MODULE 1: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, MENTAL ABILITY, AND PERSONALITY

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Define what individual differences are

2. Lists the consequences of individual differences
3. Identify what makes people different from each other
a. Demographic diversity
b. Aptitude and ability
c. Personality
d. Emotional intelligence
e. Physical ability

Individual Differences

Individual differences refer to the variation in how people respond to the same situation based on
personal characteristics.

Consequences Arising Out of Individual Differences

1. Differences in productivity
2. Differences in the quality of their work
3. Differences in how people react to empowerment
4. Difference in how people react to any style of leadership
5. Difference in terms of needs for contact with other people
6. Difference in terms of commitment to the organization
7. Difference in terms of level of self-esteem.

What Makes People Different From Each Other

a. Demographic Differences
- Gender Differences
o The differences in the perception of male and female roles are referred to as
gender differences.
o Men and women are not different along the following concerns: problem
solving abilities; analytical skills; competitive drive; motivation; learning
ability; and sociability.
- Generational and Age-Based
o a worker that belongs to a certain generation may have differently from a
worker who belongs to another.
o Differences in the ages of workers also bring about expectations of
differences in the behavior of workers.
o This is seen most often in age difference since age is associated with
experience.
- Culture
o It refers to the learned and shared ways of thinking and acting among a
group of people or society.
 b. Aptitude and ability
Aptitude is defined as the capacity of a person to learn or acquire skills.
Ability refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

Factors of a Person’s Overall Abilities

- Physical abilities refer to the capacity of the individual to do tasks demanding
stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.
- Mental abilities refer to the capacity to do mental activities such as thinking,
reasoning, and problem solving.

Dimensions of Physical Ability

1. Dynamic strength- the ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time.
2. Trunk strength – the ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk muscles.
3. Static strength – the ability to exert force against external objects.
4. Explosive strength – the ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series of
explosive acts.
5. Extent flexibility – the ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible.
6. Dynamic flexibility – the ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements.
7. Body coordination – the ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of
the body.
8. Balance – the ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance.
9. Stamina – the ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time.

Various Theories of Intelligence

1. Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

- Cognitive Intelligence refers to the capacity of a person to acquire and apply
knowledge including solving problems
- Social intelligence refers to a person’s ability to relate effectively with others.
- Emotional intelligence refers to a person’s qualities such as understanding one’s own
feelings, empathy for others, and the regulation of emotion to enhance living.
- Cultural intelligence refers to an outsider’s ability to interpret someone’s unfamiliar
and ambiguous behavior the same way that person’s compatriot would.
2. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence by Robert Sternberg
- Componential intelligence involves components for mental processes used in
thinking.
- Experiential intelligence is a type of intelligence that is required for imagination and
combining things in novel ways
- Contextual intelligence requires adapting to, selecting, and shaping our real-world
environment. It incorporates the ideas of common sense, wisdom, and street smarts.
3. Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner
a. Linguistic
- sensitive to language meanings, and the relations among words. Able to
communicate through language including reading, writing, and speaking.
b. Logical – mathematical
 - Covers abstract thought, precision, counting, organization, and logical structure,
enabling the individual to see relationship between objects.
c. Musical
- Create and understand meanings made out sounds and to enjoy different types of
music
d. Spatial
- Enables people to perceive and manipulate images in their brain and to re-create
them from memory.
e. Bodily – kinesthetic
- Enables people to use their body and perceptual and motor systems in skilled ways.
f. Intrapersonal
- Highly accurate understanding of himself or herself
g. Interpersonal
- Makes it possible for persons to recognize and make distinctions among the feelings,
motives, and intentions of others.
h. Naturalist
- Possesses the ability to seek patterns in the external physical environment.

Personality
Refers to the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.
The “ways” are the patterns of behavior that are consistent and enduring.

Determinants of Personality
1. Hereditary factors are those factors that are determined at conception
2. Environmental factors are those that exert pressures on the formation of an individual’s
personality.

