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For distribution system to be effective there should be less outage in the Feeder and if
fault occur these faults should be cleared as soon as possible. Power outages are of two
types a) planned and b) unplanned. Planned outages are due to demand being more
than generation but unplanned sustained and momentary power outage is due to
failure of the distribution system equipment.

There are two ways to distribute electric energy to customers: overhead (OH) lines and
underground (UG) cables. Overhead lines and underground cables have different
electrical characteristics. Underground cables have less resistance and inductance
compared to overhead lines. Also, underground cables have more capacitance than
overhead lines.

So, regarding these characteristics of underground system low loss electrical distribution
network can be designed with improved reliability. Although power system reliability
analysis is a mature research area, there is a renewed interest in updating available
network models and formulating improved reliability assessment procedures.

Before most cables ran underground, all electrical, telephone and telegraph wires were
suspended from high poles, creating strange and crowded streetscapes. Unmanaged
city planning, haphazard road digging and dust pollution have defaced beautiful
Kathmandu. Our city is in a mess. Electric pylons dangling overheard or even lying along
the roadside, hindering mobility, posing greater risks of accidents and short circuits have
made the matters worse. We have seen such incidents happen in our neighborhood and
in major towns of the city. Overhead electricity system presents many more dangers.

First, it needs a lot of space in narrow city streets. Most of all, these wires, which hang
right over our heads, feel like death traps. Laying these wires underground should have
been the topmost priority of city authorities and power utility office. The tangled web of
overhead cables all over the city have added to visual pollution.

The electric, telephone wires and cables jumbled and dangling in a web like structure
from the poles have contributed in disfiguring the city's beauty too. Underground cables
offer immense benefits. It helps in ensuring uninterrupted power supply and it can
transmit power across densely populated areas where land is costly or aesthetically
sensitive which applies in the case of Kathmandu Valley.

Underground electricity distribution system also prevents any possible hazards in the
event of accidents and falling of electricity poles Simply placing the wires underground
does not constitute an efficient system. Underground distribution system (UGDS) is the
ultimate solution of the distribution problem that confronts every Electric Utility
operating in progressive towns and cities.

The financial success of an electrical undertaking depends on supplying efficient and

reliable service in an economical manner, and in order to secure this result the
distribution system must be carefully designed and properly installed. The automatic
substation, when perfected and adopted, will not only permit a great reduction in the
number of ducts required and a lower first cost, but will provide more reliable service
and bring underground distribution within the reach of many small companies where
the cost of this class of service would not be warranted under the former conditions.

The suggestions offered in this paper are based on many year experiences and are
made with a sincere desire to aid those interested in this class of work, particularly in the
design and installation of the first system in the smaller cities. Safety is the top priority in
electric utility. This work describes the complex electrical safety issues related to
grounding underground distribution system and protecting electrical workers who are
working in electrical vault and who are utilizing energy.

There are lots of uncertain problems and challenges are associated with its practical
implementation and it cannot be scoped for all the feeders. And fault clearing time
period for this is another challenge for underground distribution. Although high cost of
underground distribution system this can be payback after few years of installation by
efficient and reliable operation of system. 1.2

Problem Statement Electric power interruption is becoming a day to day phenomenon

in our distribution system. Sustained power interruption occurs several times a day from
few minutes to hours. Interruptions may be due to failure of substation equipment or
failure of distribution network elements.

Reliability, safety and efficiency are the major challenges associated with the electric
distribution lines for the metropolitan city. Further, aesthetic is also a part of it, which is
desired by public dreaming of visually clean metropolitan city. Many techniques and
design methods were developed. However, these designs are specific to location and
environment.

Accordingly, there's necessity to make clear conclusion and vision for the sustainable
development in electricity distribution system of metropolitan city like Kathmandu.
Major actions are needed to improve customer-based reliability indices so that
frequency and duration of power interruption to its connected customer improves
considering this fact, in this thesis work, a comprehensive analysis of Koteshwor Feeder
problem will be improved from feeder side. 1.3

Scopes and Limitation of Research Work As per the result of analysis, design and
performance improvement measures will be identified which can be used as proto-type
to be implemented for other distribution system as well so that customer dissatisfaction
related to frequent unscheduled power outages due to fault in feeder line will be
minimized.

