SUBMITTED TO

MAM HAJRA
SUBMITTED BY
AROOJ MUSHTAQ ( 009)
ZARISH GULRAIZ ( 060)
NIRMAL RAIZ ( 039)
UMMARA AFZAL ( 056)
DEVELOPMENT SYEDA FATIMA ABBAS ( 049)
Mahnoor Farooq (026)
IN INFANCY BS PSYCHOLOGY
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 6TH SEMSETER

FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY RAWALPINDI CAMPUS

DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 1

Infancy
Infant” is derived from the Latin word, “infants,” meaning “unable to speak.” Thus, many define
infancy as the period from birth to approximately 2 years of age, when language begins to flourish.

Growth and developmental running side by side during infancy:

Growth Development
Growth is the physical change that a particular Development of the overall growth of humans
individual undergoes. throughout their lifespan which includes an
understanding of how and why people change
in terms of physical growth, intellectual,
emotional, social, and other aspects of human
growth.

Characteristics of Infancy

1. Infancy is the shortest of all developmental periods

Infancy covers the very small age group say that of 1 to 2 years only as compared to other
developmental periods.

2. Infancy is a time of radical adjustment

Before the child is born, he had adjusted himself to the environment of the mother’s womb. After
birth, the struggle for adjustment to the outer world starts. The moment the baby is born, he has to
learn to breathe and suck. Very soon he is given toilet training.

Therefore, he/she has to learn to communicate his needs through different reactions like crying,
kicking, hand movements etc.

3. Infancy is a plateau in development

When the baby is born, his earlier growth pattern stops at the time of birth. He has to learn new
ways to grow and adapting to those ways quickly. For example, after birth, he loses newborn
weight and again with feed and massage, he starts gaining weight depending on the quality of feed,
security, and warmth that he receives.
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4. Infancy is a preview of later development

Infancy can be used as a prediction to forecast future development that is supposed to take place
because personality traits that baby shows are relatively permanent.

5. Infancy is a hazardous period

There can be a lot of physical as well as psychological hazards in the infancy. The baby has to
learn to breathe and suck unless he will get weak. There can be hazards because of maternal
attitude. If the mother is irritating and does not provide timely feed to the child and is cursing and
treating the baby in a harsh manner. The baby does not feel secure and is not able to take feed
properly which hampers the growth of the baby.

Brain Development in Infants

Connections that are used become strengthened and survive, while the unused ones are replaced
by other pathways or disappear. Connections that are not used are removed.

After the first birthday, pruning occurs more quickly. A 2-year-old child has twice as many
connections as an adult. By 10 years, a child has nearly 500 trillion synapses, which is the same as
the average adult. It contains approximately 100 billion+ neurons, rapid growth begins in all areas,
Frontal lobes are immature, Occipital & Temporal Lobe progression and Sensory areas of the
Parietal Lobe mature.

Research Regarding Brain Development

Study Shows Breastfeeding Improves Brain Development in Infants.

A study from Brown University in 2013 shows that breastfeeding improves brain development in
infants, providing better brain development than a combination of breastfeeding and formula,
which produced better development than formula alone.

The extra growth was most pronounced in parts of the brain associated with language, emotional
function, and cognition, the research showed.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 3

Figure 1: MRI images, taken while children were asleep, showed that infants who were exclusively breastfed for at
least three months had enhanced development in key parts of the brain compared to children who were fed formula or
a combination of formula and breastmilk. (Sean C.L. Deoni, et al.,2013)

Division of Infancy Stages

1. Newborn/neonate = 0-2 months

2. Infant/baby = 2 months to 1 year
3. Toddler = 1 year to 2 years

Developmental Milestones

They are behaviors or physical skills seen in infants and children as they grow and develop. Rolling
over, crawling, walking, and talking are all considered milestones. The milestones are different for
each age range

Dimension of Development

1. Physical (body)

2. Cognitive (thinking/language/visual) development

3. Social-emotional (getting along with others)

DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 4

Classification of Milestones

18
First 1 to 3 4 to 7 8 to 12 13 -18 months
month months months months months to 2
years

a) First month

During the first month of life, most of a baby's behavior is reflexive, meaning that his/her reactions
are automatic. Some of the newborn reflexes are described below.

Mouthing/oral reflexes: These reflexes are important for a baby's survival, helping them find the
source of food. The sucking and swallowing reflexes are most important. A baby will
automatically begin to suck when their mouth or lips are touched.

1. The rooting reflex is when the baby turns his head toward your hand if their cheek is
touched. This helps the baby find the nipple for feeding. This response is called the rooting
reflex and begins to fade around 4 months of age.

2. Cry reflex: Infants have a cry reflex that is a normal response to stimuli, such as pain or
hunger.

General body reflexes: Reflexes, or reflex actions, are involuntary, almost instantaneous
movements in response to a specific stimulus.

