PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

1.6 Applications of Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law (1.8) is very useful for calculating the electrostatic field when the problem
has spherical or cylindrical symmetry (‫) آوي أو اا‬.

• Spherical Symmetry (‫) آوي‬: when the charge distribution ρ (r ) is spherically

r r
symmetric, the electrostatic field E (r ) will depend on r and therefore must be a
radial field. In this case, draw a spherical Gauss surface of radius r around the
center of the charge distribution. Then from Gauss’s law:

r r Qenc
∫S E • da = ε
0 Gauss
when the charge Qenc is given as a charge distribution ρ (r ) , Surface
then Qenc = ∫ ρ (r )dv .
V
ρ (r ) ● r r
Qenc r E (r )
∫S E( r ) rˆ • ( rˆ da ) = ε0
Qenc Qenc
∫ E (r ) r dΩ = ε ⇒ 4π r 2 E (r ) =
2

Ω 0 ε0

r r 1 Qenc
E (r ) = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
r r
i.e., outside the spherically symmetric charge distribution, the E (r ) field is the
same as if the charge distribution is concentrated at the origin; a field of a point
charge Q located at the origin.

Example: Find the electrostatic field for a spherical shell that carries a charge Q.

Outside the shell: the field is just the same as that if Q is at the center of the Shell:

r r 1 Qenc
E (r ) = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
r
Inside the shell: the E field is zero, since Gauss surface encloses no charge.

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

• Cylindrical Symmetry (‫) اا‬: when the charge distribution ρ is cylindrically

symmetric around the axis of symmetry (e.g. z axis), we deal with cylindrical
coordinates: r ,ϕ , and z. Consider a long circular cylinder of radius R, that carries a
charge density that is proportional to the distance from the axis ρ ∝ r .
r
The symmetry dictates that E must point radially
outward. Now, from Gauss’s law, the two ends of z
the
r cylinder don’t contribute to the
r field since R
r r
E is perpendicular to da (i.e. E • da = 0 ). And nˆ ≡ rˆ
we have the contribution from the curved part:
r r r r
r r Qenc E (r ) l r E (r )
∫S • da =
E
ε0
Qenc
∫ E( r ) rˆ • rˆ da = ε Gaussian
0
cylinder
Qenc
E( r ) ∫ da =
ε0
Qenc
E( r ) (2π rl ) =
ε0
r r 1 Qenc
E( r ) = rˆ
2πε 0 l r
2 Qenc
= rˆ
4πε0 r l

Again, the charge Qenc is calculated from the charge density ρ : Qenc = ∫ ρ (r )dv .
V
Example: for a long cylinder with a charge density ρ (r ) = k r , where k is a constant:

r 2π l
2
Qenc = ∫ ρ (r ′)dv = ∫ (kr ′)(r ′dϕdr ′dz ) = k ∫ (r ′) dr ′ ∫ dϕ ∫ dz = πklr 3 .
2

V 0 0 0
3

And therefore the electrostatic field is

r r 1
E( r ) = k r 2 rˆ
3ε 0

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

1.7 Equations of Electrostatics:

r r ρ r r
Divergence and curl of Electrostatic fields: ∇ • E = and ∇ × E = 0
ε0
These equations are the equations of electrostatics and both can be directly derived from
the generalized Coulomb’s law, Eq. (1.6). They are Maxwell’s equations for the
electrostatic case.
r r ρ
1.7.1 Divergence of E: ∇ • E =
ε0
The Differential Form of Gauss’s Law (Maxwell’s First Equation)

Gauss’s law (1.8) is considered as the integral law of electrostatics. We can obtain the
differential form of it via more than one method:

• Directly from the field equation (1.6):

r r r r
1 r − r′ r
E (r ) = ∫ r r 3 ρ (r ′) dv′
4πε 0 all space r − r′

Notice that the integration, in Eq. (1.6), was over the volume occupied by the
charge, but we may extend it to “all space”, since ρ = 0 outside that region. Now
apply the divergence
r r 1 r  rr − rr′  r
∇•E = ∫ ∇ •  r r 3  ρ (r ′) dv′
4πε 0  r − r′ 
 
r  r r
The divergence in the integrand is just a δ-function: ∇ •  r − r ′  r r
 r r 3  = 4πδ (r − r ′)
 r − r′ 
r r 4π r r r
∇•E = ∫ ρ (r ′)δ (r − r ′)dv′
4πε 0
1 r 1 r
= ρ ( r ′ ) rr =rr′ = ρ (r )
ε0 ε0
v r ρ
∇•E = .............................. (1.9)
ε0