This thesis has a novel idea to analyze cost expenses that are required to replace
overhead line with underground line and reliability of such system can be compared
with the reliability of overhead distribution (OHDS) system. The study assumes that the
present existing Koteshwor feeder as a reference feeder for reliability evaluation of the
feeder.

Because of unavailability of recorded failure and repair duration distribution system

equipment, for evaluating reliability induces of the feeder IEEE historical data which is
may not suitable for our country. However, the consideration of this IEEE historical data
it can be concluded that how much our system is unreliable with respect to IEEE
standard distribution system.

1.4 Main Objective To analyses Techno-Economic analysis for replacement of 11 kV

overhead Koteshwor Feeder by underground distribution system. 1.4.1 Specific
Objectives: · To design the overhead and underground distribution line of saturated
Koteshwor Feeder. · To measure reliability indices of underground and overhead
distribution line with respect to Koteshwor Feeder.

· To evaluate cost estimate and benefits over replacement of overhead conductor with
underground cables. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Present Scenario of
Underground Distribution System in Nepal As the present scenario of Nepal distribution
line all electrical, telephone and telegraph wires is suspended from high poles, creating
strange and crowded streetscapes. Unmanaged city planning, haphazard road digging
and dust pollution have defaced beautiful Kathmandu.

Our city is in a mess. Electric pylons dangling overheard or even lying along the
roadside, hindering mobility, posing greater risks of accidents and short circuits have
made the matters worse. The tangled web of overhead cables all over the city have
added to visual pollution.

The electric, telephone wires and cables jumbled and dangling in a web like structure
from the poles have contributed in disfiguring the city's beauty too. With reference to
the survey of many distribution center of nepal like Pokhara, Birgunj, Dharan, Hetauda,
Itahari, Jankpur, Kalaiya, Simara, Patan, Simara, Bhaktpur, Maharajgunj, Ratnapark,
Baneshwor, only few meters(10 to 100m) of line has been made underground whose
propose is just to cross the road, buildings etc.,

where there is no any possibility of overhead line. There is only on dedicated

underground feeder from Rajdurwar switching to Pradhan Mantri Nibas whose length is
about 4 km. In order to short out these associated problem The Nepal Electricity
Authority planned to do underground major possible Hight Tension distribution line of
city like Kathmandu valley, Biratnagar, Pokhara, Bharatpur, Jankpur etc.,

For the first phase in order to completion of this target NEA has been recently made
contract with KEI Industries Limited, India to underground two Distribution and
Consumer Service Center of Kathmandu valley that Ratnapark and Maharajganj
Distribution and Consumer Service Center. In Second phase rest of the Distribution and
Consumer Service Center of Kathmandu valley and another major city will be done.

The major limitations of first phase of implementation due to high cost of installation of
Underground Network, only city core area is selected for Underground network, the
digging and construction works in Heritage area is prohibited without the Approval of
Environmental Impact Assessment, Social culture Impact Assessment and Historical
Impact Assessment.

Source of Fund and Stack Holders ADB = Asian Development Bank GoN = Government
of Nepal NEA = Nepal Electricity Authority EA = Executive Agency DoR = Department of
Road DWSSM = Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management Figure 2.1
Source of Fund and Stack Holders 2.2 Distribution System Distribution system “the part
of the power system which distributes electrical power for local use is knows as
distribution system.”

This system is the electrical system between the substation fed by transmission system
and consumer meter. Distribution system generally consist of feeders, switching
equipment, protection equipment, control equipment, one or more transformer etc.
(Gesto 2018). Some of the requirements of a good distribution system are: proper
voltage, availability of power on demand and reliability.(V.K.

Mehata 2005) Distribution system is a linkage of components that supplies power to

consumers at their place of consumption in a ready to use form. Distribution system
starts from distribution substation followed by distribution lines, distribution
transformers, protection system, loads etc. distribution lines (Feeder) is a network of
conductor with different protection system feeding power to different localities from
substation.

