dependent equation
This is the equation of motion for the quantum state. In the most general form, it is
written:
it is a combination of the operator which takes the second derivative, and the operator
which pointwise multiplies Ψ by V(x). When acting on Ψ it reproduces the right hand
side.
This last equation is in a very high dimension, so that the solutions are not easy to
visualize.
This is the equation for the standing waves, the eigenvalue equation for H. In abstract
form, for a general quantum system, it is written:
which has oscillatory solutions for E>0 (the C's are arbitrary constants):
The exponentially growing solutions have an infinite norm, and are not physical. They
are not allowed in a finite volume with periodic or fixed boundary conditions.
For a constant potential V the solution is oscillatory for E>V and exponential for
E<V, corresponding to energies which are allowed or disallowed in classical
mechnics. Oscillatory solutions have a classically allowed energy and correspond to
actual classical motions, while the exponential solutions have a disallowed energy and
describe a small amount of quantum bleeding into the classically disallowed region, to
quantum tunneling. If the potential V grows at infinity, the motion is classically
confined to a finite region, which means that in quantum mechanics every solution
becomes an exponential far enough away. The condition that the exponential is
decreasing restricts the energy levels to a discrete set, called the allowed energies.
Properties
First order in time
The Schrödinger equation describes the time evolution of a quantum state, and must
determine the future value from the present value. A classical field equation can be
second order in time derivatives, the classical state can include the time derivative of
the field. But a quantum state is a full description of a system, so that the Schrödinger
equation is always first order in time.
Linear
The Schrödinger equation is linear in the wavefunction: if ΨA(x,t) and ΨB(x,t) are
solutions to the time dependent equation, then so is aΨA + bΨB, where a and b are any
complex numbers.
In quantum mechanics, the time evolution of a quantum state is always linear, for
fundamental reasons. Although there are nonlinear versions of the Schrödinger
equation, these are not equations which describe the evolution of a quantum state, but
classical field equations like Maxwell's equations or the Klein-Gordon equation.
The Schrödinger equation itself can be thought of as the equation of motion for a
classical field not for a wavefunction, and taking this point of view, it describes a
coherent wave of nonrelativistic matter, a wave of a Bose condensate or a superfluid
with a large indefinite number of particles and a definite phase and amplitude.
Real eigenstates
The time-independent equation is also linear, but in this case linearity has a slightly
different meaning. If two wavefunctions ψ1 and ψ2 are solutions to the time-
independent equation with the same energy E, then any linear combination of the two
is a solution with energy E. Two different solutions with the same energy are called
degenerate.
produces another solution, and is the extension of the complex conjugation symmetry
to the time-dependent case. The symmetry of complex conjugation is called time-
reversal.
The Schrödinger equation is Unitary, which means that the total norm of the
wavefunction, the sum of the squares of the value at all points:
where the operator is defined as the continuous analog of the Hermitian conjugate,
For a discrete basis, this just means that the matrix elements of the linear operator H
obey:
so long as:
The Schrödinger equation satisfies the correspondence principle. In the limit of small
wavelength wavepackets, it reproduces Newton's laws. This is easy to see from the
equivalence to matrix mechanics.
So that in particular, the equations of motion for the X and P operators are:
in the Schrödinger picture, the interpretation of this equation is that it gives the time
rate of change of the matrix element between two states when the states change with
time. Taking the expectation value in any state shows that Newton's laws hold not
only on average, but exactly, for the quantities:
Relativity
The Schrödinger equation does not take into account relativistic effects, as a wave
equation, it is invariant under a Galilean transformation, but not under a Lorentz
transformation. But in order to include relativity, the physical picture must be altered
in a radical way.
The Klein–Gordon equation uses the relativistic mass-energy relation (in natural
units):
which has two solutions, one with positive frequency the other with negative
frequency. This is a disaster for quantum mechanics, because it means that the energy
is unbounded below.
