CHAPTER I

Introduction

A fluid machine is a device which converts the energy stored by a fluid

into mechanical energy or vice versa. The energy stored by a fluid mass appears

in the form of potential, kinetic and intermolecular energy. The mechanical

energy, on the other hand, is usually transmitted by a rotating shaft. Machines

using liquid (mainly water, for almost all practical purposes) are termed as

hydraulic machines. In this chapter we shall discuss, in general, the basic fluid

mechanical principle governing the energy transfer in a fluid machine and also a

brief description of different kinds of hydraulic machines along with their

performances.

Water supply is the process of providing water in a systematic way

through installed pumps and pipe lines. Before water is provided to a specific

area, it undergoes a process called sanitation to ensure that the quality of water

received is safe for human consumption. The Philippines’ water supply system

dates back to 1946 after the country achieved its independence. Government

agencies, local institutions, non-government organizations, and other

corporations are primarily in charge in the operation and administration of water

supply and sanitation in the country.

The Philippines’ main sources of water are rivers, lakes, river basins, and

groundwater reservoirs. The longest and largest river, Cagayan River,

discharges approximately 53, 943 million cubic meters of water annually. Its

1
groundwater reserves are 47, 895 million cubic meters replenished by rainfall

and seepage from rivers and lakes. The lakes are utilized mainly for fish

cultivation. The four major groundwater reservoirs are in Cagayan, Central

Luzon, Agusan, and Cotabato. There are 438 major dams and 423 smaller dams.

Dams and reservoirs are mainly used for: water storage, water supply, irrigation,

regulation of flood, and hydropower.

The Manila metropolitan area water is mostly supplied by the Angat Dam,

Ipo Dam, and La Mesa Dam (also known as Angat-Ipo-La Mesa water system).

Some of the well known and larger dams in rural areas are: Ambuklao Dam,

developed for flood control, irrigation, and hydroelectric power source of Baguio

and some places in Luzon; and Magat Dam, a major source of irrigation water

and hydroelectric power in Isabela.

Drinking water, also known as potable water or improved drinking water is

water safe enough for drinking and food preparation. Globally, in 2012, 89% of

people had access to water suitable for drinking. Nearly 4 billion had access to

tap water while another 2.3 billion had access to wells or public taps. 1.8 billion

people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by

feces. This can result in infectious diarrhea such as cholera and typhoid among

others.

Water is essential for life. The amount of drinking water required is

variable. It depends on physical activity, age, health issues, and environmental

conditions. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of

2
water a day with 95% drinking less than three liters per day. For those working in

a hot climate, up to 16 liters a day may be required. Water makes up about 60%

of weight in men and 55% of weight in women. Infants are about 70% to 80%

water while the elderly are around 45%.

Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality

standards, even though only a small proportion is actually consumed or used in

food preparation. Other typical uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation.

Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation. Its use for irrigation however

may be associated with risks. Water may also be unacceptable due to levels of

toxins or suspended solids. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development

of safe water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries.

Bottled water is sold for public consumption in most parts of the world. The word

potable came into English from the Late Latinpotabilis, meaning drinkable.

3
1.1 Statement of the problem

This study generally aimed to construct a proposed potable water supply

system at Ilaya proper, Ambulong, Batangas City. This also intends to investigate

the benefits of a water supply system in commercial and industrial use and to

engineering students as basis for water supply system, particularly the

Mechanical Engineering students.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. The technical specifications and design for the different components of the

water supply system.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having own supply of

water?

3. The design and rated water supply capacity.

4. The estimate cost of the components/equipments for the economic aspect

of the water supply.

4
1.2 Objectives of the Design

The main objective of this design project is to design a proposed potable

water supply system in the Ilaya Proper, Ambulong Batangas City on its rated

capacity which is capable of supplying the required load based on the demand of

particular consumers.

Specifically, it aims to:

1. Provide technical specifications and design for the different components of

water supply system.

2. Present detailed and necessary flow of operation, diagrams and layout of

the water supply system.

3. Provide design calculations in determining major parameters for the useful

output of the system.

4. Provide cost estimates of the components/equipments for the economic

aspect of the system.

5. Evaluate the design of every component of the system considering all

assumptions which are based on books and manufacturer’s catalogue.

5
1.3 Importance of the Design

The design of the proposed potable water system is important to the

following:

To the Mechanical Engineering students, for them to be able to learn new

ideas about the water supply system and for them to be able to construct and

lay- out a water system similar to this.

To the researcher, with this study, they will be more familiar to the entire

operations of the water supply. They will be more proverbial with the

equipment’s part, their uses and applications.

To instructors, who guided the students in the completion and success of

their design and research.

To parents, who guided their sons/ daughters in the completion of the

research.

To the future researchers, who will encounter the same scenario in their

future years for them to make this research as their basis of doing their

research. This is their opportunity to apply the knowledge that they acquired

throughout the course.

6
1.4 Scope of the design

The research is conducted for building propose potable water supply that can

be used by the residence of Ilaya Proper, Ambulong Batangas City. The

researchers should use only the enough tank elevation and size that can supply

the residence to have a profitable proposal. It must have the right size of pipe for

the company to avoid the damage of the pipe that can cause an inconvenience to

the residence. No other pumps should be use rather than centrifugal pump for

the study.

7
1.5 Methodology of the design

This chapter includes the methodology and procedures used in

determining the water system parameters. Presented are housing lay out,

water piping lay- out, and water tank lay out that pertain to its operation. The

student designers will use different technique like related formulas of

obtaining the load, the different factors for determining the water system

efficiency, and fundamentals concepts in the potable water system supply.

In designing various components of the potable water system supply,

several methods and calculations will be used to determine the corresponding

required parameters of the major components arriving to its design or rated

water capacity. Previous subjects taken in this course with relevance to the

potable water system supply will be used in the design calculations. The

following are the design consideration and the methods of determination of

the performance parameters of the major components of the potable water

system supply.

For the Design Consideration

Water Source: Deep Well

Water Storage: Elevated Vertical Cylindrical Steel water tank

Type of Pump: Centrifugal Pump (One Operating Unit and One Standby

Unit)

8
Pump Drive: Electric Motor

Type of Consumer: Residential

Faucet Outlet Pressure Load: 7m

Water Velocity: 1.25 m/s

Peak Factor: 1.5

Peak Hours: 6:00am – 10:00 am

5:00pm – 8pm

Pipe Materials: Cast Iron

Load Projection: 5 years

Design Aspect

I. Market Aspect

A. Area Description

1. Present Source of the supply

2. Population

3. Socio Economic

B. Water Demand Analysis

1. Domestic Water Demand

2. Water Unaccounted For

3. Demand Variation

9
II. Technical Aspect

A. Pumping System

1. Total dynamic suction load

2. Total dynamic discharge load

3. Pump specification

4. Pump drive specification

5. Pipe and fittings specification

B. Distillation System

1. Pipe and fitting sizes and specifications

2. Piping system and layout

3. Total head loss for the distillation system

C. Storage System

1. Tank capacity

2. Design of elevated steel vertical cylindrical tank

3. Tank elevation

4. Design structure for tank column

D. Plans layout

1 .Location

2. Piping plans/ layout

3. Pump plans// layout

4. Tank plans/ layout

10
MAXIMUM DAY DEMAND

Maximum Day Demand= Total Average Day Demand x P.F

Peak Day Demand= Total Ave. Day Demand x P.F

Total Average Day Demand= Water Accounted for+ Water Unaccounted

for

Water Unaccounted for= 20% of the total Average Day Demand (Industrial

Standard)

POPULATION PROJECTION

P2= P1 (1+GR)n

Where: n= number of years

P1= present population

P2= projected population

GR= Population growth

Reynold’s Number

𝜌𝑉𝐷𝑖
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑢

Relative Roughness
e
ε=
Di

Use Crane to find the size of pipe

Use Moody chart to find the friction factor

11
Head loss at the suction line

𝐿 𝑉2
HLS = 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔

Head loss at the discharge line

𝐿 𝑉2
HLD = 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔

For Finding Total Dynamic Head (TDH)

TDH = (ZB-ZA) + HLAB

For Computing the Brake Power

𝜌𝑔𝑄𝑇𝐷𝐻
BP =
1000𝜂

Solving for specific speed to determine the classification of pump

𝑁√𝑄
Ns= 51.65523641𝐻(0.75)

To find the type of pump that should be used:

 Radial-type impeller pump

-range of specific speed is between 500 to 1500 rpm.

 Francis type impeller pump

-range of specific speed is between 1500 to 4500 rpm.

 Mixed-flow type impeller pump

12
 -range of specific speed is between 4500 to 8000 rpm.

 Propeller- type impeller (Axial flow type) pump

-range of specific speed is greater than 8000 rpm.

DETERMINATION LPCPD (Liters per capita per day)

1. Table (in accordance with piping)

2. Survey (average water consumption of a sample area having the same

characteristics of the same study area)

Present source of water supply

In selection of a source or sources of water supply, adequacy and

reliability of the available supply could be considered the overriding criteria. With

the absence of it, the water supply system cannot be considered viable. These,

together with the other factors that should be considered (which is

interdependent) are as follows:

 Adequacy  Legality

 Quality  Politics

 Cost

Sources of water are systematically enumerated by the five major

categories:

(1) Surface,

13
 (2) Underground,

(3) Atmospheric,

(4) Recycled, and

(5) Brackish or saline waters.

Each category of sources of water contains two or more specific kinds of

water, with brief description of each. A total of 21 kinds of sources of water are

identified. Similarly, criteria needed for selection of source(s) of water for the

water supply systems are divided into the five major categories. They are:

(1) criteria which characterize the source(s) of water and water itself,

(2) regional characteristics of sources as related to the water supply

systems,

(3) water rights and market for water,

(4) development of the system in stages, and

(5) economics of water supply systems criteria of selection of water

source(s).

Each of these categories of criteria contains two or more kinds of criteria,

with their brief description. A total of 15 criteria are identified. The principles of

the application of criteria to selection of the source(s) of water for water supply

systems are reviewed in the third part of the text. The last part of this text treats

briefly the comprehensive and integrated development, conservation, control and

protection of all regional sources of water.

14
1.6 Definition of terms

The terminologies associated with water systems are very specialized and

extensive. In order to have a clear understanding of the research paper, the

researchers have defined some terms present all throughout the paper.

Important terms frequently used pertaining to water distribution systems are

as follows:

 Centrifugal Pumps- is a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work

absorbing turbo machinery. These are used to transport fluids by the

conversion of rotational kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid

flow.

 Check valves- are mechanical valves that permit gases and liquids to flow in

only one direction, preventing process flow from reversing.

 Drinking water- also known as potable water or improved drinking water, is

water safe enough for drinking and food preparation.

 Fire Hydrant- is a connection point by which firefighters can tap into a water

supply. It is a component of active fire protection.

 Francis type impeller pump- range of specific speed is between 1500 to

4500 rpm.

 Gate Valve- also known as a sluice valve, is a valve that opens by lifting a

round or rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid.

15
 Hydraulic motor- is a mechanical actuator that converts hydraulic pressure

and flow into torque and angular displacement (rotation). The hydraulic motor

is the rotary counterpart of the hydraulic cylinder.

 Mixed-flow type impeller pump- range of specific speed is between 4500 to

8000 rpm.

 Moody chart or Moody diagram- is a graph in non-dimensional form that

relates the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor fD, Reynolds number Re, and

relative roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe. It can be used for

working out pressure drop or flow rate down such a pipe.

 Peak factor- an important aspect associated with the sizing of pipe and

corresponding cost in water distribution network varies with countries.

 Plumbing- is the system of pipes, drains, fittings, valves, and fixtures

installed for the distribution of potable water for drinking, heating and

washing, and waterborne waste removal. "Plumbing" also refers to a skilled

trade which deals with installation and maintenance.

 Propeller- type impeller (Axial flow type) pump- range of specific speed is

greater than 8000 rpm.

 Radial-type impeller pump- range of specific speed is between 500 to 1500

rpm.

 Relative roughness of a pipe- is its roughness divided by its internal

diameter or e/D, and this value is used in the calculation of the pipe friction

factor, which is then used in the Darcy-Weisbach equation to calculate the

friction loss in a pipe for a flowing fluid.

16
 Reynolds number- is a dimensionless quantity that is used to help predict

similar flow patterns in different fluid flow situations. The concept was

introduced by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851,[2] but the Reynolds number

is named after Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912), who popularized its use in

1883.

 Stainless steel strainer- is a type of perforated metal sieve used to strain or

filter out solid debris in the water system. Different varieties are used in

residential premises and for industrial or commercial applications. Such

strainer elements are generally made from stainless steel for corrosion

resistance.

 Standpipe- is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower, especially one

with tall and narrow proportions.

 Suction line- is a pipe, hose, or tube that delivers a fluid to the suction or

inlet side of a pump or compressor.

 Tap water- (running water, city water, municipal water, etc.) is water supplied

to a tap (valve). Its uses include drinking, washing, cooking, and the flushing

of toilets. Indoor tap water is distributed through "indoor plumbing", which has

existed since antiquity but was available to very few people.

 Total Dynamic Head (TDH) - is the total equivalent height that a fluid is to be

pumped, taking into account friction losses in the pipe. TDH = Static Height +

Static Lift + Friction Loss.

 Valve- is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases,

liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing

17
 various passageways. Valves are technically fittings, but are usually

discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction

from higher pressure to lower pressure. The word is derived from the Latin

valva, the moving part of a door, in turn from volvere, to turn, roll.

 Water distribution system (WDS) - being an important component of any

water supply scheme, is commonly designed with an objective of distributing

water at the required levels of service in satisfying quantity and quality. It

accounts for a substantial portion of installation cost.

 Water District- is a utility that is legally and financially separate from the

municipality.

 Water metering- is the process of measuring water use.

 Water Pipe- is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal[a], that

carries pressurized and treatedfresh water to a building (as part of a

municipal water system), as well as inside the building.

 Water quality- refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological

characteristics of water.[1] It is a measure of the condition of water relative to

the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or

purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against

which compliance can be assessed. The most common standards used to

assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact

and drinking water.

18
 Water resources- are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful.

Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and

environmental activities. The majority of human uses require fresh water.

 Water supply- is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial

organizations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of

pumps and pipes. Irrigation is covered separately.