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

• The differential form of Gauss’s law (1.9) can simply be obtained by applying the
divergence theorem to the integral form (1.8):
r r Qenc
∫S • da =
E
ε0
r r ρ dv
∫ (∇ • E ) dv = ∫ ε
V V 0

r r ρ 
∫  ∇ • E − ε  dv = 0
V 0 
r r ρ

∇•E =
ε0
The differential form of Gauss’s law (1.9) is in fact the Maxwell’s
r r first equation.
This equation can be used to calculate the electrostatic field E (r ) which is a vector
function of position! And since it is easier to deal with a scalar function rather than
r
a vector function, we will derive the scalar electric potential Φ (r ) in the next
section.
r r
1.7.2 The curl of E ( ∇ × E = 0 ) and the Scalar Potential
r r
To specify a vector field, e.g. E (r ) , its divergence and curl should be determined
everywhere
r r in space. So, in addition to the divergence (1.9), an equation for the curl of
E (r ) is needed, which can be derived from Coulomb’s law, Eq. (1.6):

• Take the curl of (1.6):

r r 1 r  rr − rr′  r
∇× E = ∫ ∇ ×  r r 3  ρ (r ′) dv′
4πε 0  r − r′ 
 
The curl in the integrand is zero:
r  r r
r − r ′  r  1  r r 1 r r r
∇× r r 3 = ∇ × (r − r ′ ) + r r 3 × (r − r ′)
∇ r r
 r − r ′   rr − rr ′ 3  − r′ ∇
   r r • rr = 3
r r ∇×r = 0
− 3(r − r ′) r r
= r r 5 × (r − r ′) + 0
r − r′
=0

r r
⇒ ∇× E =0 .................... (1.10)
r
Exercise: show that ∇ × (r n r̂ ) = 0 .

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

r r r
• The Scalar Electric Potential Φ (r ) : E = −∇Φ

Again, from Coulomb’s law

r r 1  rr − rr′  r
E (r ) =   ρ (r ′) dv′
4πε 0 ∫  rr − rr′ 3 
 
r r
Since ∇ r 1 r  = − rr − rr ′3 then
r
 r − r′ 
  r − r′

r r −1 r  1  r
E (r ) = ∇ r r  ρ (r ′) dv′
4πε 0 ∫  r − r ′ 
r
and since the “del” operator involves the unprimed variable r , but not the integration
r
variable r ′ , it can be taken outside the integral sign:
Since the curl of the gradient is
r r
r zero (i.e. ∇ × ∇f = 0 ), Eq. (1.10)
r r −1 r  ρ( r ′ ) 
E (r ) = ∇ r r dv′  .......... (1.11)
4πε 0  ∫
can again be obtained by taking
r − r′  the curl of Eq. (1.11):
r r −1 r r
∇× E = ∇ × ∇ (scalar ) = 0
Scalar 4πε 0
Φ
r r
Eq. (1.11) implies that the vector field E (r ) is derived from a “scalar” by the
gradient operation, i.e.
r r r r
E (r ) = −∇Φ (r ) .......... (1.12)
r
where the scalar potential Φ is given in terms of the charge density ρ (r ′) :
r
r 1 ρ (r ′)
Φ (r ) = ∫ r r dv′ .......... (1.13)
4πε 0 r − r′

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

Last lecture: from Coulomb’s Law

r r r r
1 r − r′ r
E (r ) = ∫ r r 3 ρ (r ′) dv′
4πε 0 r − r′
we have found

r r ρ
• ∇•E = (Differential form of Gauss’s Law/first Maxwell’s equation).
ε0
r r
• ∇ × E = 0 (Faraday’s Law; electrostatic case). The electrostatic field is irrotational.