Kinds of Environmental Factors

1. Cultural factors
- Refers to the established norms, attitudes, and values that are passed along from
one generation to the next and creates consistency over time.
2. Social factors
- Refers to those that reflects family life, religion and the many kinds of formal and
informal groups in which the individual participants throughout his life.
3. Situational factors
- Indicate that the individual will behave differently in different situations.

Kinds of Personality Factors and Traits

1. Emotional stability
- Characterizes one as calm, self-confident, and secure.
- A person who possesses in a high degree of emotional stability can be expected to
withstand stress.
2. Extraversion
- Someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive.
 3. Openness to experience
- A person who is imaginative, cultured, curious, original, broad – minded, intelligent,
and artistically sensitive.

4. Agreeableness
- It refers to the person’s interpersonal orientation.
- An agreeable person is cooperative, warm, and trusting.
5. Conscientiousness
- It refers to a person’s reliability.
6. Self-monitoring behavior
- It reflects a person’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational, or
environmental factors.
7. Risk taking and thrill seeking
- It refers to the person’s willingness to take risk and pursue thrills that sometimes are
required in the workplaces.
8. Optimism
- It refers to the tendency to experience positive emotional states and to typically
believe that positive outcomes will be forthcoming from most activities.

Emotional Intelligence

The concept of emotional intelligence or emotional quotient was introduced by Daniel Goleman.

It refers to the ability of the person to accurately perceive, evaluate, express and regulate
emotions and feelings.
MODULE 2: WORK TEAM AND GROUPS

Learning Outcomes:

After this module, the students are expected to:

1. Define what groups are and why people form groups

2. List stages of group development; roles within groups; and advantages and
disadvantages of groups
3. Describe techniques in group decision making
4. Define what work teams are
5. List types of teams
6. List how to develop effective teams; to turn individuals into team players; and potential
team problems.

What are Groups

It is defined as two or more persons, interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve certain objectives.

Classification of Groups

1. Formal Group
- Defined by the organization structure, with designated work assignments and
established tasks
2. Informal Group
- Neither formally structured nor organizationally determined.
- Formed by individuals and developed around common interests and
friendship rather than around a deliberate design

Types of Formal Groups

1. Command group
- Composed of individuals who report directly to a certain manager
2. Task group
- Consisting of persons working together to complete a job task
3. Interest group
- Formed because of some special topic interest
- Group disbands when the interest declines or a goal has been achieved.
4. Friendship groups
- Is where members are brought together because they share one or more
common characteristics such as age, political beliefs, etc.
- Often extend their interaction and communication to activities outside of their
jobs.

Why People Form Groups

 1. Need satisfaction
2. Proximity
3. Attraction
4. Goals
5. Economics

Stages of Group Development

The Forming Stage

- It is the first stage of group development

- Initial entry of members to a group is a primary concern
- It is characterized by uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and
leadership
- Stage is complete when members begin to think of themselves as part of a
group.

The Storming Stage

- It occurs when conflict within the group happens.

- Members may get involved in competition for desired assignments and
responsibilities, related to task performance.
- Under this stage, coalitions or cliques may form.
- Stage is complete when there is relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within
the group.

The Norming Stage

- It is the initial integration stage.

- It occurs when the group becomes a coordinated unit.
- Cooperation and collaboration are its main characteristics.
- It has active attempts to achieve goals and objectives.
- Members feel a sense of closeness
- Stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has
assimilated a common set of expectations.

The Performing Stage

- It emerges as a mature, organized, and a well-functioning group focused on

accomplishing its key tasks
- It is the total integration stage.
- Group energy moves from getting to know to performing the task at hand.
- Sub-stages:
 1. Where the group has attained a constant level of effectiveness and
maintained at a level to ensure survival
2. Where the process of learning and development is ongoing

The Adjourning Stage

- It is the termination of acti vities

- It is applicable to temporary groups such as committees, project groups, task
forces, and similar entities.
- The termination of the group’s activities may be triggered by:
1. When the group’s purpose has been fulfilled
2. When the group has failed to revitalize itself during the performing stage
3. Other reasons include organizational downsizing, merging, or bankruptcy

