3.

WORDS IN COMPANY
3.1. Stressed and Unstressed Words
When we talk we do not talk in single words but in groups of words spoken
continuously, with no break or pause. Some words in such word group are stressed,
some - unstressed.
In the group “I could hardly believe my eyes” the words hardly, believe and
eyes are stressed: this means that one of the syllables of the word (the only syllable in
eyes!) is said with greater force, with greater effort, than the others.
What sorts of words are stressed, then, and what sorts are unstressed? First,
words of more than one syllable are stressed. In some circumstances English speakers
do not stress such words, but it is always possible to stress them and you should do
so. Next, words of one syllable are generally not stressed if they are purely
grammatical words like pronouns, prepositions, articles. Other words are stressed, for
example, full verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and the like. In general it is the picture
words which are stressed, the words which give us the picture or provide most of the
information. Though you should remember that for special purposes it is possible to
stress any English words, even the purely grammatical ones, but usually they are
unstressed.
Study the list of stressed and unstressed words in table 2.
Table 2
Stressed words Unstressed words
 Notional parts of speech:  Personal, possessive, reflexive
nouns, adjectives, numerals, notional verbs, and relative pronouns.
adverbs, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative  Form words:
pronouns, absolute form of the possessive auxiliary verbs and modal verbs,
pronouns “to be”, prepositions, conjunctions,
 Auxiliary and modal verbs and “to be”: articles, particles
a) in general and alternative questions;  Word-substitutes like “one”
b) when they stand for a notional verb; e.g. Show a black one.
e.g. Have you seen him? – Yes, I have. Preposition “each” in “each other”
c) in contracted negative forms;  Adverb “so”
d) “to be” when final and preceded by the e.g. I think so.
unstressed syllables;  Adverb “on” in “so on”
e.g. Here we are.  Conjunction “as...as”
e) “to do” in emphatic sentences e.g. as much as; as well as
e.g. Do come.
 Prepositions,
if consist of 2 or more syllables and followed by
an unstressed personal pronoun at the end of a
word group
e.g. The dog ran after him.
 Conjunctions
at the beginning of the utterance and followed
by an unstressed word
e.g. If, when he goes.

51
 3.2. Weak Forms of Words
In “It was too expensive for them to buy” [It wqz tu: IkspensIv fq Dqm
tq baI] тotice the pronunciation of the words was, for, them and to: all of them have
the vowel [q]. If those words are pronounced alone, they have the pronunciations
[wPz], [fL], [Dem] and [tu:], but usually they are not pronounced alone and are not
stressed, and then the forms with [q] are used; we call these the weak forms of those
words. The use of weak forms is an essential part of English speech and you must
learn to use the weak forms of English words. Some words have more than one weak
form and the following list tells you when to use one and when the other. Study table
3. We use strong forms whenever the word is final in the group [QI dqun’t wPnt
tH]. Exceptions: he, him, his, her, them, us have their weak forms in final position
(unless they are stressed). At the beginning of word groups the forms hJ,
hIm, hIz, hW should be used: [ hJ lQIks It].
Table 3
List of Weak Forms
Word Weak form Examples
Articles
the Dq (before consonants) Dq mL Dq merIq
Di:, DI (before vowels) Di: a:nts qn Di: ANklz
a q (before consonants) q paund q deI
an qn, n (before vowels) hxv qn xpl
Prepositions
at qt kAm qt wAns
for fq (before consonants) kAm fq ti:
fqr, fr (before vowels) kAm fqr q mi:l
from frqm aI sent It frqm lAndqn
of qv Dq kwi:n qv INglqnd
to tq, t (before consonants) hJ keIm tq skul
tu: (before vowels) hJ went tH xn
through ru aI went ru Dq taun
Verbs
can kqn, kn hau kqn aI help?
must mqst, mqs aI mqst tel Im
will l DIs l du:
ql (after vowels and [l]) Dq bOI ql lu:z qn Dq gз:l ql
wIn
shall Sl aI Sl bI krOs
would d (after personal pronouns) aI d du: It
qd (elsewhere) dZOn qd du: It
should Sqd, Sd ju: Sqd kAm qt wAns
could kqd, kd aI kqd swIm