r r r r
• E (r ) = − ∇ Φ (r )
r
Conventional Scalar potential: Φ (rr ) = 1 ρ (r ′)
4πε 0 ∫ r r dv ′
r − r′
V

r r
Generally, for any “irrotational” vector field A(r ) :
r r r r
A(r ) = − ∇ Φ (r )
r r
Scalar potential for a vector field A(r )

r r r
To express the potential Φ (r ) in term of the field E (r ) , integrate,
r r r
r r r
r
r r r r r r
∫ ∇Φ • dr = ∫ dΦ =Φ (r ) − Φ (r0 ) = − ∫ A(r ) • dr
r r r
r0 r0 r0
use Taylor’s theorem1
r r
For an electrostatic field E (r ) that is created by a localized charge distribution in
some finite region, then Φ (r0 → ∞ ) = 0 and therefore,
r
r r r r
r
Φ (r ) = − ∫ E (r ) • dr .......... (1.14 )
∞

r r r r ∂Φ r r r
1
The change in Φ ( r ) between r and r + dr is: dΦ = dxi = ∇Φ (r ) • dr
∂xi

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

• Poisson’s Equation and Laplace’s Equations

From the differential form of Gauss’s Law:

r r ρ
∇•E =
ε0
r r ρ
∇ • (− ∇Φ ) =
ε0

ρ
⇒ ∇ 2Φ = − ….... Poisson’s Equation ……… (1.15)
ε0

When there is no charge ( ρ = 0 ) in the region, Poisson’s equation reduces to

Laplace’s equation:

∇ 2Φ = 0 ….... Laplace’s Equation ........... (1.16)

Note that, only one differential equation (1.16) is needed to determine Φ , but
r we
need two equations (the divergence (1.9) and the curl (1.10)) to determine E .

• Singular Fields: a point charge at the origin (see section )

r
We have seen that for a point charge at the origin the electrostatic field E is
r r
undefined at r = 0 , i.e. the field is singular at r = 0 . And therefore, we can’t obtain
the corresponding scalar potential Φ by integrating along a path from the origin. So,
we integrate along a path from r0 = ∞ excluding an infinitesimal sphere centered at
r
r = 0. r
r r
∞
r r r
Φ (r ) = − ∫ E (r ) • dr
∞ r
r 1 q
For a point charge at the origin: E = rˆ
4πε0 r 2
r
r
r q dr 1 q
which is the known   potential due to a point charge.
1
Φ (r ) = −
4πε 0 ∞∫ r 2 4πε 0
=
r r

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

r
• The potentialΦ (r ) (eq. 1.13) and Poisson’s Equation (1.15):
r
To formally verify that the potential Φ (rr ) = 1 ∫ rρ (r ′r) dv′ satisfies Poisson’s Equation
4πε r − r ′ 0

(1.15), take the Laplacian of both sides:

r 1 r  1 
∇ 2Φ (r ) = ∫ ρ (r ′)∇ 2  r r dv ′ .......................... (1.17)
4πε 0  r − r′ 
  r r r r
In HW#2, you have calculated that ∇ 2  r 1 r  = 0 for r ≠ r ′ , but at r = r ′ it is undefined.
 r − r′ 
 
r r
′
The singularity in the Laplacian at r = r requires a limiting process to evaluate the
integral (1.17). In fact, this singularity can be expressed in terms of the Dirac delta
  r r
function: since ∇ 2  r 1 r  = 0 for r ≠ r ′ and its volume integral is − 4π ♣, we can formally
 r − r′ 
 
express this singularity by the equation
 1  r r
∇ 2  r r  = −4πδ (r − r ′)
 r − r′ 

Now the integral (1.17) gives Poisson equation (1.15):

r
r 1 r r r −1 r r r ρ (r )
∇ Φ (r ) = ∫ ρ (r ′)[− 4πδ (r − r ′)]dv′ = ∫ ρ (r ′)δ (r − r ′) dv′ = −
2
4πε 0 ε0 ε0

♣ r
We can translate the origin to r ′ (i.e. r ′ = 0 ) and integrate the ∇ 2 (1 / r ) over a small volume V containing the origin:
21
r r1 r1 ∂ 1 2
∫∇   dv = ∫ ∇ • ∇  dv = ∫ ∇  • nˆ da = ∫   r dΩ = −4π
r ∂r  r 
r S  
V V
r

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

• Physical Interpretation of the Potential

r
The physical interpretation of the scalar potential Φ (r ) stems from the work done on
r r
a test charge q. A charge situated in electrostatic field E (r ) experiences a force:
r r r r
F (r ) = qE (r ) . And therefore, the work done in moving the charge from A to B is

rB
r A
W = − ∫ F • dr ●
A
a work done against r
the field’s force
B r
dr
r
= − q ∫ E • dr .......... ....... (1.18 )
A r
F
B v r B ●B
= q ∫ ∇ Φ • dr = q ∫ dΦ
A A
r
E
W = q (Φ B − Φ A ) .......... ..... (1.19 )