The distribution system may be divided into primary and secondary distribution. The
distribution system may further divide into feeders, distributors and service mains.
Feeders: feeders are the conductors which connect the stations (in some cases
generating stations) to the areas to be fed by those stations.

It is designed mainly from the point of view of its current. Distributor: distributor are the
conductors from which numerous tappings for the supply to the consumers are taken.
Distributors are designed from the point of view of voltage drop in them.

(Gupta 2011) Service main: service main are the conductors, which connect the
consumer's terminals to the distributor. (Gupta 2011) According to type of construction,
distribution system may be classified as (a) overhead system (b) underground system.
The overhead system is generally employed for distribution as it is 5 to 10 times cheaper
than the equivalent underground system.(V.K. Mehata 2005) 2.3

Overhead Distribution System In general, the main components of an overhead line

are:(V.K. Mehata 2005) · Conductors: which carry electric power from the sending end
station to the receiving end station. · Supports: which may be poles or towers and keep
the conductors at a suitable level above the ground.

· Insulators: which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the
ground. · Cross arms: which provide support to the insulators. · Miscellaneous: items
such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti-climbing wires etc. 2.4
Underground Distribution System The principal causes of outages are the failures of
these components: The principal components of an underground feeder are: · Cable:
usually employing either a high molecular weight polyethylene (HMWPE) or cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) insulation · Distribution Transformers: either pad mounted or
subsurface · Switches: oil, vacuum or air break · Separable connectors (elbows): either
load-break or no-load-break type · Splices: molded rubber · Pole top terminators ·
Load-break junctions (lateral taps) 2.5

Comparison Between Overhead and Underground Distribution System Comparison

between overhead and underground system are given below. · Public safety:
underground system is safer than overhead system. · Initial cost: Underground system is
more expensive than overhead. · Flexibility: overhead system is more flexible than
underground system.

· Maintenance cost: maintenance cost of the underground system is very low in

comparison with overhead system. · Frequency of Fault and Failure: underground system
very few chances of failure as comparison to overhead system. · Frequency of Accident:
The chance of accidents in underground system are very low as comparison to overhead
system.

· Voltage Drop: In underground system because of less spacing between the conductors
inductance is very low as compared to overhead lines, therefore, voltage drop is low in
underground system. · Appearance: underground system of distribution and
transmission is good looking because no wiring is visible. · Fault location and repair:
Though there are very rare chance of occurring fault in underground system.

But if occurs it is very difficult to locate that fault and its repair is difficult and expensive.
· Charging current: On account less spacing between conductors the cable has much
capacitance, so draw higher charging current. · Jointing: jointing in the underground
cable is difficult so tapping for loads and service mains is not conveniently possible in
underground system.

· Damage Due to lightning and thunder storm: underground system is free from
interruption of service on account thunder storm, lightning and objects falling across
the wires. · Surge effect: in underground system surge effect is smoothen down as surge
energy is absorbed by the sheath. · Interference to communication circuits: In
underground system there is no interference to communication system. 2.5

Cable An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered

with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. Although several types of
cables are available, the type of cable to be used will depend upon the working voltage
and service requirements. In general, a cable must fulfil the following necessary
requirements:(V.K.

Mehata 2005) · The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or
aluminum of high conductivity. · Stranding is done so that conductor may become
flexible and carry more current. · The conductor size should be such that the cable
carries the desired load current without overheating and causes voltage drop within
permissible limits.

· The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of
safety and reliability at the voltage for which it is designed. · The cable must be provided
with suitable mechanical protection so that it may withstand the rough use in laying it. ·
The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is complete
chemical and physical stability throughout.

In general, the insulating materials used in cables should have the following
properties:(V.K. Mehata 2005) · High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current. ·
High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable. · High mechanical
strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables. · Non-hygroscopic i.e., it
should not absorb moisture from air or soil.

The moisture tends to decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of
the cable. In case the insulating material is hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in a
waterproof covering like lead sheath. · Non-inflammable. · Low cost so as to make the
underground system a viable proposition. · Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any
chemical action. 2.5.1

Cable Joint A complete insulated splice, or group of insulated splices, contained within a
single protective covering or housing. In some designs, the insulating material may also
serve as the protective covering. Insulated end caps are considered joints in this
context.(Standard IEEE 1977) · Straight joint: A cable joint used for connecting two
lengths of cable, each of which consists of one or more conductors.