52
 Continuation of table3
1 2 3
have v (after personal pronouns) ju: v brqukqn It
(auxiliary) qv (elsewhere) Dq men qv gOn
has z (after [s, z, S, Z, tS, dZ]) Dq pleIs qz tSeIndZd
(auxiliary) s (after [p, t, k, f, ]) dZqk s gOn
z (elsewhere) dZOn z bi:n sIk
had d (after personal pronouns) DeI d left hqum
(auxiliary) qd (elsewhere) Dq deI qd bi:n faIn
be bI dqunt bI ru:d
been bIn hIz bIn ru:d
am m (after ‘I’) aI m taIqd
qm (elsewhere) wen qm aI tq bi: DFq?
are q (before consonants) Dq gз:lz q bju:tqf
qr (before vowels) Dq men qr AglI
is s (after voiceless consonants) Dxt s faIn
z (after vowels and voiced wFq z dZOn?
consonants)
after [s, z, S,Z, tS, dZ] the wItS Iz raIt?
strong form [Iz] is always used
was wqz Dq weDq wqz terqbl
were wq (before consonants) ju: wq raIt
wqr (before vowels) ju: wqr AglI
do dq (before consonants) hau dq DeI nqu?
(auxiliary) du: (before vowels)
does dqz wen dqz Dq treIn li:v?
Pronouns
you j, ju ju kd gqu
he hI, i: dId i: wIn?
him Im gIv Im tu:
his Iz aI laIk Iz taI
her з: teIk з: hqum
(at the beginning of the word hi: laIks It
groups the strong form should hз: feIs Iz red
be used)
she SI SI Iz faIn
we wI wI keIm hqum
us s (only in let’s) lets du: It nau
qs hi: wqunt let qs du: It
them Dqm send Dqm baI pqust
your jq (before consonants) aI nqu jq ti:tSq
jqr (before vowels) aI nqu jqr a:nt

53
 End of table
1 2 3
who hu hi: nquz hV sed It
Conjunctions
and qnd, qn blxk qn waIt
but bqt bqt waI nOt
than Dqn betq Dqn evq
as qz qz gd qz gquld
or O (before consonants) nau O nevq
Or (before vowels) a:nts Or ANklz
that Dqt aI qdmIt Dqt aI dId It
Particles
to tq (before consonants) tq steI O: tq gqu
tu: (before vowels) aI wOntId tu: Rsk jH
Negatives
not nt DeI a:nt kAmIN

3.3. Rhythm Units

Within the word group there is at least one stressed syllable [ wen?
su:n nau jes]. The length of the syllable in a very short group of this kind
depends on the natural length of the vowel and the following consonant(s) if any.
[nau] is a very long syllable because it has a diphthong and no following
consonant – we stretch it out.
[su:n] is also very long because it has a long vowel followed by a weak
consonant.
[wen] is a little shorter because it has a short vowel, but not very short
because of the slight lengthening effect of the following weak consonant.
[jes] is the shortest of these syllables because it has a short vowel followed by
a strong consonant, but notice that even this kind of syllable is not very short in
English.
The stressed syllable may have one or more unstressed syllables before it: [Its
'kquld], [aI q'gri:], [aI Sl kqm'pleIn]. These unstressed syllables before the
stress are said very quickly, so they are all very short, as short as you can make them,
but the stressed syllable is as long as before, so there is a great difference of length
between the unstressed syllable and the stressed one. Say those examples with very
quick, very short unstressed syllables, and then stretch out the stressed one. Do the same
with these:

aI qm 'hIq aI wqz 'hIq aI wqz In 'hIq

Si:z 'hqum Si:z qt 'hqum bqt Si:z qt 'hqum
DeI 'wз:k DeI kqn 'wз:k DeI wqr qt 'wз:k
54
 wi:l 'si: wi: Sl 'si: qn wi: Sl 'si:
The stressed syllable may also be followed by one or more
unstressed syllables: [ teIk It], [O:l qv It?], [ nxtSqrqlI]. But these
unstressed syllables are not said specially quickly; what happens is
that the stressed syllable and the following unstressed syllable(s)
share the amount of time which a single stressed syllable would
have; so [naIn], [ naIntI], [ naIntIq] all take about the same time to
say; [naIn] is stretched out, but the [naIn] in [ naIntI] is only half as
long and the [naIn] in [ naIntIq] is shorter still and the unstressed
syllables are of the same length as the stressed ones. These
unstressed syllables after the stress must not be rushed as the ones
before stressed syllable. Say those examples, and be sure that the
three words all take about the same time to say. Then try these:
gd betq eksqlqnt wIt wItnIs wItnIsIz
faIn faInl faInqlI drINk drINkI drINkIN It
N
wIl wIlIN wIlINnIs mi:t mi:tIN mi:tIN Dqm
In the group [It wqz 'betq] there are two unstressed syllables before the
stress and one after it. The first two are said quickly, the last one not so quickly,
taking the same amount of time as [be]. Practise that group with the first two
syllables very short and the next two longer. Do the same with the following:
ju: kqn 'si: Dqm aI wqz In
'lAndqn
DeI In'dZOId It Si: Ik'spektId It
hi: kd qv q'vOIdId It It wqz q 'mIrqkl
It wqz qn 'xksIdqnt maI q'pOlqdZIz
bqt DFq wq 'plentI qv jO:r Im'pOsqbl
Dqm
The group [ 'waI 'nOt?] has two stresses and two syllables are given the same
length. But in [ 'waI 'nOt 'teIk It?] the first two syllables [ waI nOt] are equal in
length but the following two syllables [ teIk It] are said in the same time as [ waI],
so they are both only half the length of [ waI] and [ nOt]. This is exactly what
happens with [naIn] and [ naIntI ].
In [ 'bqu qv Dqm 'left 'з:lI ] the three syllables of [ bqu qv Dqm]
and the two syllables of [ з:lI] are said in the same amount of time as the single
syllable [left], so [left] is the longest syllable, the two syllables of [ з:lI] are shorter
and the three of [ bqu qv Dqm] are shorter still.