A more sophisticated attempt to solve this problem uses a first order wave equation,
the Dirac equation, but again there are negative energy solutions. In order to solve this
problem, it is essential to go to a multiparticle picture, and to consider the wave
equations as equations of motion for a quantum field, not for a wavefunction.
and this is called the Compton wavelength. Below this length, it is impossible to
localize a particle and be sure that it stays a single particle, since the energy
uncertainty is large enough to produce more particles from the vacuum by the same
mechanism that localizes the original particle.
But there is another approach to relativistic quantum mechanics which does allow you
to follow single particle paths, and it was discovered within the path-integral
formulation. If the integration paths in the path integral include paths which move
both backwards and forwards in time as a function of their own proper time, it is
possible to construct a purely positive frequency wavefunction for a relativistic
particle. This construction is appealing, because the equation of motion for the
wavefunction is exactly the relativistic wave equation, but with a nonlocal constraint
that separates the positive and negative frequency solutions. The positive frequency
solutions travel forward in time, the negative frequency solutions travel backwards in
time. In this way, they both analytically continue to a statistical field correlation
function, which is also represented by a sum over paths. But in real space, they are the
probability amplitudes for a particle to travel between two points, and can be used to
generate the interaction of particles in a point-splitting and joining framework. The
relativistic particle point of view is due to Richard Feynman.
Feynman's method also constructs the theory of quantized fields, but from a particle
point of view. In this theory, the equations of motion for the field can be interpreted as
the equations of motion for a wavefunction only with caution--- the wavefunction is
only defined globally, and in some way related to the particle's proper time. The
notion of a localized particle is also delicate--- a localized particle in the relativistic
particle path integral corresponds to the state produced when a local field operator
acts on the vacuum, and exacly which state is produced depends on the choice of field
variables.
Electromagnetic spectrum
Although some radiations are marked as N for no in the diagram, some waves do in
fact penetrate the atmosphere, although extremely minimally compared to the other
radiations
The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the frequencies used for modern
radio (at the long-wavelength end) through gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength
end), covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction the size
of an atom. It is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck
length, and the long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself (see physical
cosmology), although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.
or or
Where:
Whenever light waves (and other electromagnetic waves) exist in a medium (matter),
their wavelength is decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter
what medium they are traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum
wavelength , although this is not always explicitly stated.
Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible
range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect
wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. Detailed information about the physical
properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. It
is widely used in astrophysics. For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave
photon which has a wavelength of 21.12 cm. Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below
can be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae and
frequencies as high as 2.9×1027 Hz have been detected from astrophysical sources.
Rationale
Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways in different parts of
the spectrum. The types of interaction can be so different that it seems to be justified
to refer to different types of radiation. At the same time there is a continuum
containing all these "different kinds" of electromagnetic radiation. Thus we refer to a
spectrum, but divide it up based on the different interactions with matter.
Region of the
Main interactions with matter
spectrum
Collective oscillation of charge carriers in bulk material (plasma
Radio
oscillation). An antenna is an example.
Microwave
through far Plasma oscillation, molecular rotation
infrared
Near infrared Molecular vibration, plasma oscillation (in metals only)
Molecular electron excitation (including pigment molecules found
Visible
in the human retina), plasma oscillations (in metals only)
Excitation of molecular and atomic valence electrons, including
Ultraviolet
ejection of the electrons (photoelectric effect)
X-rays Excitation and ejection of core atomic electrons
Energetic ejection of core electrons in heavy elements, excitation
Gamma rays
of atomic nuclei, including dissociation of nuclei
Creation of particle-antiparticle pairs. At very high energies a
High energy
single photon can create a shower of high energy particles and
gamma rays
antiparticles upon interaction with matter.
Types of radiation
While the classification scheme is generally accurate, in reality there is often some
overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF
radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted
along wires as electric power.