· Branch joint: A cable joint used for connecting one or more cables to a main cable. ·
Insulating (isolating) joint: A cable joint which mechanically couples and electrically
separates the sheath, shield, and armor on contiguous lengths of cable. · Transition joint:
A cable joint which connects two different types of cable. 2.6 Load Flow Study Power
flow studies.

commonly referred to as load flow, are the backbone of power system analysis and
design. They are necessary for planning. operation. economic scheduling and exchange
of power between utilities. In addition, power flow analysis is required for many other
analyses such as transient stability and contingency studies.

In a three-phase ac power system, active and reactive power flows from the generating
station to the load through different network buses and branches. The flow of active and
reactive power is called power flow or load flow. The voltage of buses and their phase
angle are affected by their power flows and voice-versa. (Gupta 2011) The Load flow
studies provide a systematic mathematical approach for determination of various bus
voltages, their phase angle, active and reactive power flow through difference branches,
generators and loads under steady state conditions.

Gause-Seidel method and Newton Raphson Methods are the two methods generally
used for load flow study. The load flow study is extremely important and essential for
power system planning, designing, expansion design and for providing guide lines to
control room operating engineers in the flowing activities. (Gupta 2011) · Analyzing the
effect of re-arranging the circuit on the power flows, bus voltage.

· Prepare the online software for on line operation, control and monitoring for the power
system. · Analyzing the effect of temporary loss of generating station or transmission
path on the power system flow. · Calculation of line losses for different power flow
conditions. · Evaluation of the operating performance of a power system under normal
steady state. 2.7

Cable Selection Criteria or Design In case of DC system, the voltage drop is due to
resistance alone. However, in AC. system, the voltage drops are due to the combined
effects of resistance, inductance and capacitance. The cable should maintain its required
insulating properties when subjected to its rated thermal limit (the combination of its
maximum ambient temperature and its own generated heat) during the service life.
Cable (or conductor) sizing is the process of selecting appropriate sizes for electrical
power cable conductors.

Proper sizing of an electrical (load bearing) cable ensures that the cable can: (Standard
IEEE 2008) · Operate continuously under full load without being damaged · Withstand
the worst short circuit currents flowing through the cable · Provide suitable voltage to
the load (and avoid excessive voltage drops) · Ensures operation of protective devices
during an earth fault 2.7.1 Following Parameters should be Considered While Deciding
the Size of the Cable.

· · Voltage of the system · Whether cable is used in earthed or unearthed system. · Short
circuit current of the system · Ambient temperature · Method of laying - in air, duct or in
ground · Number of cables grouped together and their spacing · Thermal resistivity of
soil · Depth of laying of cables in ground 2.8

Need of Cable Design As the feeder should carry whole current required by the
consumers its losses, voltage drop limit, and thermal limit need to be within the
acceptable value with respect to future growth load a proper technical and economical
design is required. Also, in order to save initial installation cost and life of feeder with
selected type of cable/conductor is playing vital role which make cable design essential.

2.9 Reliability Analysis The ability of the power system to provide an adequate supply of
electrical energy is usually designated by the term reliability. Reliability analysis of
electrical distribution system is considered as a tool for the planning engineer to ensure
a reasonable quality of service and to choose between different system expansion plans
that cost wise were comparable considering system investment and cost of losses.

(Kjolle and Sand1991) Some of the frequently used terms and definitions used for the
reliability analysis are Connected load: Connected transformer or metered demand on
the circuit or portion of circuit that is interrupted. Customer: A metered electrical service
point for which an active bill account is established at a specific location.

Customer count: Number of customers either served or interrupted. Distribution system:

The portion of an electric system that delivers electric energy from transformation
points on the transmission system to the customer. The distribution system is generally
considered to be anything from the distribution substation fence to the customer meter.

Interrupting device: A device to stop the flow of power, usually in reaction to a fault.
Operation of the device can be accomplished by manual, automatic, or remotely
operated methods [8]. Examples include circuit breakers, line reclosures, line fuses,
disconnect switches, sectionalizes, and/or others.