 Water tower- is an elevated structure supporting a water tank constructed at

a height sufficient to pressurize a water supply system for the distribution of

potable water, and to provide emergency storage for fire protection. Water

towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service

reservoirs, which store treated water close to where it will be used. [2] Other

types of water towers may only store raw (non-potable) water for fire

protection or industrial purposes, and may not necessarily be connected to a

public water supply.

 Water Well- is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging,

driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The

well water is drawn by a pump, or using containers, such as buckets, that are

raised mechanically or by hand.

19
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the discussion of related literature gathered from

the internet, books and other reference materials. This will serve as basis and

additional knowledge in pursuing the plant design.

Design Considerations

In the design and construction of community water systems, economics

are extremely important. This dictates that the source of supply should be

selected so that little maintenance for the operational factors will be required to

furnish an adequate supply of water to the community. Even though surface

water supplies such as lakes and rivers, with proper treatments, are by far the

more suitable from the standpoint of adequacy, the use of surface water supply

systems is confined to municipalities that have a water demand in excess of

75,000 gallons per day domestic consumption to be economically feasible. This

translates to a community of about 300 residents with 12 commercial

establishments, but with no manufacturing, and the ability to supply a fire flow of

500 gallons per minute (gpm) for 2 hours. This also means that ground water

sources are suitable only for quite small communities typically found in more rural

areas of the country.

There is an important exception to the above conclusions that ground

water sources typically are limited to the very small communities. This assumes

that a well site or a few well sites use well pumps to supply water directly into the

distribution system after water treatment. Ground water sources can be used to

20
pump water directly into holding basins, small reservoirs, ground-level storage

tanks, or even elevated storage tanks where the amount of treated water in

storage governs both the population served and the available water supply for

fire protection. A southern city, which shall remain nameless, with a population of

approximately 75,000 obtains all its water from well sites and then pumps this

water into storage which then supplies the distribution system upon demand.

However, the price per thousand gallons of finished water is substantially higher

than where surface water is used as a community water supply. Potable or

drinking water is a critical requirement of human life. Without it, our continued

existence on earth would be immediately threatened. It is for this reason that the

provision of potable water in adequate quantity and quality is a primary national

and international concern of nations. In particular, the Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs) target that 86.6 percent of the population of countries would have

adequate access to safe drinking water by 2015 (NEDA 2007). For its part, the

Philippine government aims that 92 to 96 percent of its citizens would have

sufficient water supply atan even earlier date, by 2010

(NEDA 2004).

With 2015 in the not too distant future and 2010 only a year away, the

performance of the Philippines in meeting national and international objectives

relatedto potable water needs to be assessed. Evaluating at this time where we

are in terms of our potable water targets will help determine whether our

objectives are achievable or actually farfetched. Furthermore, an assessment will

21
allow us to see whether we should finetune our methods and fast track our efforts

with the remaining time at hand.

In general, peak factor is highly related to the number of consumers, the

service areas, and the duration of peak flow of a water distribution network.

Johnson (1999) concluded that peak factor tend to increase with a decrease in

the number of consumers. This is majorly oriented by simultaneity of

consumption. Barrufet (1985) observed that peak factors increase from a

constant 1.5 for more than 1,00,000 consumers to as much as 98 for a two

person apartment. A strong inverse relationship between the number of

inhabitants in a building and the peak factor as well as between flow and

pressure ( Tessendorff, 1980). Again, Mutschmann and Stimmelmayr ( 2007)

stated that : Peak factors are greater in smaller water supplies areas”. This is

because smaller coverage areas usually mean less water users. As a result, the

variation of water demands is more difficult to predict

In late 2008 and early 2009, the Philippine Institute for Development

Studies (PIDS) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) conducted a

study on local service delivery (LSD) in the sectors of education, health and

potable water in the Philippines. In the case of potable water, the study reviewed

potable water service delivery nationally and analyzed it in two case study sites:

Dumaguete City in Negros Oriental and the Province of Agusan del Sur in

Mindanao. In particular, the study looked into the current situation of water

service delivery in the Philippines and the two sites, determined its performance

22
relative to national targets and the MDGs, and identified the key issues and

challenges it faces. The end purpose of the water service delivery study was to

generate recommendations for its improvement.

In this section, the major national laws, local and national government

agencies and national strategies and programs which on potable water in the

Philippines are reviewed based on PIDS-UNICEF (2009). The section also

provides a summary of the important institutional problems faced by potable

water service delivery at the national level.

5.1 National laws

An important law which affects local potable water service delivery in the

Philippines is the 1991 Local Government Code (LGC) which devolves several

public functions from the national government to the local governments.

Among others, this law mandated the sharing of responsibility of providing local

potable water service among local government units. Specifically, Sec. 17 of the

law mandated the barangays to maintain water supply systems; the

municipalities and cities to put up small water-impounding projects, artesian

wells, spring development, rainwater collectors and other water supply systems;

and the provinces to establish inter-municipal waterworks and related water

supply systems using their own funds.

10 Other major national laws which are directly related to potable water in the

23
Philippines are the following:

a) RA 6234 of 1971 which abolished the National Waterworks and Sewerage

Authority (NAWASA) and created the Manila Waterworks and Sewerage System

(MWSS). The MWSS is the national agency which is responsible for providing

water supply to Metro Manila;

b) Presidential Decree (PD) 198 or the Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973

which established water districts and created the Local Water Utilities

Administration (LWUA) as a specialized lending institution responsible for

resource, technical, and institutional development and financial assistance to

water districts;

c) PD 424 of 1974 which created the National Water Resources Council

(NWRC), which is now National Water Resources Board (NWRB), which is

responsible for coordinating, planning, and integrating water resources and

agencies of the national government, water resource development

andmanagement in general;

d) PD 1067 of 1976 or the Water Code of the Philippines which provided the

implementation framework for the constitutional provisions on water resources

development and water quality management;

24
e) RA 9275 or the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 which provided for a

comprehensive water quality management and consolidated the fragmented

Philippine laws on water resources management, quality control, and sanitation;

f) PD 856 (Sanitation Code of the Philippines of 1975), which codified and

enforced the numerous sanitation policies of the government, including the

standards for potable water supply;

g) EO 123 of 2002 which strengthened the NWRB and mandated it to approve

tariffs of local water districts;

h) EO 279 of 2004 which instituted reforms in the financing policies for the water

supply and sewerage sector and for water service providers. It also transferred

the LWUA to the Office of the President and rationalized its organizational

structure, among others;

i) EO 387 of 2004 which transferred the LWUA from the Office of the President to

the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH);

i) EO 421 of 2005 which refocused the LWUA’smandates, functions, and

organizational structure as envisioned in EO 279; and

j) EO 738 of 2008 which transferred the LWUA to the Department of Health

(DOH).

25
Water Resources

The Ambuklao Dam and Hydeoelectric Power Plant in Bokod, Benguet,

Philippines.

The Philippines’ main sources of water are rivers, lakes, river basins, and

groundwater reservoirs. The longest and largest river, Cagayan River,

discharges approximately 53, 943 million cubic meters of water annually. Its

groundwater reserves are 47, 895 million cubic meters replenished by rainfall

and seepage from rivers and lakes. The lakes are utilized mainly for fish

cultivation. The four major groundwater reservoirs are in Cagayan, Central

Luzon, Agusan, and Cotabato. There are 438 major dams and 423 smaller dams.

Dams and reservoirs are mainly used for: water storage, water supply, irrigation,

regulation of flood, and hydropower.[1]

The Manila metropolitan area water is mostly supplied by the Angat Dam, Ipo

Dam, and La Mesa Dam (also known as Angat-Ipo-La Mesa water system).

26
Some of the well known and larger dams in rural areas are: Ambuklao Dam,

developed for flood control, irrigation, and hydroelectric power source of Baguio

and some places in Luzon; and Magat Dam, a major source of irrigation water

and hydroelectric power in Isabela.

Water Use and Service

Uses

28.52 billion m³ of water was withdrawn from various sources in the Philippines in

2000: 74% (21.10 billion m³) was used for agricultural purposes, 9% (2.57 billion

m³) for industrial processes, and 17% (4.85 billion m³) for domestic

consumption.[2]

Agricultural

Agricultural water management in the Philippines primarily focuses on the subject

of irrigation. The country has 3.126 million hectares of irrigable land, 50% (1.567

million hectares) of which already has irrigation facilities. 50% of irrigated areas

are developed and operated by the government through the National Irrigation

System (NIS). 36% is developed by the government and operated by irrigators’

associations through the Communal Irrigation System, while the remaining 14%

is developed and operated by individual or small groups of farmers through a

Private Irrigation System (PIS).[3]

27
Industrial

The use of water for industrial purposes include the "utilization of water in

factories, industrial plants and mines, and the use of water as an ingredient of a

finished product."[4] Industries that are found to be water-intensive are involved in

the manufacturing of food and dairy, pulp and chemical products, and textile

materials. These industries are usually found in the National Capital Region,

CALABARZON, and Region III. In a study by the United Nations Industrial

Development Organization (UNIDO) in 1999, the intensive use of water in

industry is critical in terms of the production of hazardous wastes. Thousands of

tons solvent wastes, heavy metals, lubricants, and intractable wastes are

improperly disposed of annually in Metro Manila.[5]

Domestic

According to a study by David and Inocencio, the medium of water provision is

dependent on the income class of a certain household. Higher income brackets

usually rely on private waterworks as a source of water, while lower income

brackets usually consume less by depending on vended water (sold by those

who have access to private waterworks). Lower income households pay much

higher water prices than higher income households because of their lack of

access to water service providers.[6]

Service provision and access

28
In 2000, the average water production was 175 liters per day per capita (l/d/c). [7]

According to the National Water Resources Board (NWRB), the average

consumption of water was 118 l/d/c in 2004. The highest consumption was

recorded in the East Zone of Metro Manila with 232 l/d/c.[8]

Levels of water systems

According to a 2005 World Bank study, approximately 5,000 service providers

exist in the Philippines.[9] Most of them only provide water, while sanitation is still

expected to be a private responsibility.[10] The water infrastructure provided is

classified into three levels.

Levels of water systems in the Philippines

Stand-alone water points (e.g. handpumps, shallow wells, rainwater

Level
collectors) serving an average of 15 households within a 250-meter
I
distance

Level Piped water with a communal water point (e.g. borewell, spring system)

II serving an average of 4-6 households within a 25-meter distance

Level Piped water supply with a private water point (e.g. house connection)

III based on a daily water demand of more than 100 liters per person

Table1. Levels of water systems in the Philippines

29
Service providers

According to the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for Water Supply and

Sanitation of UNICEF and WHO, access to an improved water source increased

from 85% in 1990 to 92% in 2010.[12]

Local Government Units

Most households in the Philippines are provided water by their Local Government

Units (LGUs), either directly through a city or municipal engineering department

or through community-based organizations (CBOs). CBOs involved in water

supply include 200 cooperatives, 3,100 Barangay Water and Sanitation

Associations (BWSAs) and 500 Rural Water Supply Associations

(RWSAs).[13]CBOs usually operate Level I or Level II water supply systems with

support from the national government or non-governmental organizations

(NGOs). In many cases, the CBOs later convert Level I and II facilities into Level

III supply systems.Typically, all LGU-operated arrangements do not recover their

full costs and rely heavily on local government subsidies.[14]

Water Districts

A water district is a utility that is legally and financially separate from the

municipality. In urban areas outside of Metro Manila, water districts served

around 15.3 million people from 861 municipalities in 2011. To form a water

district, the local government needs confirmation from the Local Waterworks and

Utilities Administration (LWUA), a specialized lending institution for provincial

30
waterworks, from which it will receive technical assistance and financial support.

The local government appoints the board members of the water districts. This

system typically has better performance and higher cost recovery than water

systems that are run directly by municipalities. The Philippine Association of

Water Districts (PAWD), fosters the exchange of experiences between water

districts and provides training to its members.[15] In 2010, USAID and the ADB

agreed to support PAWD in establishing a national Water Operators Partnerships

(WOPs) program that promotes twinning partnerships among Water Districts.[16]

Large-scale Private Operators

The zones of Metro Manila allocated to Maynilad Water (red) and Manila Water

(blue).

31
 In Metro Manila, water service has been carried out by two private

concessionaires since 1997: The Manila Water Company in the East Zone, and

Maynilad Water Services, Inc. in the West Zone. Although national government

has supported private service providers since the 1990s, there are few

arrangements outside of Metro Manila. Joint ventures exist in Tagbilaran City and

in Subic Bay.[17] These private water service providers provide Level III services

together with water districts.

Small-scale independent providers

A significant share of the population in urban areas receive services from small-

scale independent providers. It was estimated that before privatization in the late

1990s, 30% of the population of Metro Manila depended on them, majority

buying water in bulk from water providers to sell it on to individual users.[18] There

are also some cases of cooperation by concessionaires and independent

providers.[19] In August 2007, 250 small-scale providers formed the National

Water and Sanitation Association of the Philippines (NAWASA) as a gathering

avenue for small-scale water service providers.

32
Benchmarking of water utility models

Local Government Private

Water Districts
Units (LGU) Operators

Quality of supply Level I, II, and III Level III Level III

Availability (hours
19 23 22
per day)

Consumption

(liters per capita 112 120 144

per day)

Staff (per 100

8 7 6
connections)

Tariff (Philippine

peso per cubic 7.60 17.82 15.37

meter)

National Water and National Water and

Economic According to
Resources Board Resources Board
Regulation contract
(NWRB) (NWRB)

Local Waterworks and

Public, NGOs,
Financing Utilities Administration Tariffs
Tariffs
(LWUA), Tariffs

Table2. Benchmarking of water utility models

33
Urban versus Rural Areas

According to the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) report on March 2012,

43% of the Philippines had access to Level III private water service providers in

2010. Access to an improved water source increased from 84% in 1990 to 92%

in 2012. However, there is a wide inconsistency between the access to water of

urban areas (61%) and rural areas (25%). Although overall spending remained

low, the national government has begun increasing investments in sectors

outside Metro Manila.[22]

Sewage and Sanitation

Only 5% of the total population is connected to a sewer network. The vast

majority uses flush toilets connected to septic tanks. Since sludge treatment and

disposal facilities are rare, most effluents are discharged without treatment.[23]

Within the entire country, septic tanks are the most common method of Sewage

treatment. In Metro Manila alone, about 75 local companies provide tank-

desludging services.

