Tourism Management 72 (2019) 209–219

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Positioning a destination as fashionable: The destination fashion T

conditioning framework
Clifford Lewisa,b,∗, Greg Kerrc, Lois Burgessc
a
Faculty of Business, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2500, Australia
b
School of Management and Marketing, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, NSW, 2795, Australia
c
Faculty of Business, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia

1. Introduction tourism by responding to the gap identified by Caldwell and Freire

Although the word fashion conjures images of glamorous people
wearing the latest styles of clothing and accessories, fashion has an
impact on almost all daily activities (O'Cass, 2001) including science,
art, education, and literature (Blumer, 1969; Mintzberg, 2005; Sproles,
1981). Fashion is closely linked with the latest trends, social practices,
and innovative technologies (Lysikova, 2012), and permeates all public
aspects of human behaviour (Atik & Firat, 2013; Radar, 1969). Due to
the social nature of tourism consumption, and the destination's ability
to ‘say something’ about the visitor, fashion also plays a significant role
in tourism (Corneo & Jeanne, 1999; Greenwood, 1976).
The academic literature acknowledges the relevance of fashion in
tourism but has not investigated how a place may be constructed into a
fashionable destination. Greenwood (1976), for example, suggests
tourism is an industry in which fashion and the desire for novelty play a
major role. Corneo and Jeanne (1999) similarly propose the choice of
holiday destination is an example of behaviour affected by fashion.
Both Morgan, Pritchard, and Piggott (2002) and Caldwell and Freire
(2004) argue that owing to the public nature of tourism consumption,
destinations function as fashion accessories. Wilson and Richards
(2008) even found backpackers considered fashionable destinations as
places they needed to experience. And, more recently, Lysikova (2012)
established that tourism experts believed fashion had relevance to
destination choice, the selection of tourist activities, and even the type
of tourism undertaken.
1.1. Objectives and overview
Noting the value of being fashionable, Caldwell and Freire (2004,
p.59) called for research to identify “which factors contribute to the
construction of a fashionable destination”. In this context, construction
implies building (action) an offer (factors) to position a destination as
fashionable. Responding to this call requires the identification of both
the factors and actions required for a destination to be fashionable.
The purpose of this paper is to extend the literature on fashion and
(2004), and building a theory on a how a place can be constructed as a
fashionable destination. To do this, this research aimed to identify the
factors and actions required for a place to be fashionable. Using Dul and
Hak's (2008) approach to theory development, a two-stage research
approach was implemented. First, semi-structured in-depth interviews
with tourism experts were conducted to explore if fashion was relevant
to tourism, and if so, the conditions they believed made a destination
fashionable. Thereon, using a case study approach, four fashionable
Australian destinations, as nominated by tourism experts, were studied
to confirm which conditions were necessary for a destination to be
fashionable. Based on the findings, the Destination Fashion Conditioning
Framework is proposed to explain how a fashionable destination may be
constructed. The framework includes both the factors that need to be
present and the actions that need to be performed to construct those
factors. The literature on fashion is now reviewed to explain the com-
ponents of fashion and its relevance to tourism.
2. Understanding fashion
In academic literature, fashion has been defined as either a beha-
viour that is emulated (Cholachatpinyo, Fletcher, Padgett, & Crocker,
2002; Sproles, 1979) or time-appropriate (Back, 1985; Solomon &
Rabolt, 2004). Lewis, Kerr, and Burgess (2013b) acknowledge the role
of meaning in fashion and conceptualise it as:
An object-orientated concept, the object being popular for con-
sumption within one's reference group(s) because the meaning as-
sociated with the object is perceived as being symbolically appro-
priate for a given time or situation (pp.6–7).
In essence, fashion is a meaning-driven phenomenon. The meaning
the object represents makes it fashionable within a reference group and
helps diffuse it in society. The theories of fashion diffusion are chron-
ologically summarised in Table 1. While these theories discuss fashion
diffusion in society, they do not explain how an object becomes fash-
ionable in the first place. What is apparent, however, is that it is the

∗
Corresponding author. Faculty of Business, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2500, Australia.
E-mail addresses: cllewis@csu.edu.au (C. Lewis), gkerr@uow.edu.au (G. Kerr), lburgess@uow.edu.au (L. Burgess).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.12.004
Received 11 March 2017; Received in revised form 4 December 2018; Accepted 6 December 2018
Available online 12 December 2018
0261-5177/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Lewis et al. Tourism Management 72 (2019) 209–219

Table 1
Fashion diffusion theories.
Theory Explanation

Trickle-down theory of fashion (Simmel [1904]
1957)
Mass-market theory (King, 1969)
Theory of collective selection (Blumer, 1969)
Status-float phenomenon or Trickle-up theory (Field,
1970)
Symbolic interaction theory (Kaiser et al., 1995)
Objects consumed by those higher in social status become fashionable and trickle down to lower segments because they
represent the lifestyle, values, status, and meanings associated with the ‘upper class’.
Marketing communication about a fashion, together with lower-cost and faster production times, contribute to
developing both awareness, meaning, and demand across social strata making an object fashionable to the masses.
New styles compete for acceptance by consumers, and those that closely represent consumer tastes – based on social
ideology, culture, and lifestyle of the time – gain social acceptance and become fashionable.
Fashions start with a subculture in society and then spread as people attempt to emulate that group. The object comes to
represent a particular subgroup, and this encourages others to adopt it to show acceptance or similarity.
Society attempts to process the ambiguity associated with a new object leading to a rich construction of meanings for it.
Meanings are negotiated through social interaction, which ultimately leads to the object becoming fashionable.