Interruption: The total loss of electric power on one or more normally energized
conductors to one or more customers connected to the distribution portion of the
system. Interruption category does not include any of the power quality issues such as:
sags, swells, impulses, harmonics etc. Interruption duration: The time period from the
beginning of an interruption until service has been restored to customers.

Momentary interruption: The brief loss of power to one or more customers due to the
opening and closing operation of an interrupting device. Outage: The loss of ability of a
component to deliver power. Planned outage: The intentional disabling of a
component's capability to deliver power, done at a preselected time, usually for the
purposes of construction, preventative maintenance, or repair. Total number of
customers served: The number of customers served during the selected period.

Unplanned interruption: The unintentional loss of electric power to customers. A

customer may experience loss of service (an outage) due to various reasons. We have
divided these into the following: Categories: (1) Failures of components (2) External
factors (3) Loss of supply to the feeder. Interruption causes category According to IEEE
data collected should able to be placed into one of the ten categories recommended
Equipment: Any piece of the distribution system equipment that is defective or fails and
causes an interruption to customers should be put in the equipment category.

A few examples of equipment types include controls, conductors, insulated transitions,

interrupting devices, arresters, structures and supports, switches, and transformers.
Failure of any power system protection equipment can lead to major damage and
financial losses to the utility. This will also lead to extended power outages for
customers.(

Hewitson and Balakrishnan 2005) Lightning: The lightning category includes all
interruptions caused by lightning which may be by a direct stroke contacting the wires
or another piece of equipment, or by a lightning-induced flashover of the wires or
another piece of equipment. Planned: The planned category includes, but is not limited
to: Road construction, maintenance and repairs, replacing equipment, and house moves.

Typically, planned interruptions are those interruptions that can be delayed by the utility
personnel and performed only after the appropriate or required customer notification.
Often, regulatory commissions have specified rules describing planned interruptions.
Power supply: The power supply category includes interruptions caused by a failure in
the transmission system including the transmission portion of a substation or the loss of
a generating unit including those associated with distributed generation.

It does not include outages due to the loss of an equipment of distribution substation.
Public: Any interruptions resulting as an act of the public at large should be put into the
public category. Examples include: customer trouble, non-utility employee or contractor
dig-in, fire/police requests, foreign contact (such as Mylar balloons, crane boom, and
aluminum ladder), traffic accidents, vandalism, and fires and explosions not originating
on or within utility-owned equipment.

Vegetation: The vegetation category includes interruptions caused by falling trees or

limbs, growth of trees, vines, and roots. It should be emphasized that if a tree is
involved, the cause category is vegetation. This is important to note during wind storms.
It may not be possible to determine that a feeder may have a forestry issue if wind is
listed as the cause when actually a tree was involved.

Weather: The category of weather should include interruptions due directly to a weather
phenomenon including: wind, snow, ice, hail, and rain where the weather itself caused
the interruption and exceeded the system's design limits. Wind does not include
slapping or galloping conductors, those would go under the equipment category.
Overhead power lines are more likely to be affected by adverse weather conditions.
Approximately 70% of all faults on overhead lines are transient faults.

(Burke 1994) Wildlife: This includes mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects, or any other
non-human member of the animal kingdom. Wildlife can cause interruptions directly
through contact, like snakes, mice, ants, raccoons, squirrels, or birds; or indirectly, like
nests and bird excrement. Unknown: The unknown category includes any customer
interruptions where a definitive cause cannot be determined after investigation.

Other: Any interruptions to customers that do not fall into any of the other cause
categories should be assigned to the other category. Some examples include: errors in
construction, maintenance, operating, or protecting, overload, and contamination. 2.10
Equipment Failure or Deterioration (Standard IEEE 2013) Benchmarking studies
frequently examine equipment performance as well.