Roles Within Groups

1. Knowledge contributor
- A member who provides useful and valid information
2. Process observer
- Person looks at how the group functions
3. People supporter
- Person who assumes the role of people supporter who provides emotional
support to teammates and resolve conflicts.
4. Challenger
- Someone who confronts and challenge bad ideas to prevent complacency.
5. Listener
- Person who listens to whatever ideas or proposals presented by any member
of the group.
6. Mediator
- Person who assumes the role of mediator.
7. Gatekeeper
- Person who makes sure that every member has the opportunity to express
his or her opinion.
8. Take-charge leader
- Person who assumes the role of the take-charge leader so that the group can
then move forward by defining its mission and determining its objectives.

Advantages of Groups

1. More inputs from various perspectives can be made available for effective decision
making.
2. Synergism is more likely when people work together as a group.
3. People in the groups are more supportive of decisions that were formulated with their
assistance.
 4. It allows the efficient exchange of information for effective problem solving.
5. The opportunity for fulfilling the safety, affiliation, and esteem needs of group members
is made available.
6. Group members get mutual support from each other.

Disadvantages of Groups

1. Group activity is usually slower and more cumbersome because every member has the
opportunity to make contributions.
2. Group meetings are held to disseminate strictly routine data that could be more
efficiently conveyed in writing.
3. The group’s decision may be diluted by every member’s input, making the decision
ineffective.
4. Accountability is often a problem with group activity.
5. There are occasions when some member shirk responsibility and let other members of
the group do the work.
6. When the group is highly cohesive and motivated, outside criticism tends to be ignored
as group members look inward for reinforcement of each other’s opinions.

Groupthink

It is defined as a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment

in the interest of group cohesiveness.

How to Minimize Groupthink

1. Monitor group size into a non intimidating size

2. Encourage group leaders to play an impartial role by actively seeking input from all
members
3. Appointing a member to play the role of devil’s advocate
4. Using exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without
threatening the group.

Techniques in Group Decision Making

a. Interacting groups
- Members interact with each other face to face
- The essence of interaction is the sending and receiving of information.
- It is susceptible to “group think”
b. Brainstorming
- A problem – solving technique which promotes creativity by encouraging
members to come up with any ideas.
c. Normal group technique
- Individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic
but independent fashion
 d. Electronic Meeting
- Members interact through computers, allowing anonymity of comments and
aggregation of votes.

What are Work Teams

Work team is a formal group comprised of people interacting very closely together with
a shared commitment to accomplish agreed-upon objectives.

Differences between Workgroups and Teams

a. Groups and teams are not similar

b. a workgroup is one that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions
to help each member perform within his or her area of responsibility.
c. Groups emphasize individual leadership, individual accountability, and individual work
products.
d. Teams emphasize shared leadership, mutual accountability and collective work products.

Types of Teams

1. Problem-solving teams
- These are groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet
for a few hours a week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and
work environment.
2. Self-managed work teams
- They are empowered to make decisions about work schedules, task
allocations, job skills training, performance evaluation, selection of new team
members, and controlling quality of work.
3. Cross functional teams
- They are composed of employees from about the same hierarchical levels,
but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task.
4. Virtual teams
- They use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members
in order to achieve a common goal.

Developing Effective Teams

Teams can be made effective if the following are observed:

1. Team size must be kept as small as possible. The larger the team, the more difficult it
would be to manage it.
2. The team members must have a sufficient range of skills, information, and/or
experience to do the task.
3. Team members must have a sense of common purpose like the feeling that what they
are doing is critical to the success of the organization.
 4. The team must be free to develop its work procedures.
5. The team must have a sense of accountability.

Potential Team Problems

Changing Membership

- Newly formed teams need time to turn into mature groups.

- However, this could be disrupted by frequent changes in its composition
when members drop out temporarily or permanently.
- How to manage internal problems:
1. Recognition of the potential problems
2. Development of a plan of managing turnover
3. Thinking through how best to integrate new members

Social Loafing

- The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively
than when working individually.
- The reasons for social loafing are because members:
1. Think their contribution is less noticeable; and
2. Prefer to see others carry the workload.