meaning of the object that contributes to its demand. This meaning may
originate from the users of the object (Field, 1970; Simmel [1904]
1957) or through marketing communication (King, 1969) and is refined
through negotiation within the social system (Kaiser, Nagasawa, &
Hutton, 1995).
While fashionable objects benefit from high levels of awareness and
a positive attitude, it is the associated meaning that drives the object's
popularity (Lewis et al., 2013b) as opposed to functional aspects such as
cost. Meaning communicates membership or alignment with a parti-
cular group and provides an anchor through which a consumer can
build an emotional connection with a brand (Keller, 2013). Ultimately,
through the evolution of meaning and changing reference group pre-
ferences, what is perceived as fashionable alters over time. The con-
cepts of meaning and reference groups are now discussed.
2.1. Fashion and meaning
Brands have both functional and symbolic benefits, which influence
consumers' perception and behaviour (Bhat & Reddy, 1998). Functional
benefits relate to the intrinsic advantages of a product, while symbolic
benefits are based on extrinsic advantages such as social approval,
personal expression, and self-esteem (Orth & de Marchi, 2007). The
brand's symbolism, which forms its overall meaning, can position it as
exclusive, prestigious, or fashionable (Solomon, 1983). For a brand's
fashion status to be legitimised in society, it should communicate the
same meaning to individuals and reference groups who use the product
and significant others who observe consumption (Evans, 1989).
Meaning is created through advertising, popular culture, and all the
institutions, organisations, groups, producers, events, and practices
which help construct the idea of fashion and associate it with the object
through design and communication (McCracken, 1986; Kawamura
2005). Meanings may also move from the groups that consume the
product to the object. For instance, as defined by the trickle-down
theory, the meaning ‘high status’ may get transferred from the upper-
class to the object (Simmel [1904] 1957).
A brand's identity is internally decided and comprises the meaning a
brand wishes to communicate, while the brand image is the consumer's
interpretation of the brand (Souiden, Ladhari, & Chiadmi, 2017).
Through the process of positioning, a brand's meaning is negotiated by
society and transformed into its image (Pike, 2016). A destination's
image can be divided into descriptive and evaluative components
(Crompton, 1979a), with the former serving as the input for an eva-
luation process which culminates in the latter (Kock, Josiassen, & Assaf,
2016).
Fashion is a type of image that may be developed (Kawamura, 2005;
Wissinger, 2009). The imagery associated with a destination commu-
nicates descriptive meanings, which when evaluated could result in an
assessment that the destination is fashionable. This is in line with the
definition of fashion put forward by Lewis et al. (2013b), in that the
meaning of the object is evaluated as being symbolically appropriate for
a given time or situation. Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) argue image is
formed through consumer interpretation, which may be reasoned or
emotional. Fashion is an emotional interpretation of the descriptive
meaning of a destination. Such interpretation happens within a social
context influenced by the individual's social and reference groups
(Kaiser et al., 1995).
2.2. Fashion and reference groups
Reference groups dictate what is fashionable to an individual by
influencing their beliefs and attitudes (Assael, Nigel, Brennan, & Voges,
2007). Individuals create a psychological association and signal mem-
bership by using brands whose image matches current or aspirational
reference groups (Allen, Fournier, & Miller, 2008; Escalas & Bettman,
2005). Simmel ([1904] 1957) similarly notes fashions spread as people
try to copy the styles prevalent in segments above them in social status.
These segments form aspirational reference groups for those lower. Field
(1970) argues on the same lines that fashions may originate within a
subcultural group and from there spread to others who try to imitate
the original group.
2.3. The benefits of being fashionable
Being fashionable could contribute to the destination's foreign
earnings, employment, and infrastructure development. Fashionable
destinations can charge premium prices, while at the same time, enjoy a
larger market share. Destinations that are fashionable are high in ce-
lebrity value and emotional pull (Morgan & Pritchard, 2004) and oc-
cupy the status of being a place that ‘must’ be visited (Wilson &
Richards, 2008).
Due to the social capital associated with being seen at a fashionable
destination, visitors are more likely to communicate their experiences
through word-of-mouth. As a result, a fashionable brand may benefit
from lower promotional costs. The buzz associated with fashionable
destinations could enhance the perceived level of familiarity with the
destination thus reducing financial, psychological, and social risks of
visiting. In this way, being fashionable may help short-cut the typical
decision-making process as fashionable destinations could negate the
need for a category-wide information search, evaluation, and short-
listing process.
Destinations can strategically manage visitor profiles by being
fashionable. Consumers skew their preference towards brands asso-
ciated with groups to which they belong, or want to belong (Escalas &
Bettman, 2005). Therefore, an object that is fashionable with a parti-
cular reference group may automatically be considered less fashionable
within other groups. For instance what is fashionable to Baby Boomers
may automatically become unfashionable to Millennials. Fashion,
therefore, provides a means of demarketing a destination by con-
sciously and proactively limiting the market in numbers or segments
(Beeton & Pinge, 2003), allowing destination marketers to manage the
visitor segments they attract.
Finally, while objects may go ‘out-of-fashion’, it is argued that if