Eq. (1.19) implies that the potential energy of a charge in the electrostatic field is
r r
U (r ) = qΦ (r ) .......... ...... (1.20 )
From Eq. (1.18) and Eq. (1.19) we have2

B r r
∫ E • dr = − (Φ B − Φ A ) .......... ..... (1.21)
A
r
That is, the line integral of the E field between two points:

o equals the negative of the potential difference between the points.

o only depends on the end points, not on the path, and thus if the path is closed, the line
integral is zero:
r r
∫ • dl = 0 ...............
E (1.22)
r r
i.e. the electrostatic field is conservative, which is a consequence of ∇ × E = 0 . This
r r r r
can also be seen from applying Stockes’ theorem to Eq. (1.22): ∫ E • d l = ∫ (∇ × E ) • dar = 0 ,
which we have already obtained, Eq. (1.10), directly from Coulombs Law.

r r
2
In fact, eq. (1.20) can directly be obtained from eq. (1.12): E (rr ) • drr = −∇Φ (rr ) • drv
B r B r B
r r
⇒ ∫ E • dr = − ∫ ∇Φ • dr = − ∫ dΦ = −(Φ B − Φ A )
A A A

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

1.8 Examples of Calculating Electrostatic Potentials

We have calculated, above, the scalar potential for a point charge at the origin

r 1 q
Φ (r ) =
4πε 0 r

For a localized charge distribution, from far away the distribution looks like a point
1 q
charge and therefore its potential, to a good approximation, is . Let’s check on
4πε 0 r
some charge distributions in the following examples.

1.8.1 Potential of an electric dipole

Two point charges +q and –q separated by a distance d. Find the approximate potential
at an observation point far away ( r >> d ) from the dipole♣.
z Φ (r )
r+
Solution: let r+ be the distance from the +q and
r− the distance from the –q. So the potential is +q r
1  q −q q 1 1 r−
Φ (r ) =  + =  −  θ
4πε 0 r
 + r−  4πε 0  r+ r− 
Now, use the law of cosines to calculate r+ and r− : d x
2 r 2
2 d  r d d 
r+ = r +   − 2r • = r 2 +   − rd cos θ
2

2 2 2
2 −q
d 
r−2 = r 2 +   + rd cosθ
2
1/ 2 1/ 2
 d cosθ d 2   d cosθ 
(
i.e. r± = r + (d / 2) m rd cosθ
2 2
)
1/ 2
= r 1 m
r
+ 2 ≈ r 1 m
 r 
 4r 
zero since r>>d
−1 / 2
1 1  d cosθ 
= 1 m 
r± r  r 
2 3
Use the binomial expansion: (1 + x )n = 1 + nx + n(n − 1) x + n(n − 1)(n − 2) x + ...
2! 3!
1 1  1 d cosθ 
≈ 1 ± 
r± r  2 r 

♣
What is the potential at any point on the x-axis?

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

θ

1 − 1 ≈ d cos
2
r+ r− r

1 qd cos θ
Φ (r ) ≈
4πε 0 r2

At large r, the potential of a dipole is proportional to 1 / r 2 , i.e. it falls more rapidly than the potential
of a point charge.
r
The electric dipole moment p is defined as the magnitude of the charge times the distance between
r r
them and the defined direction is toward the positive charge p = qd . And therefore,
r r r
1 p cos θ 1 p • rˆ 1 p•r
Φ (r ) ≈ = = .......... (1.23a)
4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 r 3

To calculate the electric field of the dipole, take the negative gradient of Φ :
r r
E = −∇Φ
∂ 1 ∂ ˆ 1 ∂  1 p cosθ 
= −  r̂ + θ+ ϕˆ  
 ∂r r ∂θ r sinθ ∂ϕ  4πε 0 r 2 

r r 1 p
E (r ,θ ) =
4πε 0 r 3
(
2 cosθ rˆ + sinθ θˆ ) .......... (1.23b)