1. Startle (Moro) reflex: The startle reflex occurs when a baby hears a loud noise or when
he falls backward, his arms and legs extend away from his body. This reflex is most
noticeable during the first month and usually fades by 2 or 3 months.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 5

2. Planter grasp reflex: The plantar grasp reflex is elicited by pressing a thumb against the
sole of a foot just behind the toes

Facial reflexes: They first appear in infancy and remain active throughout life, supporting a broad
range of needs essential to human survival, including breathing, rooting, eating and general
neurovascular function. Accessing and managing visual, auditory, and other sensory system input.

1. Blink reflex: It is an involuntary blinking of the eyelids elicited by stimulation of the

cornea (such as by touching or by a foreign body), though it could result from any
peripheral stimulus.

2. Doll’s eye reflex: Doll's eye reflex can be noted with the infant supine (lying on the back)
and slowly turning the head to either side. The infant's eyes will remain stationary. This
reflex should disappear between three to four months of age

End of the first month

By the end of the first month of life, most babies may display the following:

1. Raises head when on stomach a couple of seconds.

2. Keeps hands in tight fists.

3. Focuses 8-12 inches away, looks at objects and faces, and prefers the human face over
other patterns. Black and white objects are preferred over those of various colors.

4. Shows a behavioral response when hearing a noise (such as eye blinking, acting startled,
change in movements or breathing rate).

b) Milestones 1 to 3 Months
1. Between 1-3 months of age, babies begin the transformation from being a totally dependent
newborn to becoming an active and responsive infant.
2. Many of the newborn reflexes are lost by this age. At this age, a baby's vision changes
dramatically; he becomes more aware and interested in his/her surroundings.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 6

Motor Skills

1. Supports the head and upper body when on the stomach

2. Stretches out legs and kick when on stomach or back.

3. Opens and shut hands.

4. Brings hands to mouth.

5. Grabs and shakes hand toys.

6. Swipes and bats at dangling objects.

7. Pushes down legs when on a flat surface.

8. Follows moving objects with eyes.

9. Turning their head to face the stimulus.

Visual skills

1. The human face becomes more interesting, as do bright, primary-colored objects.

2. A baby might follow a moving object, recognize familiar things and people at a distance,
and start using his/her hands and eyes in coordination.

3. At this age, babies usually turn toward familiar voices and smile at their parent's faces or
other familiar faces.

Language

1. Makes cooing sounds such as ooo or aaa).

Social/Emotional Skills

1. Smiles at familiar faces

2. Develop trust as their parents meet their needs

3. They cry to express anger, pain, and hunger. It is their way of communicating

4. Enjoys playing with other people

DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 7

c) Milestones between 4 to 7 Months

From 4-7 months of age, babies learn to coordinate their new perceptive abilities (including vision,
touch, and hearing) and motor skills such as grasping, rolling over, sitting up, and maybe even
crawling.

Babies now have more control over what they will or will not do, unlike earlier months in which
they mainly reacted by reflex. Babies will explore toys by touching them and putting them in their
mouths instead of just looking at them. They can also communicate better and will do more than
simply cry when they are hungry or tired or when they want a change in activity or a different toy.

Many children at about 6 to 7 months of age demonstrate separation anxiety and may show
displeasure if taken away from a parent.

Motor Skills

1. Rolls over both ways (stomach to back, back to stomach).

2. Sits up with, and then without, support of his hands.

3. Reaches for an object with one hand using the raking grasp.

4. Transfers objects from hand to hand.

5. Supports whole weight when on legs and held upright.

6. Explores objects with hands and mouth.

7. Explores objects by banging and shaking.

8. Discover their feet and toes.

Visual Skills

1. Babies' broadening range of vision is apparent as they concentrate and focus on objects and
follow movements.
2. Babies at this age like increasingly complex patterns and shapes.
3. They also like looking at themselves in a mirror.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 8

Language Skills

1. Laughs

2. Babbles consonants (like ba-ba-ba-ba-ba)

3. Now they raise and lower their voices as if asking a question or making a statement.

Social/Emotional Skills

1. Distinguishes emotions by tone of voice.

2. Finds partially hidden objects.

3. learn to recognize the faces and voices of parents.

4. Babies have developed a strong attachment for their parents, and they may show a
preference for their primary caretakers; however, babies at this age usually smile and play
with everyone they meet.

d) Milestones between 8 to 12 Months

Crawling is important for the development of integrated communication between the two sides of
the brain. Babies become increasingly more mobile during this stage; now is the time to childproof
so baby can explore and discover without the possibility of injury.

Baby gates are important to block off stairs or rooms that could be dangerous (such as bathrooms).