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managed, being fashionable can extend a destination's lifecycle. Certain
objects achieve the status of “classic” and continue to remain fashion-
able for consumption over a more extended period (Wasson, 1968, p.
40). By managing the meaning of the destination brand, destination
marketers may extend the lifecycle of the destination to the same au-
dience or position it as fashionable to a new segment.
2.4. Methodology
This research identifies factors that contribute to constructing a
fashionable destination. Dul, Hak, Goertz, and Voss (2010) refer to
contributing factors as necessary conditions, which need to be present for
the outcome to be possible. Following Dul and Hak's (2008) approach to
theory development, a two-phase methodology was implemented to
build theory through the exploration of practice on the conditions ne-
cessary for a destination to be fashionable, and subsequently test it
using a case study design. Given the role of meaning in fashion, this
research is positioned within the interpretivist paradigm which perceives
the world as an emergent social process created through shared
meaning (Burrell & Morgan, 1979). Accordingly, qualitative research
methods were used. The role of the researcher was to interpret the data
to identify the necessary conditions that contribute to constructing a
fashionable destination.
2.5. Two-phase theory development
Phase One of the study was exploratory and consisted of semi-
structured in-depth interviews with tourism practitioners. The purpose
was to identify if fashion was relevant to tourism, and if so, destinations
that were fashionable and the conditions experts believed made them
fashionable. Semi-structured in-depth interviews allow the questions to
be adapted based on the learning from previous interviews and the
discussion within the interview. Eighteen tourism practitioners were
interviewed with the final number being determined when no new in-
formation was emerging. The sample comprised tourism practitioners
such as destination marketers, tourism journalists, travel agents, at-
traction marketers, and tourism academics. Participants were selected
based on a mix of convenience and snowball sampling. The interviews
in this phase ranged from 15 to 70 min, and fieldwork was conducted
between January and December 2012.
Interviews were transcribed and manually coded following
Burnard's (1991) recommendation on analysing qualitative interviews.
Transcripts were read, and codes were assigned to comments related to
what tourism marketers believed made a destination fashionable. To
ensure consistency in data collection and analysis, the primary in-
vestigator conducted the interviews and coded the data. Once coded,
similar codes were combined into higher order categories (the condi-
tions).
Owing to the semi-structured nature of the interviews, and fol-
lowing the recommendations of Morse (1997) and Campbell, Quincy,
Osserman, and Pedersen (2013) who argue against the use of inter-rater
reliability while analysing semi-structured interview data, alternative
approaches were used to establish the quality of the findings. First, a
book of codes was maintained. This coding schema was discussed and
reviewed by the two co-authors to ensure they provided an accurate
reflection of the findings. Second, and following the precedent set in the
literature (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999; Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006),
the findings from this phase were presented at academic conferences to
seek feedback and refinement from the academic community (Lewis,
Kerr, & Burgess, 2012; Lewis, Kerr, & Burgess, 2013a). Third, as the aim
of this phase was to understand the theories in practice, it was con-
sidered essential to ensure the findings captured those theories effec-
tively. This was achieved during the interview through confirmatory
questions which were asked to ensure the emerging themes were cor-
rectly interpreted, and after the interviews through member checking
where participants reviewed the conditions identified to ensure the
findings captured their views. Confirmatory questions and member
checking have both been noted to enhance the quality of the findings
generated by helping to clarify interpretations with the participants
(Hewitt-Taylor, 2001; Kitto, Chesters, & Grbich, 2008). Consistent with
approaches reported in the literature (e.g. Miles & Covin, 2002), the
quality of the findings was established through triangulation of feed-
back from the participants and informed experts at academic con-
ferences. Based on the findings, propositions were developed framing
the conditions as necessary for a destination to be fashionable.
Phase Two of this research was confirmatory and used a case study
approach to test if the conditions identified in Phase One were neces-
sary conditions. Dul and Hak (2008) argue for a condition to be ne-
cessary, it should be present where the outcome is observed. Even a
single case where the outcome is present (fashionable destination) but
the independent variable (condition) is absent is sufficient to conclude
the condition in question is not a necessary condition (Perry, 1998). An
independent variable design approach was applied, wherein cases which
have the dependent variable (fashionable destination) were examined
to test if the independent variable (condition) was present (Hak & Dul,
2009). Following Eisenhardt's (1989) recommendation on the sample
size for case study research, four Australian destinations were selected
for review. These destinations were cited most frequently by the experts
in Phase One as being fashionable destinations. As summarised in
Table 2, data was collected by analysing the destination's marketing
documents, conducting observations at the destination, and inter-
viewing the destination's marketers. This allowed for a comprehensive
examination of each case and ensured that a condition, which may not
be evidenced through one method, but verifiable through other
methods of data collection, was not ignored (Farmer, Robinson, Elliott,
& Eyles, 2006). In line with the recommendations in the literature on
establishing reliability (Rowley, 2002; Yin, 2009), a chain of evidence
and case study database was maintained, and the destination marketers
responsible for the destination, who were interviewed in this phase,
were invited to review their respective case reports to ensure they

Table 2
Sources of data used as part of the case study methodology.
Method and source Application

Document analysis
Newspaper publications
Marketing and planning documents
Press releases
Destination websites
Travel websites
Observations
Tourism precincts
In-depth interviews
Destination marketers
Documentary evidence consisted of relevant web pages of the destination and the destination's marketing organisation, media releases,
marketing and planning documents, newspaper articles on the destination, and information and comments about the destination on
travel websites such as TripAdvisor and Lonely Planet.
Observations were conducted by walking around tourism precincts. Precincts were defined as ‘must see’ parts of the destination and
were identified through documentary analysis or recommended from the destination marketers or employees at the visitor information
centre. Number and types of precincts varied between each destination due to size and offering.
Interviews were conducted with an individual at each destination who was responsible for marketing the destination. A semi-
structured approach was used, and questions asked centred on understanding if and how the conditions identified were present at their
destination. Interviews in Phase Two lasted between 30 and 60 min.