The first Philippine constructed wetland, serving about 700 households,

was completed in 2006 in a peri-urban area of Bayawan City which has been

used to resettle families that lived along the coast in informal settlements and

had no access to safe water supply and sanitation facilities. [24] In March 2008,

Manila Water announced that a wastewater treatment plant was to be

constructed in Taguig.[25]

34
Economic Aspects

Water Bill Information

Current Charges Before Tax

 Basic charge: This covers the cost of operating, maintaining, improving

and expanding the distribution network, as well as the facilities responsible

for bringing potable water to the end user. The Basic Charge is based on

the latest approved tariff schedule.

 Foreign Currency Different Adjustment (FCDA): This is a percentage of

the Basic Charge which accounts for fluctuations of the Philippine Peso

against other countries' currencies subject to periodic review and

adjustment. The FCDA for the second quarter of 2015 is 0.18% of the

Basic Charge.

 Environmental Charge: This is for the mitigation of environmental

impacts in the course of water and wastewater operation. It is 20% of the

Basic Charge applicable to all customers.

 Sewer Charge: 0% of the Basic Charge is added for Residential and

Semi-Business customers with a sewer line connection. 30% of Basic

Charge, on the other hand, is charged for Commercial and Industrial

customers.

 Maintenance Service Charge: This covers the maintenance of the water

meter. The charge changes depending on the size of the water meter. The

minimum charge is 1.50 Philippine pesos for a 13mm-sized meter.

35
Value Added Tax

The value added tax (VAT) is charged by the government and accounts to 12%

of the sum of the items included in current charges before tax.

Other charges

These are special miscellaneous charges such as connection fees, unscheduled

desludging of septic tank service fees, etc.

Previous Unpaid Amount

This pertains to charges billed prior to the billing period. This should be settled

immediately together with the current charges to avoid disconnection of water

service.

Tariffs

The fragmented sector led to different tariff structures and levels according to the

respective management model. The connection fees, which are charged in most

of the cases, often impede new connections for poverty-stricken areas.[26]

LGU-operated systems In LGUs, tariff levels and structures vary widely. Since

most connections are not metered, it is difficult to charge tariffs depending on

consumption. Where LGUs provide Level I or II services, they usually charge no

or very low tariffs, although connection fees are common. The costs of providing

36
the service are usually met by local governments. [27] The NWRB in its

benchmarking project had about half of the average tariff of private operators and

water districts.The cost of tariff in LGU-operated systems is, on average, lower

than other management models.[26] In order to introduce cost recovery tariffs and

effective regulation, the NWRB issued a primer on tariff setting and regulation in

March 2005. The document provides the basic guidelines of tariff setting. The

manual helps to determine future revenue requirements and to set annual base

tariffs based on estimated consumption levels.The process of tariff approval as

well as the guidelines to prepare the required annual report are described in

detail. Furthermore, the document gives advices on tariff structures and water

rate adjustments.

Water Districts

In water districts, tariffs increased notably since 1996. The tariff structure

is similar to the model used in Metro Manila, with an average tariff for the first

10m³ and increasing tariffs for additional consumption.[28] At the end of 2006, the

national average tariff for 30 m³ was US$0.36 per m³, which is more than double

of 1996.[27] The NWRB found an average tariff of US$0.41 within a sample of 18

water districts in 2004, which is the highest average tariff of all management

models. The average connection fee was US$55, somewhat lower than among

private operators.[26]

37
Metro Manila

In the capital region, an initial tariff is to be paid for the first 10 m³

consumed, with increasing blocks for additional consumption. Furthermore,

consumers connected to sewerage pay an additional charge of 50% and all

users must pay a 10% environmental surcharge.[29] For new consumers, a

connection fee is charged, which was US$134 in April 2007 in the East Zone [30]

According to the MWSS Regulatory Office, just before privatization, the average

tariff per m³ in Metro Manila was US$0.26. After the concession contracts came

into force in 1997, tariffs dropped to US$0.05 (East Zone) and US$0.12 (West

Zone). In 2006, the average tariff rose to US$0.31 in the East Zone and US$0.43

in the West Zone (all figures converted into real 2006 prices). While the tariff was

highest among private operators, the connection fee was higher within water

districts.

Others

Users who rely on other sources such as private small-scale operators

mostly pay more for water. In the capital region, it is a common practice to buy

water from MWSS and resell. In this case, small-scale operators pay a higher

tariff than the residential one and pass the higher cost on to the end-user.[31]

Cost-recovery

The operation ratio (O) of a certain water service provider reflects its cost-

recovery situation. It is computed by the following formula:

38
where O is the operation cost, C is the total annual cost, and R is the annual

revenue. An operation ratio under 1 means that revenues cover the costs of

operation and maintenance. In a study last 2004, only 5 out of 45 had an

operation ratio of more than 1, reflecting a poor operation ratio among majority of

the participating utilities. All the loss-making providers were operated directly by

LGUs, and were mostly characterized by a high share of non-revenue water,

poor service continuity, low tariffs, and low coverage within their respective

service area. The five best-performing service providers consisted of four water

districts and one private operator.[32]

Investment

According to the World Bank, investment in water supply and sanitation from

1983 to 2003 has been far below the required levels to maintain assets, to

expand access and to improve service quality. Total investment has fluctuated at

around ₱3-4 billion a year, while the cost of implementing the Clean Water Act of

2004 has been estimated at up to P35 billion a year.[33]

Political Aspects

History

From the Philippines' independence in 1946 until 1955 most water supply

systems were operated by local authorities. From 1955 to 1971, control of urban

39
water supply was passed to the national government.[34] In order to improve

service delivery, the sector has been repeatedly subjected to extensive reforms

which created numerous institutions and responsibilities. However,

comprehensive water resources management was only introduced in 2004.

Pre-Marcos Administration

The Manila Waterworks Authority, founded in 1878, became part of the National

Waterworks and Sewerage Authority (NAWASA) when it was founded in 1955.[35]

Marcos Administration (1965-1986)

 1971. NAWASA was transformed into the Metropolitan Waterworks and

Sewerage System (MWSS) in 1971 under the government of Ferdinand

Marcos. MWSS was made responsible for service provision in Metro

Manila, whereas other municipal and provincial water and sewerage

systems in about 1,500 cities and towns were transferred back to local

governments.[35]

 1973. A new management model for urban water supply was introduced in

1973: LGUs were encouraged to form utilities called Water Districts which

would operate with a certain degree of autonomy from LGUs. They would

receive technical assistance and financial support from the newly created

Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA).[34]

40
 1976. In 1976, the National Water Resources Board (NWRB) was created

through the National Water Code of the Philippines to coordinate policies

concerning water resources.[36]

 1980. The Rural Waterworks Development Corporation (RWDC) was

founded in 1980. It is responsible for water supply in areas where neither

MWSS nor LWUA carries out the service or assists the LGUs,

respectively. The RWDC was expected to create rural water supply

associations in order to construct, operate, and maintain their own water

supply systems in communities with fewer than 20,000 inhabitants. [34][37]

Aside from the RWDC, 1980 was also the beginning of the United Nations'

International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1980–1989).

The Integrated Water Supply Program (1980–2000) was initiated by the

national government. Its main objective was to increase water coverage to

70% of the Filipino population by 1987 and 90% by 1992. Consequently,

the development of the sector was supported with great effort: Between

1978 and 1990, more than US$120 million was invested in 11 rural water

supply projects. Nevertheless, toward the end of the decade only 4,400

functioning rural water systems, about 5% of the 96,200 potential systems,

existed in the country. Many of the recently constructed systems failed

shortly after completion, partly due to poor construction and service. [38]

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) found that insufficient community

participation may have led to inadequate operation and maintenance. [39]

41
Aquino Administration (1986-1992)

 1987. In 1987, the Local Water Utilities Administration took over the work

of Rural Waterworks Development Corporation (RWDS) which had been

created only seven years earlier.[40] The Rural Water Supply and

Sanitation Master Plan of 1988 provided for the installation of 81,900 rural

water supply systems by 1991. The Department of Public Works and

Highways (DPWH) was expected to construct and rehabilitate Level I

water wells, rainwater collectors, and springs. Every barangay should

receive at least one additional potable water source. In addition, the

Department of Local Government and Community Development (DLGCD)

was given the task of training local water user associations in the

operation and maintenance of water facilities.[41]

 1991. Under the Local Government Code of 1991, certain infrastructure

functions were devolved to LGUs. Barangays, municipalities, provinces,

and cities were authorized to finance, operate, and maintain their own

water supply systems.

 1992. According to the Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan of

1983–1998, 80% of the rural population was provided with Level I water

supply services at the end of Aquino's term of office in 1992. 61% had

direct service connections in Metro Manila and 47% in other urban areas

of the country were covered by Level II and III water systems. [36][42]

42
Ramos Administration (1992-1998)

For more details on this topic, see Water privatization in Metro Manila.

The planning, preparation, and implementation of the privatization of the

Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) happened under the

Ramos administration.[43]

 1995. The Water Crisis Act was passed in 1995, providing the legal

framework for the privatization of MWSS. Private participation was

implemented through a concession contract in which the concessionaires

were assigned the task of operating and managing the facilities while

MWSS preserved the ownership of the infrastructure. [44] In order to

facilitate benchmark comparisons, the service area of Metro Manila was

divided in two zones.

 1996. The plan to privatize Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage

System (MWSS) emerged from the inability of the public utility to expand

coverage to the growing population. By 1996, MWSS only provided water

supply for an average pf 16 hours each day to two-thirds of its coverage

population. According to the ADB, the share of non-revenue water (NRW),

water which is not billed (e.g., due to leakage and illegal connections),

was over 60% --- an extremely high percentage compared to other

developing countries.[45]

 1997. In 1997, the Maynilad Water Services, Inc. was awarded the

concession contract for the West Zone, while the Manila Water Company,

43
 Inc. was awarded the East Zone of Metro Manila. The concession

contracts, which are expected to last for 25 years, included targets

concerning coverage, service quality, and economic efficiency. The

objective was to increase water coverage in Metro Manila to 96% by 2006.

The companies were expected to be regulated by the newly created

MWSS Regulatory Office, financed by the concessionaires. After the

concession came into force, public opposition soon emerged due to

repeated tariff increases. However, it is worth mentioning that tariffs

decreased after privatization in 1997, and did not reach the pre-

privatization level until 2001 or 2002. Private concessionaires suffered

from a severe drought and the Asian financial crisis of 1997.[46]

Estrada Administration (1998-2001)

According to the Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan (MTPDP) of 1998

up to 2004, the Estrada administration's main objectives concerning water were

to (i) create an independent regulatory agency, (ii) develop a pricing mechanism

that considers cost recovery, (iii) strengthen the implementation of

watershedrules, and (iv) encourage private participation in water resources

administration.[47]

Arroyo Administration (2001-2010)

Because of the rapid currency devaluation, MWSS' dollar-denominated debt

service doubled. Consequently, tariffs continued to rise and targets concerning

44
coverage and NRW were adjusted downward with the agreement of the

regulatory agency. Maynilad went bankrupt in 2003 and was turned over to

MWSS in 2005. On the other hand, Manila Water had begun to make profits by

1999 and performed well financially and in reducing NRW.[48]

 2001-2004.Arroyo continued to support private participation schemes and

began to pursue Economies of scale in the sector. Furthermore, her

MTPDP for 2001 up to 2004 called for the creation of a single regulatory

agency for all water supply and sanitation systems. [49] After this attempt

failed, Economic regulation for LGUs and water districts were assigned to

NWRB.[13]

 2004. In 2004, the Philippines Clear Water Act was passed to improve

water quality and prevent pollution through comprehensive and integrated

water management. The act was the first attempt of the Philippine

government in consolidating different laws concerning water resources

management as well as water supply and sanitation.[50] The main objective

of the act was to improve sanitation and wastewater treatment in the

country.[51]

 2006. In December 2006, an 84%-stake in Maynilad was competitively

awarded by MWSS to an all-Filipino partnership with a construction

company DM Consunji Holdings, Inc. (DMCI) and a

telecommunications/real estate company Metro Pacific Investments

Corporation (MPIC) for a sales price of US$503.9 million. The concession

45
 was hailed by the financial industry, receiving AsiaMoney's Country Deal

of the Year 2007 and CFO Asia's one of 10 best deals in Asia.[52]

 2008. On August 27, 2008, Prospero Pichay was appointed chairman of

the board of the Local Waterworks and Utilities Administration (LWUA),

replacing acting chair Proceso Domingo. At the same time its domestic

and foreign borrowing authority was proposed to be extended to $900

million, upon the approval of Department of Finance and the Central Bank,

the BangkoSentralngPilipinas.[53][54]

Aquino Administration (2010-2016)

 2013. The Bottom-Up Budgeting (BUB) Project was implemented by the

administration, in its 2013 National Budget, to fund projects that would

help the country attain its Millennium Development Goals of inclusive

growth and poverty reduction. In promoting good governance in the local

level, by having local governments listen to their constituents in terms of

budgeting processes, the National Budget was guided to respond to the

urgent needs of the people as identified at the grassroots level.[55]

 2014. Another program of the administration, through the Department of

Interior and Local Government, is the Sagana at LigtasnaTubig Para

saLahat (SALINTUBIG) program that aims to provide clean and potable

water supply to almost 455 waterless municipalities in the Philippines. As

of 2014, 253 projects and 118 more are ongoing all over the country.[56]

46
  2015. The BUB project proved to be a success as the Department of

Interior and Local Government, spearheaded by Secretary Mar Roxas,

was able to build a potable water system supporting 385 households in

Mati City, Davao Oriental. At the same time, a health station was

constructed that is posed to benefit 2,375 households through the BUB

project by the Department of Health. With a budget of P410 Million, for

BUB projects in Davao Oriental, government projects are geared towards

a safer and healthier future for all.[57]

Policy

General policies concerning the water and sanitation sector are formulated by the

National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) in its MTPDP. Since the

1990s, private sector participation and decentralization are the main objectives of

water policies.[36] The MTPDP of 2004 up to 2010 aimed at extending the

coverage of potable water to 92%–96% by 2010 through public and private

investments, with priority given to 400 barangays with poor water supply

coverage.[58]

The Department of Public Works and Highways provides technical assistance in

rural water supply systems. National standards for drinking water quality, as well

as standards concerning sanitation and sewerage collection, are set by the

Department of Health.[59] The Philippine Department of Environment and Natural

Resources (DENR) is the lead ministry for implementing water sector

legislation,[60] whereas the Department of Finance takes the lead in financing

47
water policies at the national level. The National Water Resources Board

(NWRB) under the DENR is responsible for water resources management.[61]

The responsibilities are defined by the 1976 National Water Code and the 2004

Clean Water Act, which consolidated laws on water supply and sanitation and

water resources management.