This equipment is usually failed equipment that initiated the customer interruption.
Typically, pieces of equipment are grouped into different categories. Data collected may
be by number of interruption events, number of customers affected, or by duration of
the interruption. Results from this data may reveal rates of failure for various types of
equipment, if some utilities have a problem with a type of equipment as compared to
other utilities, and how the use of equipment varies from one utility to another. The
following is the recommended list of categories of equipment.

a) Cable b) Wire c) Connector d) Control e) Insulated transition f) Interrupting device g)

Lightning/surge arrester h) Other equipment i) Structural support j) Switch k)
TransformerThe cable category includes all cable that is direct buried or placed in pipe
or conduit. Wire refers to overhead strung conductors and jumpers. Connections,
splices, and other hardware are not included in these two categories. The connector
category includes connectors, insulinks, splices, etc.

The control category contains relays, smart meters, and other control equipment.
Insulated transition is comprised of bushings, insulators, separable connectors,
polymeric terminations, potheads, stress relief cones, etc. The interrupting device
category consists of circuit breakers, reclosures, and fused equipment. The
lightning/surge arrester and “other” categories are self-explanatory.

Structural support category includes anchors, poles, towers, cross arms, braces, etc. The
switch category contains disconnect, isolation, and load break switches etc. The last
category, transformer either power or distribution. 2.11 Need of Reliability Analysis The
reliability analysis is an essential study for the design, operation, maintenance and
planning of the power system.

With a specific reliability requirement, an optimum maintenance strategy can be

determined to minimize the running cost. Maintenance influences the deterioration
process, failure rate, and reliability of the components and the system. Power system
reliability assessment can therefore be divided into two basic aspects of system
adequacy and system security.

Adequacy: The ability of the electric systems to supply the aggregate electrical demand
and energy requirements of their customers at all times, considering scheduled and
reasonably unscheduled outages of system elements and Security: The ability of the
electric systems to resist sudden disturbances such as electric short circuits or
unexpected loss of system elements. 2.12 The Importance of Reliability in Distribution
Systems Distribution reliability primarily relates to equipment outages and customer
interruptions.

In normal operating conditions, all equipment (except standby) are energized and all
customers are energized. Scheduled and unscheduled events disrupt normal operating
conditions and can lead to outages and interruptions. The objectives of evaluating,
planning and improving reliability in distribution systems are therefore to (Zahir 2015) ·
Maintain continuous supply of electricity to customers. · Reduce the frequency and
duration of interruptions. · Minimize the severity of interruptions.

Determine the causes of interruptions in order to take corrective action to reduce

interruptions in view of its enormous cost to customers.Ensure compliance with
standards and analyze and improve system performance. 2.13 Reliability evaluation
technique In reliability evaluation, there are two basic approaches, namely, analytical
techniques and simulations.

There is vast knowledge on analytical techniques as these techniques have been used
for several decades and these techniques are also highly developed. Simulations on the
other hand are more specialized and flexible, but require large amounts of computing
time. One particular analytical technique is the Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
(FMEA) technique and is the usual technique for evaluating reliability indices and it is
based on failure mode assessment. In FMEA, for each component, all possible failure
modes are systemically listed and their effects on the system are identified.

The main drawback of the technique is that it can be difficult to directly evaluate the
reliability of a complex system as the list of basic failure events becomes long and it has
thousands of basic failure events. There are also software packages used in Power
Engineering. The manufacturers of these software packages also attempt to make them
as user friendly as possible, especially those used in research and for educational
purposes.

The reason for this is to improve the analytical ability and computational efficiency.
NEPLAN and DIgSILENT Power Factory are two examples of these software packages.
The basic theory for reliability analysis is given below. 2.14 Power system reliability
indices SAIDI (System Average Interruption Duration Index) The SAIDI of a network
indicates the duration of a sustained interruption the average customer would
experience over a year. It is usually measured in customer minutes or customer hours of
interruption.

SAIDI can be expressed as SAID = (customer interruptions duration p.a)/ (Total number
of customers served) …. [2.6] CAIDI (Customer Average Interruption Duration Index) The
CAIDI of a network shows the average duration of a sustained interruption that only the
customers affected would experience annually. It is normally measured in customer
minutes or customer hours of interruption.