By the end of this stage, babies begin to use the pincer grasp, using the thumb and first or second
finger to pick up small objects. As babies learn how to open fingers, they are able to drop and
throw things. Babies also more thoroughly investigate objects by shaking them, banging them, and
moving them from hand to hand. Babies are interested in objects with moving parts, such as wheels
and things that open and close. They also like to poke their fingers through holes.

During this stage, babies also learn object permanence, the concept that an object still exists when
taken out of their sight. For example, if a toy is hidden under a blanket, babies will pick up the
blanket and search for it. Babies also learn that objects have functions besides being just something
to chew on or bang with (such as a hairbrush or phone).
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 9

Separation anxiety may recur and stranger anxiety may develop during this period and are a
normal part of babies' emotional development. Separation anxiety occurs when parents leave a
babies' sight, resulting in great distress with fussing and crying. Separation anxiety usually peaks
between ages 9-18 months and fades before their second birthday. Stranger anxiety is a reaction
of distress with an infant encounters a stranger.

By the end of this period, most babies have reached the following milestones:

Motor Skills

1. Gets in and out of a sitting position independently.

2. Gets on hands-and-knees position and crawls.

3. Pulls self-up to standing position walks holding on to furniture, stands without the support
and, eventually, takes a few steps without the support and begins to walk.

4. Uses a pincer grasp (thumb and first finger).

5. Places object into a container and take them out of the container.

Visual Skills

1. Hand-eye coordination increases.

2. It begins to do more functional activities; such as hold a spoon or turn pages in a book.
3. Have an alert peripheral vision.
4. Holds simple, familiar objects, such as biscuits or bottles.

Language Skills

1. Says "mama" and "dada" and uses these terms specifically referring to a parent.
2. Uses exclamations such as "oh-oh!"
3. Tries to imitate words and may say the first word.
4. Uses simple gestures, such as shaking head for "no" or waving for "bye-bye".
5. Plays interactive gesture games, such as pat-a-cake and peek-a-boo.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 10

Social/Emotional Skills

1. Easily finds hidden objects.

2. Uses objects correctly such as holding the phone up to ear or drinking from a cup.

3. Is shy around strangers.

4. Cries when mom or dad leaves.

e) Milestones between 13 to 18 Months

Motor Skills

1. By this time period, most toddlers learn to walk without support.

2. The toddler may also be able to pick up toys without sitting down.
3. They are able to walk up and downstairs and even jump.
4. They can also throw a ball and stack 3-4 cubes to build a tower.

Visual Skills

1. Good tracking skills.

2. Judges distance more accurately when grasping & throwing objects (look out!).
3. Eye-hand coordination continues to improve.

Language Skills: Your toddler may be speaking many words by now, some of them may even be
intelligible.

1. Say several single words

2. Say the word "no" and shake her head
3. Respond to questions

Social Skills: toddler needs their parents or caregivers, all the time.

1. They may also drink from a cup and eat with a spoon.
2. Has temper tantrums.
3. Understand ownership (mine).
4. Imitates others.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 11

f) Milestones between 19 to 2 Years

Motor Skills

1. The toddler starts running now.

2. It can hold a crayon and color vertical strokes.
3. May also be able to build a tower using six or more cubes.

Visual Skills

1. Scans an array of two to three pictures.

2. Watches and imitates the actions of other children.
3. Recognizes familiar adults in the photograph.
4. Finds detail in picture books.
5. Assembles three-to-four-piece puzzle.

Language Skills

1. I can have a good conversation.

2. >50 words, 75% understood by strangers.
3. The toddler is able to join two-three words together to form a sentence.

Social Skills

1. Many toddlers learn to be dry by day during this age.

2. Begin parallel play.
3. Begin to gain independence from parents.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 12

Red Flags in Infant Development

Figure 2: Saleem, Azad. (2015). Red flags missed milestones requiring intervention. Retrieved
from:https://www.slideshare.net/azadsaleem/developmental-milestones-in-children-for-
undergraduates.

Important Theories in Child Development

i. Erikson Psychosocial Theory of Development

Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development include trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.
shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs.
isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences
a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality
development.

Parents & other caregivers must be aware of, and sensitive to, children's needs at each stage of
development and support them through crises.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 13

Stages Catering Infancy Period

1. Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope

During the first or second year of life, the major emphasis is on the mother and father’s nurturing
ability and care for a child, especially in terms of visual contact and touch. The child will develop
optimism, trust, confidence, and security if properly cared for and handled. If a child does not
experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust in the
world.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame – Will

The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child has an opportunity
to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skills and right from wrong. The well-
cared-for child is sure of himself, carrying himself or herself with pride rather than shame. During
this time of the “terrible twos", defiance, temper tantrums, and stubbornness can also appear.
Children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling shame and low self-esteem
during an inability to learn certain skills.

ii. Piaget cognitive theory of development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.