1976 National Water Code (PD 1067)[62]

Regarded as Presidential Decree No. 1067, dated December 31, 1976, the 1976

National Water Code was an effort of then President Ferdinand E. Marcos that

aimed to strengthen water legislations in the face of the increasing scarcity of

water and its changing water patterns. The Water Code was an intended solution

to revise and consolidate regulations made on the ownership, appropriation,

utilization, exploitation, development, conservation and protection of water

resources in the country. Founded on the principle that "All waters belong to the

State," the National Water Resources Council was then created and tasked to

control and regulate the use and development of water resources in behalf of the

government.

Regulations were made through the acquisition of water permits, given to

persons not limited to government-owned and controlled corporations, for water

appropriation and usage. Specifications were included on the maximum amount

of water diverted or withdrawn, the maximum rate of diversion or withdrawal and

the times during the year when water may be diverted or withdrawn. Instances

48
may also arise where water permits are revoked on cases of non-use, violation of

the conditions imposed by the Council, unauthorized sale of water, pollution and

public acts detrimental to public health and safety.

In declared flood control areas, rules and regulations are administered to prohibit

and control activities that may damage and cause deterioration of the lakes and

dikes, changes in the natural flow of the river and increases in flood losses or

intensified floods. Watersheds, or areas of land adjacent to any surface water or

overlying any groundwater, are to be declared as protected areas of the

Department of Environment and Natural Resources. These efforts ensure the

quality of water defined by a standard set by the National Pollution Council

Commission according to the different uses of water. Except those functions

under the Code that may fall under specific government agencies, the Council is

given the power to make all necessary decisions and determinations provided for

in the said Code. The Council may provide accompanying penalties consisting of

fines not exceeding One Thousand Pesos (P1,000.00) and/or the suspensions or

revocation of water permits or any rights given to use water as well as enforce its

decisions with the assistance of local and national police agencies.

Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (RA 9275)[63]

Republic Act 9275 provides for a comprehensive water quality management

policy amidst economic growth. The policy provides for the consistent protection,

preservation and revival of the quality of Philippine waters with frameworks

patterned through the pursuit of sustainable development. Importantly provided

49
for by this act are Water Quality Management Systems and Institutional

Mechanisms.

Water Quality Management Systems involve area designations by the

Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), national sewage

and septage management programs and allocation of special funds to support

and maintain water quality. Areas that have similar hydrogeological conditions,

which affect the physiochemical, biological and bacteriological reactions and

diffusions of pollutants in the water bodies, are declared as Water Quality

Management Areas. The management area is governed by a DENR

representative as chair and board members composed of representatives from

local government units (LGUs), relevant national government agencies,

registered non-governmental organizations, water utility sectors and the business

sector. On the other hand, water bodies with specific pollutants that have

exceeded the guidelines for water quality are identified as Non-attainment Areas.

LGUs are tasked to prepare and implement contingency plans, such as

relocations, for the protection of the health and welfare of the residents, while the

government improves the affected quality of water within the potentially affected

areas.

Funds administered by the DENR, and other concerned agencies, are on special

accounts in the National Treasury to be utilized in financing containment and

clean-up operations in water pollution cases; restorations of ecosystems and

rehabilitation of affected areas; research, enforcement and monitoring activities;

50
technical assistance to implementing agencies; grants as rewards and

incentives; and other disbursements made solely for the prevention, control of

water pollution and administration of the management areas in the amounts

authorized by the Department.

Wastewater charges are also established to provide strong economic

inducement for polluters to modify their production or management processes or

to invest in pollution control technology in order to reduce the amount of water

pollutants generated in their discharge of wastewater into water bodies. Owners,

or operators of facilities, that discharge regulated waste are then required to

secure discharge permits.

Institutional Mechanisms emphasized the collaborative efforts made in the hopes

of having cleaner and better quality water through the Lead Agency (DENR); the

Roles of Local Government Units in sharing the responsibility of maintaining and

improving water quality within their territorial jurisdictions; the Business and

Industry Role in formulating incentives for the adoption of innovative equipment

and processes that preserve and protect water bodies; and Linkage Mechanisms

through partnerships with government agencies and departments such as the

Philippine Coast Guard, DPWH, Department of Agriculture (DA), DOH,

Department of Science and Technology (DOST), Department of Education

(DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and Department of the

Interior and the Local Government (DILG).

51
Government Agencies and Institutions

Local Waterworks and Utilities Administration (LWUA)

The LWUA is a specialized lending institution that promotes and oversees the

development of provincial waterworks. It is also entrusted with setting water

quality and service standards for water districts. Furthermore, it provides

technical assistance and is sometimes involved in the districts through board

members.[64]

P.D. 198 (May 25, 1973), the Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973 created

LWUA and the water districts.[65] The decree authorized the formation, on local

option basis, of autonomous water districts to develop the local water supply

systems and the establishment of a national-level agency to cater to the needs of

these water districts. According to the LWUA website, to date, it has established

584 water districts covering about 691 cities and towns outside Metro Manila. It

has completed a total of 1,431 water supply projects while extending P 17 billion

in loans to the districts of which P11 million has been availed to the benefit of

some 12 million Filipinos with improved water.[66]

National Water and Resources Board (NWRB)

The National Water and Resources Board (NWRB) is the forefont government

agency which handles the Philippines water sectors’ policies, regulations and

quasi-judicial functions. It acts accordingly with the principles of the Integrated

Water Resource Management (IWRM) as it ensures the efficiency, conservation,

52
utilization, development and protection of the state’s water supply. Its functions

and responsibilities.

Rural Waterworks Development Corporation (RWDC)

Executive Order No. 577 which was passed last January 12, 1980, aims to

provide full coverage of water supply services in the country. In line with this,

RWDC was established to bring and administer water supply in areas with less

than 20,000 as population. RWDC works together with LWUA in determining

areas under their jurisdiction.

Department of Interior and Local Government

Concerning local government-managed systems, the Department of Interior and

Local Government (DILG) defines and enforces quality and performance

standards. However, in both cases, local governments retain the responsibilities

for planning, financing, and regulating water supply.[13]

Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation

The Philippine Center for Water and Sanitation (PCWS) provides technical

assistance to local governments, communities, and non-profits on low-cost water

supply and sanitation options. It also engages in action research with

households. It leads the Philippines water sanitation and health (WASH) coalition

of non-profit organizations and local governments. It was created in 1990 under

53
the name of International Training Network (ITN) and adopted its current name in

1998.[67]

Financing and External Cooperation

Outside the privatized services in Metro Manila, one source of finance for water

supply is government grants channeled through the Local Water Utilities

Administration (LWUA) and the Municipal Development Funds Office (MDFO).

But these are far from sufficient to meet investment needs, which is why loan

financing is necessary. Some LGUs obtain loans from public banks such as the

Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) and the Land Bank of the Philippines

(LBP), and also from corporations in other countries, such as the World Bank,

and JICA from Japan.(see below).[68]

External development agencies that work on water supply and sanitation in the

Philippines include the ADB, GTZ, JICA, USAID and the World Bank

Asian Development Bank (ADB)

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has assisted the government in increasing

sanitized water supply to different sectors in the Philippines. Through the MWSS

New Water Source Development Project, approved in 2003 and ended in

October 2008, ADB has contributed a total of US$3.26 million, whereas MWSS

provided US$1.71 million. The joint-project sought to develop up to 3 water

source projects for Metro Manila and to improve the financial management as

well as the accounting and fiscal control systems of MWSS. In 2008 as well,

54
studies for two water source projects were completed emphasizing

environmental and social impacts amidst water quality improvements. [69]

The following report shows information about past performances which can be

utilized in assessing present and future water supply and sanitation efforts in the

Philippines. In 2013, ADB made preparations for loans for financing: the Water

District Development Sector Project, the Urban Water and Sanitation Sector

Project, the Angat Water Transmission Improvement Project, and future technical

assistances and other lending activities to be discussed with specific

Government agencies involved.

In 2013, the ADB made preparations for loans for financing: the Water

District Development Sector Project, the Urban Water and Sanitation Sector

Project, the Angat Water Transmission Improvement Project, and future technical

assistance and other lending activities to be discussed with specific Government

agencies involved.

ADB was also able to release a report on: the assessments of current

conditions and constraints to developing water supply and sanitation in the

country, strategies to be implemented to counter and solve these constraints,

and road maps and plans on a sustainable sanitation reality for all. The Philippine

Sustainable Sanitation Roadmap and Plan (PSSR), included in the report, served

as a guide for water sanitation efforts as it presented the vision, goals, outcomes,

outputs, activities and inputs needed to achieve an improved water quality

nationwide. Approved by the subcommittee on Water Resources in 2010, the

55
Department of Health (DOH) has agreed to spearhead the agenda by preparing

a national sustainable sanitation plan based on the PSSR. The DILG has also

aligned its water and sanitation strategy with the requirements of the PSSR.[71]

German Corporation for International Cooperation (GTZ)

The German Corporation for International Cooperation (GTZ) supports the sector

through the rural water supply and sanitation program, designed to improve the

living conditions of the poor in selected rural areas of the country. The program

seeks to overcome the institutional confusion and to strengthen governmental

organizations at the national, provincial, and municipal levels. The main program

partner is the Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG). In addition,

the decentralization plan of the National Water Resources Board is supported.

The program, which ran from 2006 to 2009, had already achieved a successful

introduction of low-cost options for sanitation, the construction of dehydration

toilets, and the first Philippine constructed wetland, treating wastewater from

about 700 households.[24][72]

World Bank

The World Bank supports the Philippine water supply and sanitation sector

through various projects often in collaboration with the government and the Land

Bank of the Philippines.

56
Manila Third Sewerage Project

In 2007, the World Bank approved an investment loan of US$5 million. The

objectives of the project were to assist the Philippine government in reforming

institutions in order to attract private investment in the wastewater sector, to

improve the coordination of institutions responsible for preventing water pollution,

and to promote innovative wastewater treatment techniques. The project, which

ran from 2007 to 2012, provided technical assistance as well as support for

institutional coordination and private sector involvement.[73]

The project followed the Manila Second Sewerage Project, which was carried out

from 1996 to 2005. After the privatization of MWSS, it was restructured in order

to adapt it to the new institutional framework. The objectives were to (i) reduce

the pollution of waterways in Metro Manila and its surrounding bays; (ii) reduce

the health risks caused by human exposure to sewage in Metro Manila; and (iii)

establish a gradual low-cost improvement of sewerage services in Metro Manila.

From 1997 to 2005, the number of people with sewer connections increased from

721,000 to 1,101,000 and the population with regularly desludged septic tanks

rose from only 1,600 to 288,000. The total cost of the project was US$48.06

million.[74]

Urban Water and Sanitation Project APL2

This project aimed to reach approximately 40 LGU-operated water systems,

which were given technical assistance and financial support. The four

57
components of the project were to: (i) finance civil works, equipment, and

supervision for improved water supply systems in LGUs, including private sector

participation where feasible; (ii) finance improved sanitation infrastructure; (iii)

provide investment and assistance in micro-drainage infrastructure; and (iv)

provide funds for the hiring of a construction supervision consultant and

specialized consultants. The World Bank decided to contribute through a US$30

million loan to the project, while the remaining US$5.2 million are financed by

local institutions. The project began in 2001 and ended in 2008.[75]

The World Bank supports private sector participation through Design-Build-Lease

contracts and Long-Term Operation and Maintenance contracts between LGUs

and private operators. Therefore, the Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP)

and the Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP) channel financing from the World

Bank to LGUs, which engage private operators. Under the Design-Build-Lease

contracts, valid for 15 years and renewable for an additional 15 years, a local

private operator prepares, builds, and operates a new water supply system. A

World Bank loan channeled through the DBP finances 90% of the construction

cost, and the remainder is contributed through the LGU. The water tariff must

cover expenses for operation and maintenance, as well as a lease fee and a

return for the private operator.

Long-Term Operation and Maintenance contracts are used in LGUs which recruit

a private company to construct a new water supply system and later engage

water associations or user cooperatives to operate the system under the

58
contracts, which are awarded for 15 years with the possibility of renewal for

another 15 years. Similar to the Design-Build-Operate contracts, 90% of the

construction cost of the water system is financed with a World Bank loan

channeled through the LBP. The water user groups are required to work under

commercial rules. They have full administrative, accounting and financial

autonomy.[68]

Metro Manila Wastewater Management Project (MWMP)

Last 2012, the World Bank was able to approve a budget of $275 Million for a

project aimed at improving wastewater collection and treatment practices in

several catchment areas of Metro Manila and help improve Manila Bay’s water

quality. Entitled the Metro Manila Wastewater Management Program (MWMP),

the project supports investments from the Manila Water Company, Inc (MWCI)

and Maynilad Water Services, Inc in increasing collection and wastewater

treatment primarily from households and establishments in the area. The project

is divided into 2 components as MWCI takes charge of the east zone and

Maynilad the west zone, of the metropolitan.[76]

With a budget of $193.4 Million, investments by Maynilad include: (a) a sewage

treatment plant, and the necessary sewage lines, covering North and South

Pasig; and (b) the carrying out of other wastewater management investment sub-

projects agreed upon by the government, Land Bank of the Philippines, World

Bank and MWCI. Maynilad, with a budget of $178.3 Million, has its investments:

(a) in sewage treatment plants and associated wastewater conveyance systems

59
in Quezon City, Pasay, Alabang, Muntinlupa, Valenzuela; and (b) a septage

treatment plant in the southern part of Metro Manila.[77]

With about 2 million cubic meters of wastewater generated daily, and only 17% of

this getting treated before disposal to water bodies around the metro, water

pollution has destroyed most of Manila Bay and the nearby Laguna de Bay.

Manila Water and Maynilad have both conceptualized a 25-year program that

ensures 100% wastewater collection and treatment for Metro Manila. With the

MWMP, their efforts would be supported and would aid in not just improving the

current state of the surrounding environment but also contribute to a boost in

recreational and tourism opportunities.[77]

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)

The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), along with the international

community striving to achieve the targets of United Nations’ Millennium

Development Goals (MDG), has been campaigning to make a significant

reduction in the number of people who still lack access to safe drinking water.