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provided an accurate representation. Then the data contained in each
case report was analysed to identify the presence or absence of each
condition identified in Phase One. This phase of the research was
conducted between January 2013 and June 2014.
2.6. Findings
Consistent with Lysikova (2012), participants in Phase One thought
being fashionable provided a destination with a competitive advantage.
Some experts made an essential distinction between a fashionable des-
tination and a popular destination. Experts believed fashionable desti-
nations were surrounded by a certain cachet based on rich symbolism
and a sense of mystification. Popular destinations, on the other hand,
have appeal based predominantly on functional aspects such as cost,
accessibility, and infrastructure. For example, one expert commented:
Just because something is popular doesn't necessarily mean it's
fashionable ... a destination that's popular is one that has mass ap-
peal so it's one that a lot of people like to go to … Whereas you get
somewhere that's fashionable … it might be a bit more boutique or it
might be a more expensive … there has to be some sort of cachet
associated with going there. So yeah fashionable is definitely dif-
ferent to popular. [TP14]
While fashionable destinations are popular to visit within a re-
ference group, all popular destinations may not be fashionable. This is
because popularity could be driven by their functional elements such as
accessibility and affordability at the expense of brand resonance and
meaning. The findings from the two phases of this research are pre-
sented in the following sections.
2.7. Exploration of conditions
The experts identified twelve conditions they believed made a
destination fashionable. These conditions are summarised in Table 3,
where a conceptualisation and quote from the interviews are provided
to explain each condition.
Tourism experts were also asked to nominate destinations they
considered fashionable. Once the destinations considered fashionable
were identified, it was decided to focus on Australian destinations due
to the limited resources available to visit these destinations as part of
Phase Two of this study. Australian destinations cited most-frequently
as fashionable were Sydney, Melbourne, the Gold Coast, and Lord Howe
Island. For readers not familiar with these destinations, Sydney and
Melbourne are state capitals, while the Gold Coast is a collection of
coastal communities, with Surfers Paradise being the most well-known.
Lord Howe is a remote island nature reserve 700 km north-east of
Sydney.
2.8. Confirmation of necessary conditions
Based on the application of the Independent Variable Design, evidence
was found in all cases to conclude the twelve conditions were necessary
for a destination to be fashionable. The findings are summarised in
Table 4. Given this research aimed to identify necessary conditions and
the independent variable design approach, it was necessary to identify
if the condition was present or absent and not to provide a complete
account of how each condition is present in each case to verify it as a
necessary condition.
2.9. Discussion of findings
For an object to be fashionable, its meaning within society and the
reference group needs to transform into something that is desirable and
resonates with the target market. This moves the object from being a
‘mere object’ to a ‘fashionable object’. The twelve necessary conditions
identified help construct the descriptive meaning of the destination and
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Tourism Management 72 (2019) 209–219
create an image of a fashionable destination. In recognition of the role
of communication in constructing meaning for an object (Allen et al.,
2008; Kawamura, 2005), it is argued the necessary conditions function as
sources of communication which condition a meaning for the destina-
tion. Based on the findings, communication literature was consulted to
construct a conceptual framework.
In the corporate communications literature, Balmer and Gray
(1999) introduce the Corporate Identity-Corporate Communications
Process Model, which identifies three sources of communication: primary,
secondary, and tertiary that contribute to establishing a corporate image.
Kavaratzis (2004) adapted this model to the context of place marketing.
He argues a place's image can be managed through primary commu-
nication based on the city's product, secondary communication such as
advertising and promotions, and tertiary communication through
sources not controlled by the marketer such as word-of-mouth and in-
dependent journalistic or popular media.
A more recent taxonomy which classifies channels as being Owned
by the organisation such as websites, blogs, and brochures; Paid for by
the organisation such as traditional advertising channels; or Earned
from independent third parties through social media posts, news media,
and other endorsements (Corcoran, 2009; Macnamara, Lwin, Adi, &
Zerfass, 2016) was also considered. This approach, however, only ac-
counted for media channels and ignored the role of the product in
communicating a message about a brand. This research found that the
product at the destination (the attractions, events, culture, and infra-
structure) has to satisfy specific conditions for a destination to be
fashionable. While a message could be strategically disseminated
through Owned, Paid, or Earned media, the destination's product by
existence communicates about the destination without significant in-
tervention (Kavaratzis, 2004).
2.10. Conditions as sources of communication
Kavaratzis’ (2004) definition of primary, secondary and tertiary
conditions was used to guide the classification of the conditions as
sources of communication. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 and discussed
below.
2.10.1. Primary communication
Primary communication is the communicative effect performed by
the place's product although communication is not its main aim
(Kavaratzis, 2004). This includes aspects that inform the ‘design’ of the
destination such as architecture, public art, events, culture, and infra-
structure. The conditions uncovered in this research concerning at-
tractions, culture, events, and infrastructure constitute the product
features of a destination. These factors are the basic components that
make a place a destination worth visiting (Buhalis, 2000). The existence
of these conditions in and of themselves communicates a message about
the destination, although communication is not their primary function.
Primary communication lends credibility to secondary commu-
nication activities and creates an environment for tertiary commu-
nication (Mazzei, Russo, & Crescentini, 2009). Such communication is
based on the receiver's ability to observe (Balmer, 2001), experience
(Mazzei et al., 2009) or learn about the products without its promotion
being the key focus. Accordingly, owned, paid, and earned channels may
be used as well as those that permit the display, discussion, education,
or interaction with the product.
2.10.2. Secondary communication
Secondary communication constitutes formal, intentional promo-
tion through channels such as advertising and public relations
(Kavaratzis, 2004), which support and strengthen the effect of primary
communication (Vukmirovic & Lazarevic, 2014). This study found for a
destination to be fashionable, it was necessary to advertise through
multiple media. This would help the destination gain awareness
through multiple touch points and associate the destination with
C. Lewis et al. Tourism Management 72 (2019) 209–219

Table 3
Conditions experts proposed made a destination fashionable.
Condition Quotation from interviews Explanation of condition