This index differs from SAIDI in that only the number of affected customers interrupted
is used in the denominator and not the total number of customers served. CAIDI is also
the ratio of SAIDI and SAIFI and can be mathematically expressed as CAID = (customers
interruption duration p.a)/ (Total number of customers interrupted) …. (2.8) CAIDI is also
the index used to measure the average customer restoration times.

CAIDI is a measure of how long an average interruption lasts, and is used as a measure
of utility response time to system contingencies. CAIDI can be improved by decreasing
the length of interruptions, but can also be reduced by decreasing the number of short
interruptions. Consequently, a drop in CAIDI does not necessarily reflect an
improvement in reliability.

CAIFI (Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index) The CAIFI of a network indicates
how often (frequency) on average only the customers affected by an interruption
experience a sustained interruption per annum. The customer is counted only once in
this calculation regardless of the number of times interrupted. This index differs from
SAIFI in that only the number of customers interrupted is used in the denominator and
not all the customers connected.

Mathematically CAIFI can be expressed as CAIFI = (Customer interruption duration p.a)/

(total number of customers interrupted) ……. (2.8) ASAI (Average Service Availability
Index) The Average Service Availability Index (ASAI) represents the fraction of time
(often in percentage) that a customer has received power during the defined reporting
period mathematically, ASAI = (Customer hours service availability p.a)/ (Customer
hours service demand …. (2.11) ASUI = 1-ASAI = (Customer hours service unavailability)/
(customer hour service demand) ……. (2.12) ENS (Total energy not supplied) The ENS
(Total energy not supplied) is the sum of each load times its outage duration. ENS = ?
La(i) ? Ui………. (2.13) Where, La (i) is average load connected to load point i and Ui is
annual outage time. Average Energy Not Supplied (AENS) It is the ratio of ENS and
number of customers.

Mathematically AENS = (Total energy not supplied)/ (number of customers) ……… (2.14)
Mean Time between Failures (MTBF) AENS = (Total energy not supplied)/ (number of
customers) ……… (2.14) Mean Time between Failures is the average or expected time
between two successive failures of a component.

It is a basic measure of a system's reliability and availability and is usually represented as

units of hours. Mean Time between Failures (MTBF) = (Total number of operating hour)/
(Number of failure) ……… (2.15) Mean Time to Repair (MTTR) Mean Time to Repair is the
average time taken to repair a failed module.

This time includes the time it takes to detect the defect, the time it takes to bring a
repair man onsite, and the time it takes to physically repair the failed module. Just like
MTBF, MTTR is usually stated in units of hours. Mean Time to Repair (MTTR) = (Total
duration of outage)/ (frequency of outage) ………. (2.16) 2.15 Review of Related Research
Works C.J. Soni, P.R. Gandhi and S.M. Takalkar presented the Design and analysis of 11
KV Distribution System using ETAP Software.

They designed and adopted Feeder bifurcation and re-conductoring techniques for loss
optimization of distribution system of urban power network. And found that Percentage
loss reduction is 19.34% and 26.87% by Reconductoring and feeder bifurcation
respectively. That is by feeder bifurcation we can reduce higher losses and it is
economical.(Soni, Gandhi, and Takalkar 2015) H. Khalidi and A.Kalam studied on the
Enhancing Reliability of Power Transmission and Distribution Networks with
underground cables made conclusion regarding potential benefits of underground
cables and how they can enhance power network reliability.

And he found that Underground cables have the potential to reduce outages,
maintenance cost and transmission losses in the best and most effective
environment-friendly way possible Modern technology makes underground cables a
more practical solution to prove power network reliability where they were not an
option in the past.(Al-khalidi and Kalam n.d.) S. Ahmad and S.Sardar did simulation on
Reliability Analysis of Distribution System using ETAP and the results depicted that as
the distance of load point increases from feeder its reliability decreases, while most
reliable location in distribution system is the place most near to feeder.

Thus, the Distribution system planning and designing may be done in such a way that
customers are affected least, and distribution system reliability is increased.(Ahmad
2017) Y. Jibril and K.R. Ekundayo studied outages on the 33kV feeders of the Kaduna
Electricity distribution network for 16 months and concluded that Mogadishu feeder
experienced the highest number of failures even though it is not the least available
which means that outages are due to temporary outages or transient fault and the
duration is usually short. Therefore, the feeder should be look upon to, so that any weak
equipment should be replaced, wooden poles should be replaced with concrete poles.