Reliable water resources management, improvement of access to water supply

in urban areas, reduction of non-revenue water (NRW), improvement of

water/energy use, sustainable rural water supply, and promotion of improved

sanitation in developing countries are the main issues that JICA prioritizes. In

2008, through the Development Bank of the Philippines, about $200 million was

loaned to the Philippines to fund local governments and domestic private-sector

companies for the development of water supply and sewerage facilities. Despite

60
the establishment of funding, financing will only be granted to water utilities if the

business management improves, hence JICA actively assists the water supply

utilities’ capacity development through practical cooperation with financial aid.

JICA not only works to improve access to safe drinking water in urban areas of

developing countries, but also aids water facilities with business planning and

management.[78]

Issues

Drinking water quality

Water quality usually does not meet the standards set by the national

government, especially in urban areas. As a result, waterborne diseases remain

to be a severe public health concern in the country. About 4,200 people die each

year due to contaminated drinking water.[23]

Non-revenue water

Non-revenue water (NRW) is defined as the difference between the amount of

water put into the distribution system and the amount of water billed to

consumers. It is usually used as an indicator for water utility performance. High

levels of non-revenue water usually indicate low quality water utility. It has three

components: physical losses, which consist of leakage from the system caused

by poor operations and maintenance, the lack of active leakage control, and poor

quality of underground assets; commercial losses caused by under-registration of

water meters, errors in data handling, and theft, and unbilled authorized

61
consumption which includes water used by a specific utility for operational

purposes (e.g. firefighting and specific consumer groups).

Non-revenue water decreased in the East Zone of Metro Manila since

privatization. In 1996, Manila had an NRW of 61%, while capital cities from other

Asian countries ranged from having 35–38%. In 2002, NRW dropped to 53% in

the East Zone. On the other hand, non-revenue water in the West Zone

increased as the primary waterwork utility encountered severe financial

problems.[79] According to Manila Water, one of the private concessionaires, the

share of NRW continued to fall until the end of 2010 where it reached 11%.[80]

According to the National Water Resources Board (NWRB), the average share of

NRW among participating service providers was 27.5% in 2004. The particularly

high NRW of Manila's West Zone was confirmed to have a record with 68%.

Generally, the smaller utilities performed better concerning NRW than the larger

ones. However, many NRW data are based on estimates, given the fact that only

15 of the 45 service providers had 100% production and consumption metering

coverage.[81]

Labor Productivity

The number of staff was reduced at the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage

System (MWSS) after privatization. On average, 10 employees were responsible

for 1,000 connections in 1996. Fast forward to 2002, only about 4 employees

were left, reflecting a decreases of around 58%.[79] According to LWUA, only

62
about 7 employees per 1,000 connections worked in water districts in 2002. [82] In

contrast to water districts, LGUs have an average of 21 employees per 1,000

connections in 2002. However, small LGUs still suffer from their low number of

total connections.[83]

The NWRB Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book found, on average,

7 employees per 1,000 connections in 2004. Private utilities, on average,

performed best and systems which were directly managed by LGUs performed

worst. Not surprisingly, providers with more than 10,000 connections need

significantly fewer employees per connection than those with fewer than 10,000

connections.[84]

Other challenges

The NWRB Philippines Towns Water Utilities 2004 Data Book found, on average,

7 employees per 1,000 connections in 2004. Private utilities on average

performed best and systems which were directly managed by LGUs performed

worst. Not surprisingly, providers with more than 10,000 connections need

significantly fewer employees per connection than those with fewer than 10,000

connections.[85]

63
The Pasig River in Manila, one of the world's most polluted rivers.

Population and Pollution

One third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water

supply.[86] It is estimated that in 2025, water availability will be marginal in most

major cities and in 8 of the 19 major river basins.[87] Besides severe health

concerns, water pollution also leads to problems in the Fishing and Tourism

industries.[88] The national government recognized the problem and since 2004,

has sought to introduce sustainable water resources development

management.[50]

With rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, the quality

of Philippine waters is reduced especially in densely populated areas and regions

of industrial and agricultural activities.[89] According to data from the DENR and

PEM, domestic wastewater discharges, agricultural wastewater, and industrial

wastewater are the three main sources of water pollution. These are also known

as "point sources" that emanate toxic substances into "non-point sources" or

64
certain bodies of water. Domestic wastewater consists of sewage containing

organic waste, solids, and coliforms produced by domestic activities such as

laundry, bathing, cooking, and other kitchen activities. Agricultural wastewater,

the major source of pollution in rural areas, contain pollutants resulting from

agricultural and livestock activities like the maintenance of piggeries which

usually do not have proper wastewater treatment facilities. Different industries

also contribute largely to the water pollution. Industrial activities such as

manufacturing of food, textile, paper, and slaughterhouses emit large amounts of

organic waste.[4]

El Niño and Global Warming

El Niño, a weather phenomenon occurring about every two to seven years when

warm water in the western tropical Pacific Ocean shifts Eastward, causing ocean

temperatures to be warm, last developed in the country in late 2014. For the past

several decades, it has been observed that its occurrence has increased due to

climate change as a result of global warming. Its negative impacts may either be

heavy rainfall or drought. El Niño greatly impacts the power supply, water supply,

and agricultural sectors of the country. The reduced rainfall leading to drought

causes shortage in water supply leading to the rationing of water in some

situations, shortage in hydropower supply, and food supply. [90]

65
The La Mesa Watershed is the only remaining rainforest of its size in Metro

Manila, Philippines.

Denudation of Forest Cover

The supply of water from most freshwater bodies usually come from watersheds

--- patches of forest cover that absorb rainwater and channel it into streams,

rivers, and eventually dams where many human communities (especially Metro

Manila) source their freshwater.[91] Despite the role of the forest in the

replenishment and maintenance of both ground and surface water, the

Philippines is considered to be one of the most severely deforested countries in

the tropics as it lost more than 97% of its original forest cover in the last 50

years.[92]

Saltwater Intrusion

One of the areas in most risk of saltwater intrusion is Metro Manila. Since the late

1960s, saline water intrusion has been evident along the coastal areas of Metro

Manila, stretching from Las Pinas to Malabon. The shallow water table aquifer is

66
in direct contact with the sea in these coastal areas. The over-pumping of

groundwater results to cones of depression which increase the risk of saltwater

intrusion. According to a joint study by MWSS and JICA in 1991, most

groundwater samples from Metro Manila’s coastal areas were salinized.

However, compared to the early 1980s, saline intrusion was found to have

improved conditions because of the conversion of water source from

groundwater to surface water upon the completion of the Manila Water Supply

Project II in 1987. Aside from excessive withdrawal of groundwater, seepage of

brackish water along the Pasig River is another cause of saltwater intrusion

because of seawater movement during tides.[93]

Water abstraction and raw water transfer

Main article: Water abstraction

Raw water (untreated) is collected from a surface water source (such as an

intake on a lake or a river) or from a groundwater source (such as a water well

drawing from an underground aquifer) within the watershed that provides the

water resource.

The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered

aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes.

Water treatment

Main article: Water treatment

Virtually all large systems must treat the water; a fact that is tightly regulated by

global, state and federal agencies, such as the World Health Organization

(WHO) or the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Water

67
treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards

(when it is discharged again). Water purification usually occurs close to the final

delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water becoming

contaminated after treatment.

Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three

steps: clarification, filtration and disinfection. Clarification refers to the separation

of particles (dirt, organic matter, etc.) from the water stream. Chemical addition

(i.e. alum, ferric chloride) destabilizes the particle charges and prepares them for

clarification either by settling or floating out of the water stream. Sand, anthracite

or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, removing smaller particulate

matter. While other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via

chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and

maintains a residual to protect the water supply through the supply network.

Water distribution network

The Central Arizona Project Aqueduct transfers untreated water

68
Most (treated) water distribution happens through underground pipes

Pressurizing the water is required between the small water reserve and the end-

user

69
The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water if it

meets the water quality standards required for human consumption.

The water in the supply network is maintained at positive pressure to ensure that

water reaches all parts of the network, that a sufficient flow is available at every

take-off point and to ensure that untreated water in the ground cannot enter the

network. The water is typically pressurised by pumps that pump water in to

storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network. One network

may have several such service reservoirs .

In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or

even by an underground cistern (the latter however does need additional

pressurizing). This eliminates the need of a water-tower or any other heightened

water reserve to supply the water pressure.

These systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as

cities, or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial

enterprise (see water privatization). Water supply networks are part of the master

planning of communities, counties, and municipalities. Their planning and design

requires the expertise of city planners and civil engineers, who must consider

many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth, leakage,

pressure, pipe size, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc. — using pipe network

analysis and other tools.

As water passes through the distribution system, the water quality can degrade

by chemical reactions and biological processes. Corrosion of metal pipe

materials in the distribution system can cause the release of metals into the

70
water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects. Release of iron from unlined

iron pipes can result in customer reports of "red water" at the tap . Release of

copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of "blue water" and/or a

metallic taste. Release of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe

together or from brassfixtures. Copper and lead levels at the consumer's tap are

regulated to protect consumer health.

Utilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimize

its corrosiveness. The simplest adjustment involves control of pH and alkalinity to

produce a water that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of

calcium carbonate. Corrosion inhibitors are often added to reduce release of

metals into the water. Common corrosion inhibitors added to the water are

phosphates and silicates.

Maintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water

distribution. Typically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochlorite

or monochloramine is added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant.

Booster stations can be placed within the distribution system to ensure that all

areas of the distribution system have adequate sustained levels of disinfection.

Topologies of water distribution networks

Like electric power lines, roads, and microwave radio networks, water systems

may have a loop or branch network topology, or a combination of both. The

piping networks are circular or rectangular. If any one section of water distribution

71
main fails or needs repair, that section can be isolated without disrupting all users

on the network.

Most systems are divided into zones.[1] Factors determining the extent or size of

a zone can include hydraulics, telemetry systems, history, and population

density. Sometimes systems are designed for a specific area then are modified

to accommodate development. Terrain affects hydraulics and some forms of

telemetry. While each zone may operate as a stand-alone system, there is

usually some arrangement to interconnect zones in order to manage equipment

failures or system failures.

Water network maintenance

Water supply networks usually represent the majority of assets of a water utility.

Systematic documentation of maintenance works using a computerized

maintenance management system (CMMS) is a key to a successful operation of

a water utility.[why?]

Clean drinking water is essential to

human life

72
Sustainable urban water supply

A sustainable urban water supply network covers all the activities related to

provision of potable water. Sustainable development is of increasing importance

for the water supply to urban areas.

Water is an essential natural resource for human existence. It is needed in every

industrial and natural process, for example, it is used for oil refining, for liquid-

liquid extraction in hydro-metallurgical processes, for cooling, for scrubbing in the

iron and the steel industry and for several operations in food processing facilities
[1], etc. It is necessary to adopt a new approach to design urban water supply

networks; water shortages are expected in the forthcoming decades and

environmental regulations for water utilization and waste-water disposal are

increasingly stringent.

To achieve a sustainable water supply network, new sources of water are

needed to be developed, and to reduce environmental pollution.

The price of water is increasing, so less water must be wasted and actions must

be taken to prevent pipeline leakage. Shutting down the supply service to fix

leaks is less and less tolerated by consumers. A sustainable water supply

network must monitor the freshwater consumption rate and the waste-water

generation rate.

Many of the urban water supply networks in developing countries face problems

related to population increase, water scarcity, and environmental pollution.

73
Population growth

In the year 1900 just 13% of the global population lived in cities. This percentage

has been rising, and in 2005 49% of the global population lived in urban areas. In

2030 it is predicted, that this statistic will rise to 60% [2]. Attempts to expand water

supply by governments are costly and often not sufficient. The building of new

illegal settlements makes it hard to map, and make connections to, the water

supply, and leads to inadequate water management [3]. In 2002, there were 158

million people with inadequate water supply.[4] An increasing number of people

live in slums, in inadequate sanitary conditions, and are therefore at risk of

disease.

Water scarcity

Potable water is not well distributed in the world. 1.8 million deaths are attributed

to unsafe water supplies every year, according to the WHO[5]. Many people do

not have any access, or do not have access to quality and quantity of potable

water, though water itself is abundant. Poor people in developing countries can

be close to major rivers, or be in high rainfall areas, yet not have access to

potable water at all. There are also people living where lack of water creates

millions of deaths every year.

Where the water supply system cannot reach the slums, people manage to use

hand pumps, to reach the pit wells, rivers, canals, swamps and any other source

of water. In most cases the water quality is unfit for human consumption. The

principal cause of water scarcity is the growth in demand. Water is taken from

remote areas to satisfy the needs of urban areas. Another reason for water

74
scarcity is climate change: precipitation patterns have changed; rivers have

decreased their flow; lakes are drying up; and aquifers are being emptied.

Governmental issues

In developing countries many governments are corrupt and poor and they

respond to these problems with frequently changing policies. Water demand

exceeds supply, and household and industrial water supplies are prioritised over

other uses, which leads to water stress.[6] Potable water has a price in the

market; water often becomes a business for private companies, which earn a

profit by putting a higher price on water, which imposes a barrier for lower-

income people. The Millennium Development Goals propose the changes

required.

In advanced economies, the problems are about optimising existing supply

networks. These economies have usually had continuing evolution, which

allowed them to construct infrastructure to supply water to people. The European

Union has developed a set of rules and policies to overcome expected future

problems.

There are many international documents with interesting, but not very specific,

ideas and therefore they are not put into practice [7]. Recommendations have

been made by the United Nations, such as the Dublin Statement on Water and

Sustainable Development.

Optimizing the water supply network

The yield of a system can be measured by either its value or its net benefit. For a

water supply system, the true value or the net benefit is a reliable water supply

75
service having adequate quantity and good quality of the product. For example, if

the existing water supply of a city needs to be extended to supply a new

municipality, the impact of the new branch of the system must be designed to

supply the new needs, while maintaining supply to the old system.

Single-objective optimization

The design of a system is governed by multiple criteria, one being cost. If the

benefit is fixed, the least cost design results in maximum benefit. However, the

least cost approach normally results in a minimum capacity for a water supply

network. A minimum cost model usually searches for the least cost solution (in

pipe sizes), while satisfying the hydraulic constraints such as: required output

pressures, maximum pipe flow rate and pipe flow velocities. The cost is a

function of pipe diameters; therefore the optimization problem consists of finding

a minimum cost solution by optimising pipe sizes to provide the minimum

acceptable capacity.