Evolving product
Iconic attractions
Unique attractions
Variety of attractions
Notable events
Variety of events
Visible culture
Relevant infrastructure
Promotion through multiple
media
Favourable endorsements
Endorsements reaching a large
audience
Placements reaching a large
audience
First is if they have an offer which is consistent with the wants at the time in Providing visitors with new attractions and activities and ways of
regard to whether that is physical things or manmade or service based experiencing the destination.
offers … [TP06]
Say symbolism and I'm going to simplify this it would be Paris, French, Tangible natural or man-made attractions that come to symbolise the
Eiffel Tower. India, Taj Mahal. [TP07] destination.
Would be to have something unique about it to be able to market that Experiences that can only be had at the destination.
stands out … Something unique and different. Something that you don't get
anywhere else. [TP12]
A diverse range of things for people to do. So in terms of tourism, like a A range of attractions that provides visitors with different experiences
really broad range of products. [TP08] at the destination.
…cities pay millions of dollars to have Formula 1 races in the city because Signature events that attract the attention and interest of the desired
it then gets associated with its free marketing. If you look at how they've target market – including international events, those hosted in
repositioned Melbourne was with events they've got Formula 1 there they've partnership with international organisations, or events featuring
got V8 the golf [with] Tiger Woods coming out … [TP07] international celebrities.
If you did a survey in Australia saying where would you go in Australia, a A portfolio or a range of events.
lot of them would say Melbourne … events events events [sic] so
Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne [sic]. Conventions, convention centres,
built world-class facilities, Melbourne Melbourne Melbourne [sic] and the
experience. [TP07]
Balinese culture is what makes Bali fashionable … We leverage tourism on A culture that is publically manifest through art, music, cultural events,
our culture, which is embodied in the Balinese people. Bali has many lifestyle, locals, religion, and beliefs.
cultural events compared to other destinations. We believe that this is a
differentiation factor for Bali. Attractions are based on our natural beauty
and culture. [TP09]
…[tourists] go to fashionable destinations because facilities are available, Supporting infrastructure appropriate for the destination.
airport, hotels, bars, etcetera, and they are available because they are
fashionable. [TP10]
Meaning comes from many things. Paris' pull trade is through a culture of Advertising using more than one type of media.
billboards, advertising whatever and this is the old traditional way
destination marketers used to be able to [use] television, radio, and print.
Then all of a sudden, websites decided to come along. But now you've got
online 24/7. You've got social media. [TP01]
A place can only really be fashionable if people hear about it, and they Endorsements, which commend the destination including positive
hear about it in a favourable way so if they read about it in newspapers and word-of-mouth, positive editorial stories, endorsements by third-party
magazines or whether they hear about it from other travellers who have accreditors, favourable destination ratings, and celebrities, associated
been there or pick up on it in social media. [TP14] with the destination.
The difference to the Oprah one was do you take advertising in traditional Endorsements that expose the destination to a broad audience –
areas like radio, TV, print or you do something where you allow an including endorsements from prominent celebrities, media journalists,
ambassadors with a database and I call it a database of followers … third-party accreditors, and consumers online.
[TP01]
Look at when Lord of the Rings came out. New Zealand [is] a special Placements in popular culture such as movies, television shows or
destination for people from all over the world but it's considered very, very music videos, which feature prominent celebrities and artists.
far for a lot of people to go. But the extra incentive because they've seen it
on Lord of the Rings, that beautiful scenery … [TP15]

meaning through visual and verbal cues. Secondary communications
may be conducted on channels such as websites, blogs and social media
portals owned by the destination or on channels paid for by the desti-
nation.
2.10.3. Tertiary communication
Tertiary communication is beyond the marketer's control and con-
sists word-of-mouth and communication by journalistic or popular
media (Kavaratzis, 2004), which are earned by the destination. Condi-
tions relating to endorsements and placements in popular culture were
accordingly classified as tertiary communication, and perform three
functions. First, they communicate about the superiority of the desti-
nation's product through positive endorsements; second, they display
the destination's product and generate awareness through placements;
and third, they disseminate a meaning about a destination to a large
audience by associating it with the source of endorsements and place-
ments. By reaching a large audience, endorsements and placements
send a message to both desired and undesired target markets, having
what Park, Jaworski, and MacInnis (1986) define as a market shielding
effect of discouraging visitation by undesired segments. The tertiary
communication conditions identified in this research could help both
develop and reinforce the message communicated by the other two
‘more controllable’ types of communication.
2.10.4. Fashionable destination
Primary, secondary, and tertiary communication need to be in-
tegrated to construct a meaning for the destination, which is shared
between the consumer, members of relevant reference groups, and the
general population. This meaning may be fashionable in some reference
groups and function as what Crompton (1979b) terms as a pull-motive,
influencing their decision of ‘where to travel’.
2.11. Supply-side action implications
To construct a fashionable destination, supply-side actions are
needed to create the conditions necessary. Wissinger (2009) similarly
when studying fashion models found they needed to perform certain
actions (labour) to develop a fashionable image. These included aes-
thetic labour focused on the product and entrepreneurial and immaterial
labour to promote the product. Similarly, given the conditions identi-
fied in this research, specific actions need to be performed to bring
them into existence. These actions are labelled herein as planning, de-
veloping, promoting, and soliciting, and are illustrated in Fig. 2.
To remain fashionable, an object's meaning needs to be appropriate
for that point in time (Lewis et al., 2013b). To extend the destination's
lifecycle as a fashionable destination, it is argued the actions of plan-
ning, developing, promoting, and soliciting need to be on-going, to con-
struct and then maintain a fashionable meaning. This would help avoid