According to O. Mokoka Simulation can be done in DIgSILENT Power Factory and

NEPLAN which has the following features: load-flow, short-circuit calculations, reliability
analysis, protection coordination, stability calculation etc.

He, simulated sample feeder in both NEPLAN and DIgSILENT and Mokoka compared the
result of both software and made a conclusion that results are similar. According to A.
Sumper System reliability is expressed by interruption indices. The variation of the
interruption indices between countries and companies concludes that the factors
influencing on these indices are inherited and inherent.

Finally, decreasing fault rates, restoration time and number of affected customers will
result in lower interruption indices and increase distribution system reliability. A Ghods
Studied 24 KV distribution network and suggested the method to improve system
reliability by changing network topology. He made a double circuit line for incoming
feeder and changed the feeder route of some section. Significant improvement in ENS,
SAIFI, CAIDI and ASAI is observed.

P.U. Okorieand A.I. Abdu studied Evaluation of Outages in Overhead and Underground
Distribution Systems of Kaduna network. He evaluated outage in the electric distribution
system on utilities in Kaduna was presented in this paper. The causes of this failures
which are due to variety of factors such as; weather conditions, contamination,
vegetation, animals, human, excessive ambient temperature, moisture, excessive load,
lack of maintenance, ageing, wear-out and design. These factors make the component
failure rates vary with time and location.

The main conclusion is the environmental factors are mostly responsible for over 50% of
the outage in system.(Okorie and Abdu 2015) C.I. Jones and M. McManus studied
Life-cycle assessment of 11 kV electrical overhead lines and underground cables. Total
of five options were analyzed, three overhead lines and two underground cables, which
were compared based on their embodied impacts in production and total lifetime
operational impacts. The analysis revealed that that the key parameter for reducing the
losses was conductor resistance.

In fact, to reduce the environmental life-cycle impact of 11 kV systems the lowest

conductor resistance should simply be installed.(Jones and McManus 2010) Peter H.
Larsen studied method to estimate the costs and benefits of undergrounding electricity
transmission and distribution lines. He analyses a comprehensive analysis framework to
estimate the societal costs and benefits of implementing one strategy to improve power
system reliability of undergrounding power transmission and distribution lines.

And concluded that undergrounding transmission and distribution lines can be a

cost-effective strategy to improve reliability, but only if certain criteria like large number
of customers per line mile, less space for right of way etc. are met before the decision to
underground is made. (Larsen 2016) R. Benato studied the Overall Cost Comparison
Between Cable and Overhead Lines Including the Costs for Repair After Random
Failures.

He presents a general method for the identification and calculation of deterministic and
probabilistic components of the whole-of-life cost of overhead lines and of XLPE
underground lines. He concluded that the overhead lines and cables have been debated
as competitors often without stating precise criteria. From an overall cost standpoint
and not from a mere investment cost standpoint, the cost gap between underground
cables and overhead lines is strongly reduced due to underground cables energy loss
savings and a lower impact on territory.(Benato and Napolitano 2012) S. Fenrick and L.

Getachew studied the Cost and reliability comparisons of underground and overhead
power lines. They research that reveals the reliability and operation and maintenance
impacts of electric underground lines relative to overhead lines. They used a
comprehensive dataset from 163 US electric utilities.
Holding the effects of other important operating variables constant, their research
indicates that undergrounding reduces operation and maintenance cost and enhances
reliability by reducing power outage durations and provide regulators with a way to
balance the net cost of undergrounding with the enhanced reliability.(Fenrick and
Getachew 2012) 2.16 Research Gap Over Head distribution system is prevailing in Nepal.
Almost all loads in Nepal are distributed through OH distribution lines.

But there are certain difficulties for the lines to be distributed overhead such as lack of
place for the pole placement, improper hanging of power lines, less secure, subject to
disturbances and fault, due to which reliability of power supply decreases. We can get
rid of all these problems if we distribute the power using the underground cables.

In, this research the design of underground cable is done for the comparison purpose
with overhead lines.

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