Multi-objective optimization

However, according to the authors of the paper entitled, “Method for optimizing

design and rehabilitation of water distribution systems”, “the least capacity is not

a desirable solution to a sustainable water supply network in a long term, due to

the uncertainty of the future demand” [8]. It is preferable to provide extra pipe

capacity to cope with unexpected demand growth and with water outages. The

problem changes from a single objective optimization problem (minimizing cost),

to a multi-objective optimization problem (minimizing cost and maximizing flow

capacity).

76
Weighted sum method

To solve a multi-objective optimization problem, it is necessary to convert the

problem into a single objective optimization problem, by using adjustments, such

as a weighted sum of objectives, or an ε-constraint method. The weighted sum

approach gives a certain weight to the different objectives, and then factors in all

these weights to form a single objective function that can be solved by single

factor optimization. This method is not entirely satisfactory, because the weights

cannot be correctly chosen, so this approach cannot find the optimal solution for

all the original objectives.

The constraint method

The second approach (the constraint method), chooses one of the objective

functions as the single objective, and the other objective functions are treated as

constraints with a limited value. However, the optimal solution depends on the

pre-defined constraint limits.

Sensitivity analysis

The multiple objective optimization problems involve computing the tradeoff

between the costs and benefits resulting in a set of solutions that can be used for

sensitivity analysis and tested in different scenarios. But there is no single

optimal solution that will satisfy the global optimality of both objectives. As both

objectives are to some extent contradictory, it is not possible to improve one

objective without sacrificing the other. It is necessary in some cases use a

different approach,(e.g. Pareto Analysis), and choose the best combination.

77
Operational constraints

Returning to the cost objective function, it cannot violate any of the operational

constraints. Generally this cost is dominated by the energy cost for pumping.

“The operational constraints include the standards of customer service, such us:

the minimum delivered pressure, in addition to the physical constraints such us

the maximum and the minimum water levels in storage tanks to prevent

overtopping and emptying respectively.” [9]

In order to optimize the operational performance of the water supply network, at

the same time as minimizing the energy costs, it is necessary to predict the

consequences of different pump and valve settings on the behavior of the

network.

Apart from Linear and Non-linear Programming, there are other methods

and approaches to design, to manage and operate a water supply network to

achieve sustainability—for instance, the adoption of appropriate technology

coupled with effective strategies for operation and maintenance. These strategies

must include effective management models, technical support to the

householders and industries, sustainable financing mechanisms, and

development of reliable supply chains. All these measures must ensure the

following: system working lifespan; maintenance cycle; continuity of functioning;

down time for repairs; water yield and water quality.

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Sustainable development

In an unsustainable system there is insufficient maintenance of the water

networks, especially in the major pipe lines in urban areas. The system

deteriorates and then needs rehabilitation or renewal.

Sustainable development in an urban water network

Householders and sewage treatment plants can both make the water supply

networks more efficient and sustainable. Major improvements in eco-efficiency

are gained through systematic separation of rainfall and wastewater. Membrane

technology can be used for recycling wastewater.

The municipal government can develop a “Municipal Water Reuse System”

which is a current approach to manage the rainwater. It applies a water reuse

scheme for treated wastewater, on a municipal scale, to provide non-potable

water for industry, household and municipal uses. This technology consists in

separating the urine fraction of sanitary wastewater, and collecting it for recycling

its nutrients.[10] The feces and graywater fraction is collected, together with

organic wastes from the households, using a gravity sewer system, continuously
79
flushed with non-potable water. The water is treated anaerobically and the biogas

is used for energy production.

The sustainable water supply system is an integrated system including water

intake, water utilization, wastewater discharge and treatment and water

environmental protection. It requires reducing freshwater and groundwater usage

in all sectors of consumption. Developing sustainable water supply systems is a

growing trend, because it serves people’s long-term interests. [11]. There are

several ways to re-use and recycle the water, in order to achieve long-term

sustainability, such us:

 Gray water re-use and treatment: gray water is wastewater coming from

baths, showers, sinks and washbasins. If this water is treated it can be

used as a source of water for uses other than drinking. Depending on the

type of gray water and its level of treatment, it can be re-used for irrigation

and toilet flushing. According to an investigation about the impacts of

domestic grey water reuse on public health, carried out by the New South

Wales Health Centre in Australia in the year 2000[citation needed], grey water

contains less nitrogen and fecal pathogenic organisms than sewage, and

the organic content of grey water decomposes more rapidly.

 Ecological treatment systems use little energy: there are many

applications in gray water re-use, such us reed beds, soil treatment

systems and plant filters. This process is ideal for gray water re-use,

because of easier maintenance and higher removal rates of organic

matter, ammonia, nitrogen and phosphorus.

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Other possible approaches to scoping model’s for water supply, applicable to any

urban area, include the following:

 Sustainable Urban Drainage System.

 Borehole extraction.

 Inter cluster groundwater flow.

 Canal and river extraction.

 Aquifer storage

 A more user-friendly indoor water use

The “Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development”, mentioned

above, is a good example of the new trend to overcome water supply problems.

This statement, suggested by advanced economies, has come up with some

principles that are of great significance to urban water supply. These are:

1. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life,

development and the environment.

2. Water development and management should be based on a participatory

approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels.

3. Women play a central part in the provision, management and

safeguarding of water. Institutional arrangements should reflect the role of

women in water provision and protection

4. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be

recognized as an economic good. [12].

81
From these statements, developed in 1992, several policies have been created

to give importance to water and to move urban water system management

towards sustainable development. The Water Framework Directive by the

European Commission is a good example of what has been created there out of

former policies.

Future approaches

There is great need for a more sustainable water supply system. To achieve

sustainability several factors must be tackled at the same time: climate change,

rising energy cost, and rising populations. All of these factors provoke change

and put pressure on management of available water resources.[13].

An obstacle to transforming conventional water supply systems to sustainability

is the amount of time needed to achieve the transformation. More specifically,

transformation must be implemented by municipal legislation bodies, which

always need short-term solutions too.[citation needed] Another obstacle to achieving

sustainability in water supply systems is the insufficient practical experience with

the technologies required, and the missing know-how about the organization and

the transition process. One way to improve this situation is to implement pilot

projects, learning from the costs involved and the benefits achieved.

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Water distribution systems convey water drawn from the water source or

treatment facility, to the point where it is delivered to the users. Unlike the

82
transmission systems these systems deal with water demand that varies

considerably in the course of a day. Water consumption is highest during the

hours that water is used for personal hygiene and cleaning, and when food

preparation and clothes washing are done. Water use is lowest during the night.

This variation in flow can be dealt with by operating pumps in parallel

and/or building balancing storage in the system. For small community water

supplies the distribution system with water storage (e.g. a service reservoir) is

the preferable option, given that supplies of electricity or diesel to power pumps

will usually be unreliable. Although it can be kept simple, construction of such a

system may represent a substantial capital investment and the design must be

done properly.

Generally, the distribution system of a small community water supply is

designed to cater for the domestic and other household water requirements.

Stock watering and garden plot irrigation water may also be provided. Service

reservoirs accumulate and store water during the night so that it can be supplied

during the daytime hours of high water demand. It is necessary to maintain

sufficient pressure in the distribution system to protect it against contamination by

the ingress of polluted seepage water.

USES

 Plumbing

 Tap water

 Pipelines transporting gas or liquid over long distances

83
 Scaffolding

 Structural steel

 As components in mechanical systems such as:

 Rollers in conveyor belts

 Compactors (e.g.: steam rollers)

 Bearing casing

 Casing for concrete pilings used in construction projects

 High temperature or pressure manufacturing processes

 The petroleum industry:

 Oil well casing

 Oil refinery equipment

 Delivery of fluids, either gaseous or liquid, in a process plant from one point

to another point in the process

 Delivery of bulk solids, in a food or process plant from one point to another

point in the process

 The construction of high pressure storage vessels (note that large pressure

vessels are constructed from plate, not pipe owing to their wall thickness and

size).

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTING SYSTEM

There are basically two main layouts of a distribution network:

Branched configuration

84
Looped (or ”grid”)

Branched networks are predominantly used for small-capacity community

supplies delivering the water mostly through public standpipes and having few

house connections, if any. Although adequate, having in mind simplicity and

acceptable investment costs, branched networks have some disadvantages:

Low reliability, which affects all users located downstream of any breakdown in

the system

The following types of service connections may be distinguished:

•House connection

•Yard connection

•Public standpipe

•Group connection

A house connection is a water service pipe connected with in-house

plumbing to one or more taps, e.g. in the kitchen and bathroom. Usually 3/8 inch

(9 mm) and 1/2 inch (12 mm) taps are used. A typical layout is shown in figure

21.4.

The service pipe is connected to the distribution main in the street by

means of a T-piece. A special insert piece is mostly used for cast iron and ductile

iron pipes. Plastic (polyvinyl chloride or polyethylene), cast iron and galvanized

steel pipes are used for both house connections and yard connections.

Points at which the water is delivered to the users are called service connections.

The number and type of service connections has considerable influence on the

choice of a network layout.

85
 Group connections are outside taps that are shared by a clearly defined

group of households, often neighbors. They share the tap and pay the bill

together. Each family may pay the same (flat) share or contributions may be

weighed according to the estimated volume of water each family consumes.

Consumption estimates may be based on indicators such as family size and

composition and types of use by the different households. Sometimes the taps

can be locked and a local committee holds the key and manages the use and

financing.

Public standpipes can have one or more taps. Single-tap and double-tap

standpipes are the most common types in rural areas. They are made of

brickwork, masonry or concrete, or use wooden poles and similar materials. The

design should be done in close consultation with the users (especially women) in

order to arrive at an ergonomically optimal solution. Standpipes may have

platforms at different levels, making it easy for adults and children to use them

with containers of different sizes.

Cattle watering and/or washing and/or bathing facilities may be constructed

nearby. The design and often also the construction is best done in consultation

and with participation of the user households, i.e. both men and women.

Public taps drawing from a small reservoir represent an alternative method of

water distribution.

Each standpipe should be situated at a suitable point within the

community area in order to limit the distance the water users have to go to collect

their water. The walking distance for the most distant user of a standpipe should,

86
whenever possible, be limited to 200 m; in sparsely populated rural areas 500 m

may be acceptable. The required discharge capacity of a standpipe normally is

about 14-18 litres/minute at each outlet.

A single-tap standpipe should preferably be used by not more than 40-70

people; a multiple-tap standpipe may provide a reasonable service for up to 250-

300 persons; in no case should the number of users dependent on one standpipe

exceed 500.

Public standpipes can operate at a low pressure. Distribution systems that

serve only standpipes may therefore use low pressure piping, whereas the pipes

for distribution systems with house connections generally have to be of a higher

pressure class.

Water collected at a public standpipe will have to be carried home in a

container (bucket, jerry can, vessel, pot, etc.). This means that the water that was

safe at the moment of drawing may no longer be so at the moment it is used in

the house. Water consumption from standpipes generally is not higher than 20-

30 litres per person per day. This consumption increases when other facilities

(e.g. for washing/bathing) are added to reduce the amount of water women and

children have to carry home. Water use for other purposes than drinking and

cooking is likely to be curtailed when the water has to be fetched from a

standpipe. Yard and house connections will usually encourage a more generous

water use for personal hygiene and cleaning purposes.

Wastage of water from standpipes can be a serious problem, especially when

users fail to turn off the taps. Furthermore, poor drainage of spilled water may

87
cause stagnant pools of dirty water with the associated health hazards. It is also

not uncommon for the taps to be damaged by the users and pilferage sometimes

occurs. These problems occur particularly when designs do not meet the user

requirements, i.e. there has not been adequate consultation with the users

(women and men) and/or there are no clear management arrangements. One

way to cope with these problems is through payment for water consumed, which

is a fair and effective way of water demand management.

Often, those selling water are women, as they are chosen for their reliability and

trustworthiness, their need to be present for work within their own neighbourhood

and their suitability as hygiene promoters with other women and children.

In spite of their shortcomings, group connections and public standpipes

are really the only practical options for water distribution at minimum cost to a

large number of people who cannot afford the much higher costs of house or

yard connections. In fact, housing is frequently not suitably constructed to allow

the installation of internal plumbing. It would often be impossible for a small

community to obtain the substantial capital for a water distribution system with

house connections. Also, the costs of adequate disposal of the considerable

amounts of wastewater generated by a house- connected water supply service

would place an additional heavy financial burden on the community.

Consequently, public standpipes have to be provided and the principal concern

should be to lessen their inherent shortcomings as much as possible.

To achieve sustainability of this type of service, the management at the

public standpipe level needs special attention in terms of organization, O&M and

88
 cost recovery gives more specific information about this.

LAYOUT OF WATER DISTRIBUTING SYSTEM

There two types of layout.

1. Dead end or tree system

2. Grid iron system

DEAD END OR TREE SYSTEM

It is the system in which each street or block is supplied separately from

the main. So there is end of system at each end of the block.

Advantages

1. This type of system is good for a city which has been developed haphazardly.

2. As it required less number of valves so it is economical.

3. This type of system is easy to construct.

Disadvantages

This system is less desirable due to following reasons.

1. Large areas are cut off during repairing.

2. When tap is not opened for a long time, baterial growth may take place.

3. When tap is not operated for a long time, water may be contaminated.

89
GRID IRON SYSTEM

In grid iron system, the whole distribution system is interconnected. So the

water remains in circulation and there is no contamination of water. Because

water does not stand still at any point and it continues circulation.

Advantages

1. In this system, as the whole distribution system is interconnected, water can

reach from more than one direction.

2. It provides better quality of water.

3. During its repairing lesser area is cut off.

Disadvantages

1. The main problem in grid iron system is that a lot of valve to cut off a small area

in case of accidental hazards.

2. This system is difficult to design.

3. The network of pipes forming loops in possible only in well planned cities.

WATER SUPPLY

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial

organizations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of

pumps and pipes. Irrigation is covered separately.

90
 Drinking water quality has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical

dimension. There are thousands of parameters of water quality. In public water

supply systems water should, at a minimum, be disinfected—most commonly

through the use of chlorination or the use of ultra violet light—or it may need to

undergo treatment, especially in the case of surface water. For more details,

please see the separate entries on water quality, water treatment and drinking

water.

WATER CONSUMPTION

Water consumption in a community is characterized by several types of

demand, including domestic, public, commercial, and industrial uses. Domestic

demand includes water for drinking, cooking, washing, laundering, and other

household functions. Public demand includes water for fire protection, street

cleaning, and use in schools and other public buildings. Commercial and

industrial demands include water for stores, offices, hotels, laundries,

restaurants, and most manufacturing plants. There is usually a wide variation in

total water demand among different communities. This variation depends on

population, geographic location, climate, the extent of local commercial and

industrial activity, and the cost of water.