213
 Table 4
Evidence to support conditions found at the case destinations.
Condition
Evolving product
Iconic attractions
Unique attractions
Variety of attractions
Notable events
214
Variety of events
Visible culture
Relevant infrastructure
Promotion through multiple
media
Favourable endorsements
Sydney Melbourne Gold Coast Lord Howe Island
C. Lewis et al.
- New exhibits at museums and galleries - New exhibits at museums and galleries - New exhibits at museums and galleries - New adventure activities
- Events themed differently each year - Events themed differently each year - Events themed differently each year - Different performers at Rock Fest each year
- New street acts - New and innovative ways to experience Island's
history
- Sydney Opera House - Federation Square - SkyPoint observation deck - Mount Gower
- Sydney Harbour Bridge - Royal Exhibition Building - Beaches - Mount Gower climb
- Sydney Harbour Bridge climb - Melbourne Cricket Ground - Theme parks - Ball's Pyramid
- Crown Entertainment Complex - SkyPoint Observation Deck climb - Southernmost coral reef
- Eureka Skydeck 88
- Sydney Opera House - Eureka Skydeck 88 - SkyPoint observation deck - Providence Petrel breeding
- Sydney Harbour Bridge - Melbourne Cricket Ground - SkyPoint observation deck climb - Southernmost coral reef
- Climbing the Sydney Harbour Bridge - Old Melbourne Gaol - Dreamworld: Australia's largest theme - Ball's Pyramid
- Cobblestone laneways and street art park
- Wet ‘n’ Wild Water World: Australia's
largest water theme park
- Range of tours: historic, walking, ghost, bus, and - Shopping and markets - Theme parks - Range of environmental tours: bird watching, coral
sea plane - Range of tours: historic, walking, bus and - Beaches and marine life tours
- Cruises and boating ghost - Entertainment: nightlife, restaurants and - Range of outdoor activities: hiking, cycling, and
- Art and creative arts - Art and creative arts cafés scuba diving
- Range of historic and iconic attractions - Cafés and restaurants - Range of historic and iconic attractions - Range of natural attractions: beaches, mountains
- Adventure activities - Range of historic and iconic attractions and reefs
- Sydney Festival - Australian Open Tennis -Big Day Out -Australian Uni Games - LHI Rock Fest
- Sydney Mardi Gras - Australian Football League Grand Final - Gold Coast 600 - Pinetrees Jazz Program
- Sydney New Year's Eve - Melbourne Cup -Quicksilver and Roxy Pro -Gold Coast Airport - Environmental events: breeding, nesting and
- Formula 1 Australian Grand Prix Marathon hatching of various bird species, and flowering or
- Schoolies week various plants
- Sydney Film Festival - Melbourne Music Week - Big Day Out -Australian Uni Games - LHI Golf Open
- Sydney Mardi Gras - Moomba Festival - Mudgeeraba Show - LHI Rock Fest
- Chinese New Year Festival - T20 International Cricket - Somerset Celebration of Literature - Art Trail
- Sydney Writers' Festival - Melbourne Food and Wine Festival - Gold Coast Airport Marathon - Pinetrees Jazz Program
- Art and About Sydney - Australian Spring Fashion Week - Environmental events
- Vogue Fashion Night Out
- Art: street installations and galleries - Restaurants and cafés - Beach and surf culture - Island community culture and lifestyle
- Live music - Art: laneways, galleries, and street - Art: street art installations and galleries - Art events
- Theatre performances installations - Live music - Live music
- Cultural and subcultural events - Theatre performances
- Multi-ethnic resident communities - Cultural and subcultural events
- Three ethnic and cultural precincts
- Live music
- Range of restaurants, cafés and bars - Range of restaurants, cafés and bars - Range of restaurants, cafés and bars - Three general stores
- Range of accommodation providers - Range of accommodation providers - Range of accommodation providers - Small range of restaurants
- Range of public transport options - Range of public transport options - Range of public transport options - No cell phone coverage
- Cycleways and walk paths - Cycleways and walk paths - Public exercise equipment - Walking and cycling is the main form of transport
- Cycleways and walk paths
- Television - Television - Television - Print
- Outdoor billboard - Radio - Radio - Online on high traffic websites
- Print - Print - Print - Social media
- Online on high traffic websites - Online on high traffic websites - Online on high traffic websites
- Social media - Social media - Social media
- Lonely Planet 2012: Best destination in Australia - UNESCO City of Literature - National Surf Reserve listing - Island is UNESCO World Heritage listed attraction
- Lonely Planet 2012: Fifteenth best destination - UNESCO World Heritage-listed destinations - TripAdvisor 2012, Burleigh Heads - National Geographic: Top ten island destinations
in the world - Qantas Tourism Awards: Old Melbourne Gaol awarded best Beach in Australia in the world
- UNESCO World Heritage-listed attractions awarded best heritage attraction in Australia - UNESCO World Heritage-listed
- Oprah Winfrey's recommendation of Sydney attractions
(continued on next page)
Tourism Management 72 (2019) 209–219
C. Lewis et al. Tourism Management 72 (2019) 209–219

what Morgan and Pritchard (2004) note as brand fatigue or stagnation.