The distinction between X and gamma rays is based on sources. "Gamma ray" is the
name given to the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and
subnuclear/particle processes, whereas X-rays on the other hand are generated by
electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner atomic electrons. Generally,
nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so usually,
gamma-rays are more energetic than X-rays, but exceptions exist. By analogy to
electronic transitions, muonic atom transitions are also said to produce X-rays, even
though their energy may exceed 6 MeV [8], whereas there are a few low-energy
nuclear transitions (e.g. the 14.4 keV nuclear transition of Fe-57), and despite being
over 400-fold less energetic than some muonic X-rays, the emitted photons are still
called gamma rays due to their nuclear origin. [9]
Radio frequency
Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size (according to the
principle of resonance), with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about
one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via modulation. Television,
mobile phones, wireless networking and amateur radio all use radio waves.
Microwaves
Plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation.
The super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF) of microwaves
come next up the frequency scale. Microwaves are waves which are typically short
enough to employ tubular metal waveguides of reasonable diameter. Microwave
energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state diodes
such as Gunn and IMPATT devices. Microwaves are absorbed by molecules that have
a dipole moment in liquids. In a microwave oven, this effect is used to heat food.
Low-intensity microwave radiation is used in Wi-Fi, although this is at intensity
levels unable to cause thermal heating.
When active, the average microwave oven is powerful enough to cause interference at
close range with poorly shielded electromagnetic fields such as those found in mobile
medical devices and cheap consumer electronics.
Terahertz radiation
Terahertz radiation is a region of the spectrum between far infrared and microwaves.
Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave
energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimetre waves or so-called terahertz
waves), but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing.
Scientists are also looking to apply terahertz technology in the armed forces, where
high frequency waves might be directed at enemy troops to incapacitate their
electronic equipment.
Infrared radiation
The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300
GHz (1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts:
• Far-infrared, from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 μm). The lower
part of this range may also be called microwaves. This radiation is typically
absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular
motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids. The water in the Earth's
atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere
effectively opaque. However, there are certain wavelength ranges ("windows")
within the opaque range which allow partial transmission, and can be used for
astronomy. The wavelength range from approximately 200 μm up to a few
mm is often referred to as "sub-millimetre" in astronomy, reserving far
infrared for wavelengths below 200 μm.
• Mid-infrared, from 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 μm). Hot objects (black-
body radiators) can radiate strongly in this range. It is absorbed by molecular
vibrations, where the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their
equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called the fingerprint region
since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for
that compound.
• Near-infrared, from 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750 nm). Physical
processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light.
Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. This is the range in which the sun
and stars similar to it emit most of their radiation. It is probably not a coincidence that
the human eye is sensitive to the wavelengths that the sun emits most strongly.
Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in
molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. The light we see
with our eyes is really a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A
rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if
you could see it) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with
ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end.
If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off of
an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes our eyes, this results in our visual
perception of the scene. Our brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected
frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this not-entirely-understood
psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit.
Ultraviolet light
Being very energetic, UV can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually
reactive or ionizing them, in general changing their mutual behavior. Sunburn, for
example, is caused by the disruptive effects of UV radiation on skin cells, which can
even cause skin cancer, if the radiation irreparably damages the complex DNA
molecules in the cells (UV radiation is a proven mutagen). The Sun emits a large
amount of UV radiation, which could quickly turn Earth into a barren desert;
however, most of it is absorbed by the atmosphere's ozone layer before reaching the
surface.
X-rays
After UV come X-rays. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. As
they can pass through most substances, X-rays can be used to 'see through' objects,
most notably bodies (in medicine), as well as for high-energy physics and astronomy.
Neutron stars and accretion disks around black holes emit X-rays, which enable us to
study them. X-rays are given off by stars, and strongly by some types of nebulae.
Gamma rays
After hard X-rays come gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Villard in 1900.
These are the most energetic photons having no defined lower limit to their
wavelength. They are useful to astronomers in the study of high energy objects or
regions and find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their
production from radioisotopes. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with
high accuracy by means of Compton scattering.
Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Radiation of some types have a mixture of the properties of
those in two regions of the spectrum. For example, red light resembles infrared
radiation in that it can resonate some chemical bonds.