55
 A stressed syllable together with any unstressed syllables which may follow it
form a stress group. So [ 'bqu qv Dqm] is one stress group, [ 'left] is another
and ['з:lI] is another. The fundamental rule of English rhythm is this: each stress
group within a word group is given the same amount of time.
It seems useful to leave out any spaces between syllables belonging to the same
stress group as it will remind us that they belong to a single stress group and must be
said in the same time as other stress groups in the same word group.
[ 'bquqvDqm 'left 'з:lI ]
The best way to practise English rhythm is to beat the rhythm with your hand,
one beat for each stressed syllable and with exactly the same time between each pair
of beats. It is useful to bang rhythmically on the table with a pen and at each bang
comes a stressed syllable. Don’t forget that each stress group gets the same time as
the others in that word group.
In the group [aIm 'gquIN 'hqum] there are two stress groups [ 'gquIN]
and
['hqum]. The syllable [aIm] does not belong to any stress group since it comes
before the stress, and it is said very quickly, as we saw earlier, quicker than the
unstressed syllable in the stress group ['gquIN]. We can show this as follows:
[aIm 'gquIN 'hqum ]
In the group [aIm 'gquIN 'hqum tq'deI] the unstressed syllable [tq] in
[tq'deI] behaves exactly like [aIm], it is said very quickly and the stressed syllable [
hqum] is still just as long as the two syllables of [gquIN], not reduced in length as
you might expect: [aIm 'gquIN 'hqum tq'deI ].
So we say that [tq] does not belong to the same stress group as [hqum], but
that it is outside any stress group, like [aIm]. Exactly the same is true for [fq] in
[aIm 'gquIN 'hqum fq 'krIsmqs].
In this sort of arrangement any unstressed syllable before the stressed syllable is
said very quickly and does not affect the length of syllables before it. We say them as
quickly as we can so that they interfere as little as possible with the regular return of the
stressed syllables. Any unstressed syllable after the stress is of course part of the stress
group and shares the available time with the other syllables of the stress group.
A unit of this kind, with a stressed syllable as its centre and any unstressed
syllables which may come before it and after it, is called a rhythm unit. So [aIm
'gquIN] is a rhythm unit, and so is [ 'hqum] and so is [fq 'krIsmqs].
How to decide what words or syllables go together in a rhythm unit? Here are
the rules according to two tendencies which exist in English – semantic and enclitic:
1. If the unstressed syllable(s) is part of the same word as the stressed syllable
they belong to the same rhythm group (a semantic viewpoint) :
56
 [ 'tSi:pq 'fFqz] [ 'tSi:p q'fFqz]
(cheaper fares) (cheap affairs)
2. Any unstressed syllables at the beginning of a word group must go together
with the following stress group (both semantic and enclitic tendencies):
[aIwqzIn 'lAndqn] [maI q'pOlqdZIz]
3. If the unstressed syllable(s) is closely connected grammatically to the
stressed word, although not a part of that word, they belong to the same rhythm unit
(a semantic viewpoint):
[ 'gIvIt tq'dZOn] [ 'teIkDqm fqrq'wq:k]
[ 'hau dIdju:'mxnIdZ tqbI 'DFqr In'taIm]
4. Whenever you are in doubt as to which rhythm unit unstressed syllables
belong to, put them after a stress rather than before it. So in “He was' older than' me”
if you are doubtful about [Dqn], put it with [ quldq] and not with [mi:]: [hIwqz
'quldqDqn 'mi:]. This is called enclitic tendency which is strong at present in
English. Semantic tendency is mainly realized in prepared speech.
So, many learners of English find English rhythm rather difficult to master
because of the constant changes of syllable length which occur in English word
groups and they will need to work hard at it. If every syllable is made the same length
in English it gives the effect of a machine-gun firing and makes the utterances very
hard to understand. Some good work on English rhythm will help greatly in
improving the sound of your speech.
['breIkItIntq 'sevrql 'pJsIz]

3.4. Assimilation
Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one
of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.
Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to:
1) direction,
2) degree of completeness,
3) degree of stability.
Assimilation can affect the place of obstruction and the active organ of speech;
the work of the vocal cords; the position of the lips; the position of the soft palate; the
manner of the release of plosive consonants.
Direction of Assimilation.
The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English can act in a progressive,
regressive or reciprocal (double) direction.
When some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the
influence of the preceding, which remains unchanged, assimilation is called
progressive. For example,

57
 1) the pronunciation of the plural suffix -s of nouns depends on the quality of
the preceding consonant (as [z] after voiced consonants, [s] after voiceless
consonants).
e.g. pens [penz], calls [kLlz], desks [desks], books [bks]
2) Within the words sandwich, grandmother, etc. under the influence of [n] the
consonant [d] changes into [n] and then disappears.
e.g. sandwich [ sxnnwidZ]  [ sxnwidZ]
When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one
assimilation is called regressive. For example, within the word width and in the word
combination in them the alveolar [d] and [n] become dental before the interdental []
and [D].
Reciprocal or double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the
adjacent sounds. For example, within the word tree [tri:] the sonorant [r] is partly
devoiced under the influence of the voiceless [t] and the alveolar [t] becomes post-
alveolar before the post-alveolar [r].