- David Attenborough: The Life of Birds (1998)

2.11.1. Planning
Although destinations that are currently fashionable may not have
planned to be so, it is argued destinations may proactively position
themselves as fashionable. Accordingly, planning is noted as the initial

- The Ships that Flew (1974)

step in constructing a fashionable destination meaning. Planning would
require consideration as to whom the destination aims to be fashion-
- Lonely Planet listing

able, what message is to be communicated, and how the conditions

- TripAdvisor listing

could be adapted to communicate that message. The action of planning

Lord Howe Island

needs to include strategic research to understand the attitudes and

- UNESCO

behaviours of desired groups in order to adapt the conditions identified

in this work; and consideration of partnerships with service providers
and corporate organisations that are required to realise the goals of the
destination (Baker & Cameron, 2008).
- The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of
Daryl Braithwaite, and Patrick Dempsey
Celebrities associated with destination:

2.11.2. Developing
The action of developing requires the destination to cultivate pro-
ducts that match the conditions identified, communicate the desired
message, and are of interest to the target market. The tourism product,
the Dawn Trader (2010)

however, is often beyond the direct influence of the destination mar-

National Surf Reserve

keter and may be controlled by tourism operators, tourism service

- Scooby Doo (2002)
TripAdvisor listing

providers, and local governments. Accordingly, developing requires the

- Iron Sky (2012)

destination marketer to collaborate with the various service providers,

organisations, or even institutions to organise financial and capital re-
UNESCO
Gold Coast

sources. The destination marketer could develop new products based on

the conditions revealed in this study or manage existing products to
-
-
-
-

satisfy these conditions. The latter is relevant where attractions, events,

culture, and infrastructure exist, but not in the form required to be
- Celebrities associated with destination: John

fashionable. In such cases, secondary and tertiary communication can be

employed to position the attractions as iconic and display the events
destinations in the world for street art
- Lonely Planet: One of the three best

- Where The Wild Things Are (2009)

and culture of the destination.

A diversified tourism product can help broaden the market appeal of
Farnham, and Oprah Winfrey

the destination (Christaller, 1964). Having a variety of attractions, a

range of events and different ways to experience the destination's cul-
- Salam Namaste (2005)
- Lonely Planet listings

ture would help avoid seasonality of demand (Pham, Driml, & Walters,
- Ghost Rider (2007)
- TripAdvisor listing

- Ned Kelly (2003)

- Mad Max (1979)

2018), and attract visitors with different interests or from different

segments at the same time. The action of developing can be used to
create products, to attract new segments over time or to maintain the
- UNESCO
Melbourne

interests of selected target markets.

2.11.3. Promoting
Promoting, in the context of this paper, involves advertising the
- Celebrities associated with destination: Oprah
Winfrey, Miranda Kerr, and Hugh Jackman
- Lonely Planet: City which defined ‘our age’

destination using more than one type of media. The selection of media,
and the creative execution, should be dependent on the market segment
- The Matrix Trilogy (1999, 2001, 2003)

(s) the destination aims to reach. Through advertising and promotion,

marketers can continually associate new meanings with a product
(McCracken, 1986) by modifying the visual and verbal cues in the
- Mission Impossible 2 (2000)
- Superman Returns (2006)
- Mao's Last Dancer (2009)

content to position it as fashionable to new target markets or preserve

- The Great Gatsby (2013)
- Lonely Planet listings

its fashionability over time.

- TripAdvisor listing

2.11.4. Soliciting
This paper argues the destination marketer may proactively solicit
- UNESCO

endorsements and placements in popular culture, to communicate the

Sydney

desired message to a particular target market. This is in contrast to the

position of Kavaratzis (2004), Tasci and Gartner (2007) and Corcoran
(2009) who suggest the influence of independent media, popular cul-
Endorsements reaching a large

ture, and endorsements on a destination's image are beyond the control

Placements reaching a large

of the marketer.
Solicitation could comprise efforts such as organising media famil-
Table 4 (continued)

iarisation trips for travel journalists, proactively submitting applica-

tions for accreditation by third parties such as UNESCO, inviting ce-
audience

audience

lebrities to visit the destination, and facilitating and inviting the

Condition

production of music videos or movies at the destination. Destinations

could facilitate word-of-mouth endorsements by providing visitors with
photo opportunities and artefacts to display and brag about their