Exercise: consider the distribution where the dipole is still z

along the z axis, but the –q is at the origin and the +q r r
r −d Φ (r )
at a distance d above the origin. Find the potential at
a point far away from the dipole. +q
r r
q  1 1  d θ r
Φ (r ) = r − r
4πε 0  rr − d r 
  −q
2 1/ 2 1/ 2
r r  2d cos θ d   2d cos θ 
(
r − d = r 2 + d 2 − 2rd cos θ )1/ 2
= r 1 − + 2 ≈ r 1 − 
 r r   r
−1 / 2 0
1 1  2d cos θ  1  d cos θ 
r r = 1 −  ≈  1 + 
r −d r r  r r 

1 1 1  d cos θ  1 = d cos θ
⇒ r r − r = 1 + − =
r −d r r r  r r2
r r r
1 (qd ) cos θ 1 p • rˆ 1 p•r
Φ (r ) ≈ = =
4πε 0 r2 4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 r 3

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

1.8.2 Potential of Localized Charge Distribution

r
Consider a charge distribution ρ (r ) confined z ρ ( rr ′ ) r r ×r
r - r′
within a volume V. dv′ Φ (r ) = ?
V
r r r
r 1 ρ (r ′) r′ r
Φ (r ) = ∫ r r dv′ θ′
4πε 0 r − r′
O
r r 1/ 2
r r r r  2

| r - r ′ | = r 2 + r ′ 2 − 2 r • r ′ = r 1 − 2r •2 r ′ +  r ′  
 r  r  
r r 2 −1 / 2
1 1  2r • r ′  r ′  
r r = 1 − +  
r − r ′ r  r2  r  
x
Consider two regions:
r′
• The exterior region ( r ′ << r ), (i.e.
<< 1 ):
r
For observation points well outside the charge distribution ( x << 1 ), we can use the
2
binomial expansion: (1 + x )−1 / 2 = 1 − 1 x +  − 1  − 3  x − ...
 2  2  2!
2
1  1  − 2 r • r ′ r ′ 2  3  − 2 r • r ′ r ′ 2 
r r r r 2

 + ...
1
r r = 1 −  + 2  +  + 2
r − r ′ r  2  r 2 r  8 r2 r  

grouping powers of r ′ / r
r r 2
1  r̂ • r ′ 1   r̂ • r ′   r ′   
2
= 1 + + 3  −    + ...  .......... . (1.24 )
r r 2  r   r   
  
r r 2
dq  r̂ • r ′ 1   r̂ • r ′   r ′   
2
r 1
Φ (r ) = (1.25 )
4πε 0 ∫ r 
 1 + +  3  −    + ...  .......... ...
r 2  r   r   
  

The expansion (1.24) can be expressed in terms of Legendre polynomials Pn (cos θ ′) :

n
1 1 ∞  r′ 
r r = ∑   Pn (cos θ ′) .......... (1.26 )
r − r ′ r n =0  r 
r r
where θ ′ is the angle between r and r ′ . Exercise: derive Eq. (1.26).

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

• For the interior problem ( r << r ′ ):

r
The expansion will be in terms of and the potential in this region is
r′
r r r 2
r 1  dq r r′ 1  3(r • r ′) r 2  
Φ (r ) = (1.27 )
4πε 0  ∫ r ′
 + r • ∫ 3 dq + ∫  − 3 dq + ...  .........
r 2  r ′5 r′  


Let’s discuss the exterior problem, i.e. Eq. (1.25),

r r r 2
ρ (r ′)r̂ • r ′ 1   r̂ • r ′   r ′   
2
r 1
Φ (r ) = ∫ 1 + + 3  −    + ...  dv ′
4πε 0 r  r 2  r   r   
  

r r
1  ρ (r ′) rˆ r r 1  3(rˆ • r ′) − r ′ 2  r 
= ∫ dv ′ + 2 • ∫ r ′ρ (r ′)dv ′ + 3 ∫   ρ (r ′)dv ′ + ...  ..... (1.28 )
4πε 0  r r r  2  
1  q rˆ 
=
r r 1 r r 2
[
 + 2 • ∫ r ′ρ (r ′)dv ′ + 5 ∫ 3(r • r ′) − (rr ′) dq + ... .......... (1.29 )
4πε 0  r r 2r
2


]
Monopole Dipole Quadropole

Far away from the charge distribution,

• Monopole: in the first order approximation, the distribution looks like a point charge:
r
1 ρ (r ′) 1 dq 1 q
(0 )
(rr ) =
4πε 0 ∫ 4πε 0 ∫
Φ dv ′ = =
r r 4πε 0 r

r
1 rˆ r 1 rˆ • p
• Dipole term: (1)
(rr ) =
4πε 0 r 2 ∫
Φ • r ′dq =
4πε 0 r 2

r r r r
where the dipole moment of the distribution is p = ∫ r ′ρ (r ′ )dv ′ = ∫ r ′dq

When the total charge is zero (q = 0), the monopole term vanishes and the dipole term
dominates the expansion!