But he insisted that cognitive development always follows this sequence, that stages cannot be
skipped, and that each stage is marked by new intellectual abilities and a more complex
understanding of the world.

The Piaget stages of development are a blueprint that describes the stages of normal intellectual
development, from infancy through adulthood. This includes thought, judgment, and knowledge.

Piaget's four stages of intellectual (or cognitive) development are:

i. Sensorimotor. Birth through ages 18-24 months

ii. Preoperational. Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7)
iii. Concrete operational. Ages 7 to 12
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 14

iv. Formal operational. Adolescence through adulthood

Stage Catering Infancy Period

Sensorimotor Stage. The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages Piaget uses to define
cognitive development. Piaget designated the first two years of an infant’s life as the sensorimotor
stage. During this period, infants are busy discovering relationships between their bodies and the
environment.

Through countless informal experiments, infants develop the concept of separate selves, that is,
the infant realizes that the external world is not an extension of themselves. Infants realize that an
object can be moved by a hand and develop notions of displacement and events. An important
discovery during the latter part of the sensorimotor stage is the concept of "object permanence".

Object permanence is the awareness that an object continues to exist even when it is not in view.
In young infants, when a toy is covered by a piece of paper, the infant immediately stops and
appears to lose interest in the toy (see figure above). This child has not yet mastered the concept
of object permanence. In older infants, when a toy is covered the child will actively search for the
object, realizing that the object continues to exist.

Precautions

1. Care in Pregnancy

1. Eat well.
2. Take a supplement.
3. Be careful about food hygiene.
4. Exercise regularly.
5. Begin doing pelvic floor exercises.
6. Cut out alcohol.
7. Cut back on caffeine.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 15

2. Healthy Food

A poor diet is more likely to affect the mother than her breastfed baby. Healthy eating is important
for a child’s growth and development. Healthy eating means eating a variety of foods so that your
child gets the nutrients (such as protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, and minerals) he or she needs
for normal growth. If your child regularly eats a wide variety of basic foods, he or she will be well-
nourished.

3. Indoor Safety

A child’s indoor environment is where play, learning, development, and interactions occur. For
infants and toddlers to take full advantage of these experiences, they must be safe to explore and
make discoveries.

4. Provide Care and Support to Your Infant

Children need environments that help them feel secure. Children depend on adults to meet their
basic needs: food, water, shelter, clothing. They also depend on us to protect them from harm.
Feeling safe opens, the door for children to build relationships, become confident and meet their
potential (Maslow, 1943, 1945). We cannot expect children to learn if they do not feel safe. A
healthy mind results in speaking to, playing with, and caring for their child.

Dealing with separation anxiety

1. Practice separation.
2. Schedule separations after naps or feedings.
3. Develop a quick “goodbye” ritual.

Dealing with stranger anxiety

1. Don't ignore or dismiss your child's fear of strangers.

2. Hold your child's hand or let him sit on your lap when he meets new people.
3. Introduce strangers first at home, if possible.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 16

References

Experts, K. H. M. (Ed.). (2017, December). Your Baby's Hearing, Vision, and Other Senses: 12

Months (for Parents). Retrieved from https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/senses-

12mos.html.

Fear of strangers: babies & young children | Raising ... (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://raisingchildren.net.au/toddlers/behaviour/common-concerns/fear-of-strangers.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/PIAGET/sms.HTML.

Healthy Eating for Children. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/health-

topics/tn9188.

Starting Blocks_. (2019, August 13). Your Child's Development - 8 to 12 months. Retrieved

from https://www.startingblocks.gov.au/your-childs-development/8-to-12-months/.

Shaw, G. (2011, October 18). Baby Development Stages: The First Year. Retrieved from

https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/features/stages-of-development.

Growth Stages 1: Infancy and Early Childhood. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://sciencenetlinks.com/lessons/growth-stages-1-infancy-and-early-childhood/.

Infant development: Birth to 3 months. (2017, June 29). Retrieved from

https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/infant-and-toddler-health/in-depth/infant-

development/art-20048012.

Purdy, E. R. (2019, January 18). Infant and toddler development. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/science/infant-and-toddler-development.
DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 17

Developmental stages in Infant and Toddler Feeding. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://infantandtoddlerforum.org/babies-the-first-year/developmental-stages/.

Baby Development Month by Month. (2017, February 20). Retrieved from

https://www.whattoexpect.com/first-year/month-by-month/.

Baby development milestones: First year timeline. (2019, February 14). Retrieved from

http://www.bounty.com/baby-0-to-12-months/development/baby-development-

milestones-timeline.