91
WATER PRESSURE

Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system. Water

mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a pressure

reducer located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In

poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to result only in a

trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures and waste

of water. Pressure in an urban water system is typically maintained either by a

pressurised water tank serving an urban area, by pumping the water up into

a water tower and relying on gravity to maintain a constant pressure in the

system or solely by pumps at the water treatment plant and repeater pumping

stations.

The effective pressure also varies because of the pressure loss due to

supply resistance even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may

have 5 metres of 15 mm lead pipe running from the iron main, so the kitchen tap

flow will be fairly unrestricted, so high flow. A rural consumer may have a

kilometre of rusted andlimed 22 mm iron pipe, so their kitchen tap flow will be

small.

Gravity water has a small pressure (say ¼ bar in the bathroom) so needs

wide pipes allow higher flows. This is fine for baths and toilets but is frequently

inadequate for showers. A booster pump or a hydrophore is installed to increase

and maintain pressure. For this reason urban houses are increasingly using

mains pressure boilers (combies) which take a long time to fill a bath but suit the

high back pressure of a shower.

92
WATER DEMAND VARIATION

The daily water demand in a community area will vary during the year due

to seasonal climate patterns, the work situation (e.g. harvest time) and other

factors, such as cultural or religious occasions. The typical figures for domestic

water usage and other water requirements as given in chapter 4 are the

averages. The maximum daily demand is usually estimated by adding 10-30% to

the average daily demand. Thus, the peak factor for the daily water demand (k1)

is 1.1-1.3.

The hourly variation in domestic water demand during the day is much

greater. Generally, two peak periods can be observed: one in the morning and

one late in the afternoon. The peak hour demand can be expressed as the

average hourly demand multiplied by the hourly peak factor (k2). For a particular

distribution area this factor depends on the size and character of the community

served. The hourly peak factor tends to be high for small villages. It is usually

lower for larger communities and small towns. Where roof tanks or other water

storage vessels are common, the hourly peak factor will be further reduced.

Usually, the factor k2 is chosen in the 1.5-2.5 range. Where a pipe connection is

designed to supply a small group of consumers, a higher value should be

adopted because of the effects of instantaneous demand. A water distribution

system is typically designed to cater for the maximum hourly demand. This peak

demand may then be computed as k1x k2x average hourly demand.

The above calculation reflects the situation of an existing system where

the average daily demand is obtained from the field, usually by measuring at

93
supply points. Hence, the registered demand and therefore the peak factors will

include leakage.

While developing a new system or extension, the starting point can also

be some specific consumption that does not necessarily include leakage. In that

case the leakage percentage has to be added in the following way:

Factor, f, in the equation is a unit conversion factor while l represents the

leakage percentage of the total quantity supplied to the system.

It is common to assume that ‘demand = consumption + leakage’. If in the

above example Qaverage daywould represent pure consumption, the peak hour

demand with leakage of, say, 20% becomes:

WATER CONSUMPTION

Water consumption in a community is characterized by several types of

demand, including domestic, public, commercial, and industrial uses. Domestic

demand includes water for drinking, cooking, washing, laundering, and other

household functions. Public demand includes water for fire protection, street

cleaning, and use in schools and other public buildings. Commercial and

industrial demands include water for stores, offices, hotels, laundries,

restaurants, and most manufacturing plants. There is usually a wide variation in

total water demand among different communities. This variation depends on

population, geographic location, climate, the extent of local commercial and

industrial activity, and the cost of water.

94
PIPE

A pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal, that

carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal

water system), as well as inside the building.

Piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids (liquids and gases) from

one location to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the

efficient transport of fluid.

Industrial process piping (and accompanying in-line components) can be

manufactured from wood, fiberglass, glass, steel, aluminum, plastic, copper,

and concrete. The in-line components, known as fittings, valves, and other

devices, typically sense and control the pressure, flow rate and temperature of

the transmitted fluid, and usually are included in the field of Piping Design (or

Piping Engineering). Piping systems are documented in piping and

instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary, pipes can be cleaned by

the tube cleaning process. Pipes are usually either supported from below or hung

from above (but may also be supported from the side), using devices called pipe

supports. Supports may be as simple as a pipe "shoe" which is akin to a half of

an I-beam welded to the bottom of the pipe; they may be "hung" using a clevis, or

with trapeze type of devices called pipe hangers. Pipe supports of any kind may

incorporate springs, snubbers, dampers, or combinations of these devices to

compensate for thermal expansion, or to provide vibration isolation, shock

control, or reduced vibration excitation of the pipe due to earthquake motion.

Some dampers are simply fluid dashpots, but other dampers may be active

95
hydraulic devices that have sophisticated systems that act to dampen peak

displacements due to externally imposed vibrations or mechanical shocks. The

undesired motions may be process derived (such as in a fluidized bed reactor) or

from a natural phenomenon such as an earthquake (design basis event or DBE).

Pipe hanger assembles are usually attached with pipe clamps. Possible

exposure to high temperatures and heavy loads should be included when

specifying which clamps are needed.

FITTINGS

Fittings are also used to split or join a number of pipes together, and for

other purposes. A broad variety of standardized pipe fittings are available; they

are generally broken down into either a tee, an elbow, a branch, a

reducer/enlarger, or a wye. Valves control fluid flow and regulate pressure.

The piping and plumbing fittings and valves articles discuss them further.

In order to function properly, a water distribution system requires several

types of fittings, including hydrants, shutoff valves, and other appurtenances. The

main purpose of hydrants is to provide water for firefighting. They also are used

for flushing water mains, pressure testing, water sampling, and washing debris

off public streets.

Many types of valves are used to control the quantity and direction of

water flow. Gate valves are usually installed throughout the pipe network. They

allow sections to be shut off and isolated during the repair of broken mains,

pumps, or hydrants. A type of valve commonly used for throttling and controlling

96
the rate of flow is the butterfly valve. Other valves used in water distribution

systems include pressure-reducing valves, check valves, and air-release valves.

Fittings are also used to split or join a number of pipes together, and for other

purposes. A broad variety of standardized pipe fittings are available; they are

generally broken down into either a tee, an elbow, a branch, a reducer/enlarger,

or a wye. Valves control fluid flow and regulate pressure. The piping and

plumbing fittings and valves articles discuss them further.

INSTALLATION

Water mains must be placed roughly 1 to 2 meters (3 to 6 feet) below the

ground surface in order to protect against traffic loads and to prevent freezing.

Since the water in a distribution system is under pressure, pipelines can follow

the shape of the land, uphill as well as downhill. They must be installed with

proper bedding and backfill. Compaction of soil layers under the pipe (bedding)

as well as above the pipe (backfill) is necessary to provide proper support. A

water main should never be installed in the same trench with a sewer line. Where

the two must cross, the water main should be placed above the sewer line.

PUMP

Many kinds of pumps are used in distribution systems. Pumps that lift

surface water and move it to a nearby treatment plant are called low-lift pumps.

These move large volumes of water at relatively low discharge pressures. Pumps

that discharge treated water into arterial mains are called high-lift pumps. These

97
operate under higher pressures. Pumps that increase the pressure within the

distribution system or raise water into an elevated storage tank are called booster

pumps. Well pumps lift water from underground and discharge it directly into a

distribution system.

TYPES OF PIPE

Recognizing the different types of pipes within your house is vital to

knowing the right repair technique.

The most common pipes used today are copper, PVC, or ABS. However,

when dealing with older homes, you might encounter a number of other piping

material. For example, homes built before 1960 used galvanized steel or cast

iron DWV (drain/waste/vent) pipe systems.

Here’s a quick look at types of pipes commonly used in homes, beginning with

the pipes used for DWV systems.

Cast iron: Commonly used before 1960 for the vertical drain, vent stacks, and

sometimes the horizontal drain lines. Cast iron is durable, but can rust over time.

Call a professional plumber to replace rusted sections with plastic (PVC or ABS)

and the correct transition fittings.

Plastic: Plastic pipe comes as either ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) or

PVC (polyvinyl-chloride). Most homes since mid-1970 have plastic pipes and

fittings because it’s inexpensive and easy to use. Simply glue the joints using a

primer and liquid cement.

98
ABS: This black pipe was the first plastic pipe to be used in residential plumbing.

Today, many areas don’t allow ABS in new construction because joints can come

loose. Check with your local plumbing inspector if you want to use ABS.

PVC: This white or cream-colored pipe is the most commonly used pipe for drain

lines. It’s strong, untouchable by chemicals, and seems to last forever! The rating

and diameter is stamped right on the pipe.

Schedule 40 PVC is strong enough for residential drain lines, but check with your

plumbing inspector first. CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) pipe has the

strength of PVC but is heat-resistant, which makes it acceptable in many regions

for use on interior supply lines. Schedule 80 PVC is sometimes used for cold-

water supply lines, but it isn’t allowed in some regions because it isn’t suitable for

hot water.

PEX: PEX (cross-linked polyethylene) is the newest pipe for residential use.

Approved in many regions of the country, PEX is easy to install because it cuts

easily, is flexible, and uses compression fittings. However, more permanent

connections require a special crimping tool. PEX is three to four times more

expensive than copper or plastic.

Steel: Galvanized steel pipe is common in older homes. Galvanized pipe is

strong, but lasts only about 50 years. Before repairing, consider replacing

instead. Call a professional to deal with it.

Copper: Copper pipe is resists corrosion, so it’s commonly used pipe in water

supply lines. It costs more than plastic but it lasts! There are two common types

of copper pipe:

99
Rigid copper, which comes in three thicknesses. Type M is the thinnest but is

strong enough for most homes. Types L and Type K are thicker and used in

outdoor and drain applications. To cut rigid copper, you'll need a wheel cutter,

tube cutter, or a hacksaw. Pipes are usually connected with soldered (sweat)

fittings and compression fittings can connect the pipe to shut-off valves.

Flexible copper, which is often used for dishwashers, refrigerator icemakers,

and other appliances that need a water supply. It’s easy to bend, but if it kinks,

you must cut the piece off and replace it. Sections of flexible copper pipe are

joined using either soldered or compression fittings.

"Piping" sometimes refers to Piping Design, the detailed specification of the

physical piping layout within a process plant or commercial building. In earlier

days, this was sometimes called Drafting, Technical drawing, Engineering

Drawing, and Design but is today commonly performed by Designers who have

learned to use automated Computer Aided Drawing / Computer Aided Design

(CAD) software.

PIPELINE

The pipeline system of a municipal water distribution network consists of

arterial water mains or primary feeders, which convey water from the treatment

plant to areas of major water use in the community, and smaller-diameter

pipelines called secondary feeders, which tie in to the mains. Usually not less

than 150 mm (6 inches) in diameter, these pipelines are placed within the public

right-of-way so that service connections can be made for all potential water

100
users. The pipelines are usually arranged in a gridiron pattern that allows water

to circulate in interconnected loops; this permits any broken sections of pipe to

be isolated for repair without disrupting service to large areas of the community.

“Dead-end” patterns may also be used, but they do not permit circulation, and the

water they provide is more susceptible to taste and odour problems because of

stagnation.

A water distribution pipeline must be able to resist internal and external

forces, as well as corrosion. Pipes are placed under stress by internal water

pressure, by the weight of the overlying soil, and by vehicles passing above.

They may have to withstand water-hammer forces; these occur when valves are

closed too rapidly, causing pressure waves to surge through the system. In

addition, metal pipes may rust internally if the water supply is corrosive or

externally because of corrosive soil conditions.

TUBE

The term "tube" is almost interchangeable, although minor distinctions

exist — generally, a tube has tighter engineering requirements than a pipe. Both

pipe and tube imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas a hose is usually

portable and flexible. A tube and pipe may be specified by standard pipe size

designations, e.g., nominal pipe size, or by nominal outside or inside diameter

and/or wall thickness. The actual dimensions of pipe are usually not the nominal

dimensions: A 1-inch pipe will not actually measure 1 inch in either outside or

101
inside diameter, whereas many types of tubing are specified by actual inside

diameter, outside diameter, or wall thickness.

102
 CHAPTER III

DESIGN PROCESS

A. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Design Consideration

Water Source: Deep Well

Water Storage: Elevated Vertical Cylindrical Steel

Type of Pump: Centrifugal Pump (One Operating Unit and One Standby

Unit)

Pump Drive: Electric Motor

Type of Consumer: Residential

Faucet Outlet Pressure Load: 7m

Water Velocity: 1.25 m/s

Peak Factor: 1.5

Peak Hours: 6:00am – 10:00 am

5:00pm – 8pm

Pipe Materials: Cast Iron

Load Projection: 5 years

103
I. Area Description

Tabangao Ambulong is located in the City of Batangas in the province of

Batangas which is in the Island of Luzon and classified as within Region IV-A.

Ilaya Proper is located at Barangay Tabangao Ambulong, Batangas City.

II. For Population

For the year 2016:

Number of families= 65

Number of individuals= 308 persons

For the year 2021:

Population Growth = 13%

P2 = P1 (1+ GR)n

= 65 (1+ 0.13)5

104
P2 = 119.76 households

P2 = 120 households

P2 = P1 (1+ GR)n

= 308 (1+ 0.13)5

P2 = 567.47 individuals

P2 = 568individuals

105
III. Socio Economic Profile

No. of families = 65

No. of individuals = 308 persons

GENDER MALE FEMALE

61 (49.59%) 62 (50.41%)

AGE 0-20y/o 21-40y/o 41-60y/o 60-80y/o

122(39.61%) 85(27.60%) 64(20.78%) 37(12.01%)

CIVIL SINGLE MARRIED WIDOW

STATUS 173(56.17%) 131(42.53%) 4(1.30%)

NUMBER OF NONE ONE TWO THREE FOUR/ MORE

CHILDREN 7(10.77%) 9(13.85%) 12(18.46%) 14(21.53%) 23(35.38%)

TOTAL 1,000- 25,000 26,000- 50,000 51,000- 75,000 76,000- 100,000

MONTHLY 32(49.23%) 18(27.69%) 8(12.31%) 7(10.77%)

INCOME

106
IV. For Water Demand analysis

1. DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND

For year 2016

No. of households = 65

Number of individuals = 308

Water consumption per person (daily basis) = 350 liters/person

Water consumption for livestock (daily basis) = 1000 liters/ day

Domestic Water Demand =308 person x 350 liters/person-day + 1000 liters/ day

= 108, 800 liters /day

= 108,800 liters/day (1day/24hours) (1hour/3600secs)

Domestic Water Demand = 1.259lps

For year 2021

Since P2 = 568individuals

And assuming there will be an increase in water demand in livestock,

assuming 1200 liters/ day

Domestic Water Demand = 568 persons x 350L/person-day + 1200 liters/day

= 200,000 liters/day

= 200,000 L/day (1 day/24 hours)(1hour/3600s)

Domestic Water Demand =2.314 lps

107
V. Water unaccounted for

Water unaccounted for = 20% of the total production of water

= 2.314 lps x 0.20

Water unaccounted for =0. 4628 lps

Total water demand = Domestic water demand + Water unaccounted for

= 2.314 lps + 0.4628 lps

Total water demand = 2.7768 lps

VI. For Water Demand analysis

Maximum water demand = 1.25 times the total water demand

= 1.25 (2.7768)

Maximum water demand = 3.471lps

Peak factor = 1.50 times the total water demand

= 1.50 (2.7768)

Peak factor= 4.1652lps

108
B. Technical Aspect

a. Pumping System

1. Total dynamic suction head

Solution for the suction line:

Assume velocity = 1.25 m/s

Q= 4.1652 lps = 0.0041652m3/s

V= 1.25 m/s

Q=AV ; A= Q/V

πDi2/4 = 0.0041652/1.25

Di = 0.06514m

Di = 65.14mm.