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PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

• Examples of dipole moments for some charge distributions

r
1. A point charge located at r ′ from the origin:
r r
The dipole moment: p = qr ′ .
+q
r
However, if the charge q is at the origin, then p = 0 . That is, r
r′
the dipole moment can be dependent on the origin.
r n r
For n point charges: p = ∑ qi ri ′
i =1

z
2. Uniformly charged circular ring:
r r r
p = ∫ r ′dq ; r ′ = ( x, y, z ) = (R cos ϕ , R sin ϕ , 0 )
y
= ∫ (R cos ϕ , R sin ϕ ,0 )(λ Rd ϕ ) dϕ
2π ϕ R dl = Rdϕ
∫ (cos ϕ , sin ϕ ,0 )dϕ = 0 dq = λdl
2
= λR
0 x = λRdϕ

3. Spherical surface with an angular charge distribution: σ (θ ) = σ 0 cos θ

r r
p = ∫ r ′dq r
r ′ = ( x ′, y ′, z ′) = R (sin θ ′ cos ϕ ′, sin θ ′ sin ϕ ′, cos θ ′)
dq = σ da ′ = σ R 2 dΩ ′ = σR 2 sin θ ′ dθ ′ dϕ ′ = σ 0 R 2 sin θ ′ cos θ ′dθ ′dϕ ′
(
= ∫ [R (sin θ ′ cos ϕ ′, sin θ ′ sin ϕ ′,cos θ ′)] σ 0 R 2 sin θ ′coz θ ′ dθ ′dϕ ′ )
(
= R 3σ 0 ∫ sin 2 θ ′ cos ϕ ′ cos θ ′, sin 2 θ ′ sin ϕ ′ cos θ ′, cos 2 θ ′ sin θ ′)dθ ′dϕ ′
=0 =0 z
2π 2π

∫ cosϕ ′dϕ ′ = 0 = ∫ sinϕ ′dϕ ′ σ 0 cosθ ′

0 0 da ′ = R 2 dΩ ′
π 2π
θ ′ R dq = σ da ′
= R σ 0 ∫ cos θ ′ sin θ ′dθ ′ ∫ dϕ ′ ẑ
3 2

0 0
y
23 R sin θ ′
= σ 0 R   2π ẑ ϕ′
3
r 4  x
p =  πR 3  σ 0 ˆz = σ 0V ẑ ................ (1.30)
3 

The dipole moment (1.30) depends on the volume of the sphere V but not on the
choice of the origin.

Page 22 of 25 Dr. I. Hleiqawi

PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

Example: For the spherical shell above (with charge density σ (θ ) = σ 0 cos θ ):
(a) Calculate the total charge on the shell.
(b) Use the multi-pole expansion to calculate the potential of the shell.
Solution:
π
(a) q = ∫ σ da = ∫ (σ 0 cos θ )(R sin θdθdϕ ) = 2πR σ 0 ∫ sin θ cos θdθ
2 2
=0
0
(b) (1) For the region r > R (outside the shell), from Eq.(1.28):

r 1
Φ (0 ) (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫
σda = 0 (since the total charge on the surface is zero)
r
(1) r 1 r r
Φ (r ) =
4πε 0 r 3 ∫
r ′σ da ′
r
σ 0 V ˆz ≡ p (calculated above)
r r
1 p•r 1 p cos θ
Φ (1)
(rv ) = = ............. (1.31)
4πε 0 r3 4πε 0 r 2

r
This is a dipole potential with a dipole moment p along the z-axis, and moment equals to σ 0 V ,
where V is the volume bounded by the shell. This agrees with the direct calculations of the
dipole moment of the sphere above, eq. (1.30).
r
Similarly, you can show that Φ (2 ) (r ) and all other higher order multipoles vanish, i.e.

r v r r
Φ (r ) = Φ (0 ) (r ) + Φ (1) (r ) + Φ (2 ) (r ) + .....
0 0 0
r r
r r 1 p•r
Φ (r ) = Φ (1) (r ) = ...... for r > R ................... (1.32)
4πε 0 r3