215
C. Lewis et al.
Fig. 1. Conditions as communication.
Fig. 2. Supply-side actions.
experience (Kerr, Lewis, & Burgess, 2012b). Seeded marketing cam-
paigns may also be conducted wherein social media influencers are
invited to the destination and encouraged, or potentially paid, to re-
commend the destination. Through seeded word-of-mouth, the mar-
keter can stimulate conversation within the general market and reduce
discussions on competitor brands (Chae, Stephen, Bart, & Yao, 2016).
Fig. 3. Destination fashion conditioning framework.
216
Tourism Management 72 (2019) 209–219
Although soliciting appears to be a component of earned media, it may
be strategically managed as a paid channel.
Endorsements and word-of-mouth can be helpful in communicating
about the destination, especially where destinations lack funding to
engage in campaigns (Gartner, 1994). The perceived independence and
potentially large reach of endorsements make it an influential channel.
This is particularly the case with social media influencers where fol-
lowers have high levels of trust in the message being communicated
(Martensen, Brockenhuus-Schack, & Zahid, 2018).
2.12. The Destination Fashion Conditioning Framework
Conditioning is the process of “building a belief” through commu-
nication (Kerr, Lewis, & Burgess, 2012a, p. 6). As has been argued, for
the conditions revealed in this study to communicate a message, they
need to be present at the destination. Conditioning, therefore, in this
context, does not only include communication but also the actions re-
quired to make communication possible. The Destination Fashion Con-
ditioning Framework, presented in Fig. 3, combines the conditions as
C. Lewis et al.
Table 5
Gartner's (1994) image formation agents and relevant conditions from this research.
Gartner's (1994) image formation agents
Overt Induced I Traditional forms of advertising
Overt Induced II Information from organisations with a vested interest in the destination
Covert Induced I Recognisable spokespersons
Covert Induced II Sources perceived to be unbiased
Autonomous Independently produced reports, documentaries, movies and articles
Unsolicited Organic Unsolicited word-of-mouth
Solicited Organic Solicited word-of-mouth
sources of communication with the supply-side actions required to fa-
cilitate their creation. The conditions represent the specific way dif-
ferent elements of the destination's communication needs to be man-
aged to create an image that is fashionable within the desired reference
group(s). The communications and actions employed as part of the
conditioning process will need to be adapted to suit the reference group
within which the destination would like to be fashionable.
2.13. Positioning the framework in the literature
A fashionable destination is a destination whose meaning con-
sumers buy. Kock et al. (2016) found that descriptive components of a
destination's imagery influence how the individual evaluates the des-
tination and accordingly the destination's image. The actions and con-
ditions identified in this research contribute to the destination's de-
scriptive meaning. Through social interaction, these meanings are
evaluated and refined into an image about the destination influencing
its fashion status. This is consistent with the symbolic interaction theory
that proposes an object's meaning arises from the negotiation of
meanings within the marketing environment (marketing communica-
tions), the individual environment (beliefs and aspirations), and the
social environment (Ligas & Cotte, 1999).
By relating information sources and destination image, Gartner
(1994) classified image formation agents as being induced (promotional
literature), autonomous (general media and popular culture), and or-
ganic (demand side). While Gartner's objective was to identify agents
that contribute to the formation of an image, the current work con-
sidered the specific context of constructing a fashionable image. Beerli
and Martin (2004) note there is a gap in research on what influences the
specific structure of the image. Based on the findings of this research it
is postulated that to construct a fashionable image, the agents would
need to satisfy specific conditions. Table 5 summarises the agents
identified by Gartner (1994), and the relevant conditions they would
need to satisfy as per this research for a destination to be fashionable.
In addition, this research builds on Gartner (1994) by identifying
the role of a destination's product attributes in communicating and
creating a fashionable image. It is also argued that a purely organic
image formation agent based on visitation may not be relevant as an
individual may believe a destination is fashionable without visiting.
3. Conclusion
This paper introduces a theory on the conditions necessary for a
destination to be fashionable. The framework developed can be used as
a ‘how to’ guide to position a destination as fashionable within a
holiday category, to specific reference groups at a point in time; or
different reference groups over time. It is acknowledged that marketing
is an evolving area of practice with new technologies creating new
opportunities for communication. To be fashionable destination mar-
keters may adopt new technologies and communications based on the
conditions identified in this work.
Two critical aspects should be noted about being a fashionable
destination. First, being a fashionable destination does not equate to
having mass appeal, and by managing a destination's meaning, it may
217
Tourism Management 72 (2019) 209–219
Conditions from this research
- Promotion through multiple media
- Favourable endorsements
- Endorsements reaching a large audience
- Placements reaching a large audience
be constructed to be fashionable to niche segments. In doing so, being
fashionable can help manage overtourism by making the destination
popular within a niche, but lucrative segment. This is particularly re-
levant for destinations that are geographically restrained or based on a
fragile ecosystem. Second, being fashionable does not mean the desti-
nation will become a ‘has been’. The actions of planning, developing,
promoting and soliciting can be ongoing to construct and then maintain a
fashionable destination meaning over time.
By addressing the gap noted by Caldwell and Freire (2004), this
study furthers our understanding of fashion and tourism by exploring
how places may be constructed as fashionable destinations. The lim-
itations of this work are however recognised. First, only Australian
cases were studied. We conceded this to be a limitation as the study
aimed to develop a generic set of conditions which may be applied by
any destination aiming to be fashionable. Second, other conditions not
extrapolated in this research may moderate the influence of commu-
nication on constructing a fashionable destination meaning. These
unidentified conditions include those which may contribute to the
destination being unfashionable or, additional conditions that may be
necessary but were not identified in this research. Dul et al. (2010)
claim it is rare that all necessary conditions are known in business re-
search. Finally, the substitution of multiple judges for other approaches
to establishing the quality of the findings is acknowledged.
3.1. Future research
It is our hope this paper encourages academic and practitioner-
driven investigation into fashion and how it may be leveraged more
effectively as a marketing tool.
This research identifies necessary conditions, but the weighting each
condition exerts on the outcome of being fashionable has not been es-
tablished. Future research may quantitatively test these conditions to
identify if a stronger association, such as a probabilistic, or deterministic
relationship exists. Studies could also explore the conditions that con-
tribute to making a destination unfashionable. Knowing both the con-
ditions necessary to be fashionable and those that make a place un-
fashionable may help construct a fashionable destination meaning more
effectively.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Clifford Lewis: Formal analysis. Greg Kerr: Formal analysis.
Lois Burgess: Formal analysis.
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Dr Clifford Lewis is a Lecturer in Marketing at Charles
Sturt University. Before this, he was the Head of State for a
Market Research company in Australia. In that role, he has
worked on projects related to tourism products, experience
and campaign development as well as destination planning.
Clifford completed a PhD in Marketing from the University
of Wollongong focusing on destination branding. He has
published in the field of tourism and has presented his re-
search at academic and practitioner based conferences.
Dr Lois Burgess is a Senior Lecturer in PR and Marketing in
the Faculty of Business at the University of Wollongong.
Lois has a PhD in Information Technology/Marketing from
the University of Wollongong. Before entering academia,
Lois had a long and established career in industry where she
held positions in middle and senior management. Lois has
an established publication track record and serves on the
editorial board of a number of ranked journals. She has
been an invited speaker at a number of national institutions
and has worked closely with small businesses, local gov-
ernment departments and industry associations.

Dr Greg Kerr has a history that includes management roles

in local government in Australia, followed by a career in
business development. He has been a board member of
tourist associations, a credit union, not-for-profits and a
chamber of commerce. In addition to lecturing in marketing
and management, Greg has held various governance roles
at the University of Wollongong, including Head of
Marketing, Member of Academic Senate, Chair of the
Commerce and Business School Alumni and institutional
representative for the Australian New Zealand Marketing
Academy.

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