Di= 2.5646in.

Use schedule no.40

Inside Diameter Sch.40 = 2.5646in = 2.469in= 0.0627126m

Nearest nominal diameter =2.5in = 0.0635m

Q= AV

0.0041652= [π (0.0635m)2/ 4] x V

V= 1.3152 m/s

109
Reynold’s Number

𝜌𝑉𝐷𝑖
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑢

1000(1.3152)(0.0627126)
𝑅𝑒 =
0.0012002

Re= 6.8721x104

Relative Roughness

ε 0.00025
e= =
Di 0.0627126

e = 0.00399

Friction factor(using Moody Chart or Diagram)

f = 0.028

Equivalent Length using Crane

1𝑚
1 Standard elbow 2.5” nominal diameter 6ft x 3.28𝑓𝑡 = 1.829m.

1𝑚
1 Gate valve (fully open) 2.5” nominal diameter 1.5ft x = 0.457m.
3.28𝑓𝑡

Straight Pipe 30m.

Total Length 32.286m

110
HEAD LOSS AT THE SUCTION LINE

𝐿 𝑉2 32.286 (1.3152)2
HLS = 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔 = 0.028 0.0627126 2(9.81)

HLS = 1.2709m

2. Total Dynamic Discharge Head

For the discharge line:

Assume Velocity = 2.0 m/s

Q= 0.0041652m3/s

V=2.0m/s

Q=AV ; A= Q/V

πDi2/4 = 0.0041652/2.0

Di = 0.05149m

Di = 51.49mm.

Di= 2.0272 in.

Use schedule no. 40

Inside Diameter Sch.40 = 2.0272 in = 2.067in = 0.0525m

Nearest nominal diameter = 2 in.

Use Schedule no. 40 and 2 in nominal diameter

111
V= Q/A

= 4(0.0041652)/ π(0.0525)2

V= 1.924 m/s

Reynold’s Number

𝜌𝑉𝐷𝑖
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑢

1000(1.924)(.0525)
=
0.0012002

Re= 8.4160x 104

Relative Roughness

ε 0.00025
e= =
Di 0.0525

e = 0.00476

Friction factor

(Using Moody Chart)

FRICTION FACTOR

f = 0.0295

112
Equivalent Length using Crane
1𝑚
2 Standard elbow 2” nominal diameter 2[5.2ft x3.28𝑓𝑡] = 3.1707m.

1𝑚
1 Gate valve (fully open) 2” nominal diameter 1.30 ft x 3.28𝑓𝑡= 0.396m.

1 Check Valve 5m

Straight Pipe 40m.

Total Length 48.5667m

HEAD LOSS @ DISCHARGE LINE

𝐿 𝑉2 48.5667 (1.924)2
HLD = 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔 = 0.0295 0.0525 2(9.81)

HLD= 5.1489m

TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD (TDH)

ZA = 15m since below the centerline (= -15m)

ZB= 12m

HLAB= HLS+HLD

HLAB= 1.2709m + 5.1489m

HLAB= 6.4198m

TDH = ZB –ZA+ HLAB

= 12m – (- 15m) + (6.1489m)

TDH = 33.1489m

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PUMP SPECIFICATION

Given data: Q= 0.0041652m3/s

H= 6.1489m

N= 3450 rpm

𝑵√𝑸
Ns= 51.65523641𝑯(𝟎.𝟕𝟓)

3450√0.0041652
Ns= 51.65523641 6.1489(0.75)

Ns= 2, 493.978 rpm.

Therefore, use Francis type impeller pump. (Ns=1500 to 4500 rpm)

BRAKE POWER

Data: Q= 0.0041652m3/s

TDH= 33.1489m

Assuming: ɧ= 80%

𝜌𝑔𝑄𝑇𝐷𝐻 1000(9.81)(0.0041652)(33.1489)
BP = =
1000𝜂 1000(0.80)

BP= 1.693 KW X 1hp/ 0.746KW

BP = 2.27hp

114
For Tank Capacity

DATA:

Cylindrical Tank

Diameter = 4m

Radius=2m

Height= 8m

Volume of a Cylindrical Tank

V= πr2h

= π (2m)2(8m)

V= 100.53cubic meter x 1000 L/1cubic meter

V= 100, 530 Liters

115
 CHAPTER IV

ECONOMIC ASPECT

This chapter presents the water system economics of the designed

potable water system at Ilaya Proper, Tabangao Ambulong, Batangas City.

System Economics

Several conditions should be satisfied from the rate of change for the

water supply, these conditions are:

Fairness- The rates should distribute the costs where they rightfully belong

taking full account of the variable conditions of the of the customer’s demand.

Simplicity- The rates should not be so complicated as to cause an

opposition or antagonism from a public which is frequently distrustful of “new

fangled” ideas.

Cost- The financial outlay in meters and cost-accounting systems by the

electric company should not be so heavy as to increase costs to more than can

be saved by their installation

The factors which must be taken into account in arriving at the value of the

fixed element of the cost are.

Capital Cost of the potable water supply system

 Real state

 Building and equipment

 Engineering fees

116
 Capital Cost of Primary Distribution System

 Cost of right of way

 Cost of line

 Cost of substations

Interest, Taxation, and Insurance Rates

-The rate of which the Capital Cost is written off to Depreciation and

Obsolescence. Salvage Values

Management Cost

-The amount of general Maintenance which would be required whether or

not the system were operated.

117
A. Capital Cost

The capital cost of the system includes equipment cost and miscellaneous

cost. Miscellaneous cost includes the cost of other materials that are not included

in equipment cost of building the proposed water system.

SUPPLIER PRICE PER TOTAL COST

Equipment Quantity
UNIT

China (Mainland) | $9500

Water tank 1 Manufacturer, (1$= Php46.00) Php437,000.00

Trading Company

Tangshan
Cast-iron pipe
30m + Xingbang Pipeline $20/ meter Php61, 180.00
(ASME B16.4;
40m= 70m Engineering
ASME B16.12)
Equipment Co., Ltd.

New Antonio’s
Check valve 2
Trading Php 4,648.00/pc Php 9, 296.00

New Antonio’s Php 4,105.00/pc Php4,105.00

Gate valve 1
Trading

Francis type Topsteel Builders Php 23, 250.00 Php 23, 250.00
1
impeller pump Inc.

TOTAL Php534,831.00

Source: google.com, New

Antonio’s Trading & Top
Steel Builders Inc.

Table4. Equipment Cost Specification

118
 The cost specification given is the basis for the calculation of equipment

cost.

Assuming that there will be other miscellaneous cost for important a

purpose which is equivalent to 15% of the equipment cost.

Total miscellaneous cost= 0.15(Equipment cost)

Total miscellaneous cost= 0.15(Php534, 831. 00)

Total miscellaneous cost= Php80, 224.65

CC = Equipment Cost + Total Miscellaneous Cost

CC = Php534, 831. 00+ Php80, 224.65

CC = Php 615, 055.65

Annual water supply Produced = 200,000L/day × 335 days

Annual water supply Produced = 67, 000, 000 liters

Note: There will be approximately one month (30 days) unoperational

days for maintenance purposes. (Assuming 2 days per month)

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Annual Operating Cost

It basically includes labor, maintenance and material cost, and cost for

supplies, taxes and supervision. These include most of the frequent cost

elements associated with the operation of the system.

Running Cost

Percentage Analysis of Operating Cost

Assumed
Item Percentage, %
Percentage

Labor 5% - 75% 10

Maintenance 5% -20% 12
and Material
Supplies 1% - 5% 4

Operating Taxes 0% - 10% 8

TOTAL 34

Based on computations used in Power Plant Engineering.

Table5. Operating Cost Percentage Analysis

Labor Cost, LC

Considering LC is 10% of the total capital cost,

LC = 0.10 × total capital cost

LC = 0.10 × Php 615, 055.65

LC = Php61,505.565

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Maintenance Cost, MC

Considering MC is 12% of the total capital cost,

MC = 0.12 × total capital cost

MC = 0.12 × Php615, 055.65

MC = Php73,806.678

Supplies, S

Considering S is 4% of the total capital cost,

S = 0.04 × total running cost

S = 0.04 x Php 615, 055.65

S = Php 24,602.226

Operating Taxes, OT

Considering OT is 8% of the total capital cost,

OT = 0.08 × total capital cost

OT = 0.08 x Php615, 055.65

OT = Php 49, 204.452

121
 Summary of Operating Expenses

Percentage
Item Cost (Php)
used, %

Labor 10 Php61,505.565

Maintenance and Php73,806.678

15
Material

Php 24,602.226
Supplies 4

Operating Taxes 8 Php 49, 204.452

Total 37 Php209, 118.921

Table6. Summary of Operating Expenses

Depreciation

By straight line method from the Engineering Economy by Arreola, the

annual depreciation rate is 1 to 5% of the capital cost; considering 3%.

Annual water supply Depreciation = Annual depreciation rate × capital

cost

Annual water supply Depreciation = 0.03 (Php615, 055.65)

Annual water supply Depreciation = Php18, 451.6695

122
Project Forecast

The following assumptions will be considered for economic analyses of

the project.

• The cost of water supply generation for the first year of operation is

estimated at Php14.35/m3 (source: Ambulong Rural Waterworks and

Sanitation Association or ARWASA)

The revenue for the system operation is the product of annual energy produced

and the power generation price giving the equation,

Revenue = Annual Energy Produced x Power Generation Price

=67,000,000liters x (1m3/ 1000 liters) x (Php14.35 / m3)

Revenue = Php 961, 450.00

A typical value of rate of return is 8 to 12%, of the revenue, consider 8%.

Profit Element = 0.08 (Php961, 450. 00)

Profit Element = Php 76, 916.00

Annual investment charges = (LC + MC + S + OT + annual water supply

depreciation cost)

Annual investment charges= Php209, 118.921+ Php18, 451.6695

Annual investment charges = Php227, 570.5905

Annual Production Cost = Annual investment charges+ profit element

123
Annual Production Cost = Php227, 570.5905+ Php 76, 916.00

Annual Production Cost = Php 304, 486.5905

Total Capital Cost = Capital Cost + Annual Production Cost

Total Capital Cost = Php 615, 055.65+ Php 304, 486.5905

Total Capital Cost = Php 919, 542.2405

124
 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations of the

designed Proposed Potable Water Supply in Ilaya Proper, Tabangao Ambulong,

Batangas City.

I. Conclusions

1. The potable water supply system can be designed according to the type of

sources of water and the type of community to be supplied. It also be

designed according to the water demand of the chosen community.

2. Potable water supply system is important in order to supply the water

needs of the consumer.

3. The capacity of the designed potable water supply system must be

according to the demand of the consumer and other factors available.

4. The potable water supply system’s efficiency has not been greatly affected

by technical modifications that were made. Evaluation of every equipment

and system’s auxiliaries were accomplished.

125
5. Requesting some related references for water system designing,

operation and management from the existing company with relevance to

the waterworks/ water supply system, on-line information using the

internet, books and other paraphernalia regarding the system design, the

group has been provided the equipment specifications and their actual

prices.

6. The economic aspect of the designed water supply system was evaluated

based on the manufacturer’s data from the existing waterworks/ water

system companies.

126
II. Recommendations

From this point of view, the researchers come up with the following

recommendations:

1. Additional information through consultation to the concerned person helps

the proposed project to enhance the design and make it more possible

and presentable for the actual water supply system construction.

2. Awareness of the recent water supply system operations and equipments

for technical modifications to upgrade a more advanced water supply

system operation necessary to level up its efficiency.

3. Building up new techniques and principles regarding the water supply

system to come up with the best, high quality, and first class water supply

system which will satisfy the demand of the consumers.

127
LOAD CURVES

128
129
130
131
APPENDIX

132
133
134
135
136
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_Philippines

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water

http://cee.eng.usf.edu/peacecorps/5%20-

%20Resources/Theses/Water/2003Reents.pdf

http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c07/e2-14-03-03.pdf

https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=02IbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA255&lpg=PA255

&dq=related+literature+about+design+of+potable+water+supply&source=bl&ots=

05GhWiRt5n&sig=Wo6qraDY3rOBSsxVz1jvXn5in7A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUK

EwjBmtG9oYjLAhUDIaYKHTJZAz0Q6AEIUDAG#v=onepage&q=related%20liter

ature%20about%20design%20of%20potable%20water%20supply&f=false

http://www.gwp.org/Global/ToolBox/Case%20Studies/Americas%20and%20Cari

bbean/Argentina.%20Drinking%20water%20supply%20system%20for%20rural%

20population%20of%20Eastern%20Tucuman%20%28%23437%29.pdf

http://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Smits-2005-Literature.pdf

https://www.mtu.edu/peacecorps/programs/civil/pdfs/nathan-reents-thesis-

final.pdf

http://dirp3.pids.gov.ph/ris/dps/pidsdps0938.pdf

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPHILIPPINES/Resources/RWSVolIDesign

Manual.pdf

https://www.google.com.ph/?gws_rd=ssl#q=related+literature+about+design+of+

potable+water+supply.

http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-61187-2_3

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SYSTEM LAY OUT

138