(2) Inside the shell (r < R):

Exercise: use Eq.(1.27) to show that, just like in the region outside the shell, the contribution here
comes only from the dipole term, i.e.
r r
r r 1 p•r σ0
Φ (r ) = Φ (1) (r ) = = z ...... for r < R ............ (1.33)
4πε 0 R3 3ε 0

Unlike the potential outside the shell, eq. (1.32), which depends on the size of the shell, the potential
inside, eq. (1.33), depends only on z.
Note that this problem can also be solved directly using Φ (rr ) = 1 σda .
4πε 0 ∫ r

Page 23 of 25 Dr. I. Hleiqawi

PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

1.9 Electrostatic Potential Energy (Field Energy)

We have seen that the potential energy, Eq. (1.20), of a charge in an electrostatic field is
r r
U (r ) = q Φ (r )
r r
In a region of a localized E field described by the scalar potential Φ (r ) (that vanishes
r
at infinityΦ (∞ ) = 0 ) then the potential energy U (r ) is the work done W in bringing a
r
point charge qi from ∞ to a point r : q4 qi
q3
● ● r
r q2● Φ (ri )
Wi = q iΦ (ri ) r r
r r3 r4 r
r2 ri
This potential is produced by (n − 1) charges ( q1 , q 2 ,..., q j )
r ●q j
located at positions rj : r
q●1 r rj
r 1 n −1 qj r1
Φ (ri ) = ∑
4πε 0 j = 1 rri − rrj
o

For example, the figure represents a total number of charges n (only a few are shown).
r
Potential at ri (where qi is located) is due to all charges (except q i itself): q1 ,q2 ,...,q j .
where j = n − 1 .
r
So, the potential energy (work done) by bringing the charge qi from ∞ to the point ri is

qi n −1 qj
Wi = ∑
4πε 0 j = 1 rri − rrj

and therefore the total potential energy (work done) in assembling a set of n point
charges can be expressed as

1 n qi q j
W = ∑∑
4πε 0 i =1 j <i r r ...................... (1.34)
ri − r j

The potential energy of the system (1.34) can be written in a more symmetric form by
summing over i and j unrestricted but divide by 2

1 qi q j
W = ∑∑
8πε 0 i j r r ...................... (1.35)
ri − r j

Page 24 of 25 Dr. I. Hleiqawi

PHYS500: Classical Electrodynamics I Spring 2012 Chapter 1: Electrostatics

To generalize Eq. (1.35) to a continuous charge distribution, replace Σ by ∫ and q by dq:

r r r
1 ρ (r )ρ (r ′ ) 1 r  1 ρ (r ′ ) 
W = ∫ ∫ r r dv d v ′ = ∫ ρ (r )  ∫ r r d v ′ dv
8πε 0 r − r′ 2  4πε 0 r − r ′ 
r
Φ (r )
1 r r
W = ∫ Φ (r )ρ (r ) dv .................... (1.36a)
2
r
The electrostatic potential energy (1.36a) can be expressed in terms of the E field, using
Poisson equation (1.15):
− ε0
W =
2 ∫ Φ ∇ 2Φ dv ( )
r r r r
integrate by parts, or simply use ( )
∇ • Φ ∇ Φ = ∇ Φ • ∇ Φ + Φ ∇ 2Φ
r r r 2
(
⇒ Φ ∇ 2Φ = ∇ • Φ ∇ Φ − ∇ Φ )
ε0 r 2 ε r r
W =
2 ∫ ∇ Φ dv − 0 ∫ ∇ • Φ ∇ Φ dv
2
( )
E2 Use the divergence theorem

ε0 r2 ε r r
W =
2 ∫ E dv + 0
2 ∫ (Φ E ) • da
S
Zero when we integrate over all space. If we consider S
as a spherical surface very far from the charge distribution, then
on this surface E ≈ constant and proportional to 1 / r 2 and Φ
is proportional to 1/r, while the surface area increases with r 2 .
1 ∞.
So, the surface integral
∫ ~
r
→0 as the surface goes to
S
ε r2
W = 0
2 ∫ E dv ................ (1.36b)
all Space

Eq. (1.36b) is a fundamental result which implies that the work done in assembling
the charges is stored as field energy, and the energy density (w) of the field is
always positive and is greater for stronger fields:

ε0 r 2
w= E ............. (1.37)
2

Page 25 of 25 Dr. I. Hleiqawi