58
 Degree of Completeness.
According to its degree, assimilation can be complete, incomplete and
intermediate. Assimilation is called complete in the case the two adjoining sounds
become alike or merge into one. It always takes place when the two sounds differ
only in one articulatory feature. We find cases of complete assimilation within words,
e.g. cupboard [ kApbqd]  [ kAbqd], and at the word junction in fluent speech,
e.g. less shy [ les SaI ]  [ leS SaI].
Assimilation is called incomplete when the likeness of the adjoining sounds is
partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features. For example,
the sonorants [w, l, r] are partly devoiced when preceded by the voiceless fortis [p, t,
k, s, f, ] within words sweet [swi:t], place [pleIs], try [traI ].
The degree of assimilation is said to be intermediate between complete and
incomplete when the assimilated consonant changes into a different sound but does
not coincide with the assimilating sound.
e.g. gooseberry [ gzberI], congress [ kONgres].
Degree of Stability.
Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the development of the
language have become obligatory in Modern English; they may, or may not be
reflected in spelling. Such changes which have taken place over a period of time
within words are called historical.
e.g. orchard (ort + yard) [ Ltjqd]  [LtSqd]
In modern language obligatory assimilations are special allophonic variants
characteristic of the natives’ speech. The use of the wrong allophone, though a non-
phonemic mistake, amounts to mispronunciation and may be one of the causes of a
foreign accent making understanding difficult. For example, a dental allophone of the
alveolar [t] should be used when it is followed by interdental [] or [D] as in eighth
[eIt].
Besides there are a lot of widely spread but non-obligatory cases of
assimilation which can be traced mainly at word boundaries,
e.g. ten minutes [ ten mInIts]  [ tem mInIts]
ten girls [ ten gз:lz]  [ teN gз:lz]
Non-obligatory assimilations are characteristic of fluent or careless speech and
should be avoided by public speakers (lecturers, teachers, etc.).
Quality of Adjacent Sounds.
In Modern English it is mainly consonants that are assimilated. When the two
adjacent sounds are consonants there occur most striking assimilative changes.
Modification of the Place of Obstruction and the Active Organ of Speech.
Assimilation may take place within a word and also at word boundaries. The
following three important cases should be noticed:
a) The alveolar allophones of [t, d, n, l, s, z] are replaced by the dental variants
when immediately followed by the interdental [] or [D].
e.g. within words: breadth, tenth;

59
 at word boundaries: Put that down! Read this! on the desk.
b) The post-alveolar [t] and [d] are heard before the post-alveolar sonorant [r].
e.g. within words: trip, true, trunk, dream, drink, dry;
at word boundaries: at rest, would read.
c) The bilabial nasal [m] or the alveolar nasal [n] become labio-dental under the
influence of immediately following labio-dental fricatives [f, v].
e.g. within words: triumph, comfort, infant;
at word boundaries: come for me, ten forks.
Changes in the Work of the Vocal Cords (Voicing or Devoicing).
Progressive voicing or devoicing is common in English but is very rare in
Russian.
a) The sonorants [m, n, l, w, r, j] are partially devoiced when preceded by
voiceless consonants [s, p, t, k, f, , S],
e.g. within words: small, sneer, slow, place, climb, fly, sweep, try, cream, stupid, few.
At word boundaries the sonorants [l, r, w] are slightly devoiced if with the
adjacent words they form a phrasal word or a rhythmic group.
e.g. at last, at rest.
b) Contracted forms of the verbs is and has may retain voice or be devoiced
depending on the preceding consonants.
e.g. That’s right. [ Dxts raIt]
Jack’s done it. [ Gxks dAn It]
Bob’s gone out. [ bObz gOn aut]
c) The assimilative voicing or devoicing of the possessive suffix -’s or -s’, the
plural suffix -(e)s of nouns and the third person singular present indefinite of verbs
depends on the quality of the preceding consonant. These suffixes are pronounced as:
[z] after all voiced consonants except [z] and [Z] and after all vowel sounds,
e.g. girls [gз:lz], reads [ri:dz];
[s] after all voiceless consonants except [s] and [S],
e.g. Jack’s [dZxks], books [bks], writes [raIts];
a separate syllable [Iz] after [s, z] or [S, Z],
e.g. George’s [ dLGIz], dishes [ dISIz], washes [ wOSIz], boxes [ bOksIz].
d) The assimilative voicing or devoicing of the suffix -ed of regular verbs also
depends on the quality of the preceding consonant. The ending -ed is pronounced as:
[d] after all voiced consonants except [d] and after all vowel sounds,
e.g. lived [lIvd], played [pleId];
[t] after all voiceless consonants except [t],
e.g. worked [wз:kt];
a separate syllable [Id] after [d, t],
e.g. expected [IkspektId], intended [IntendId].
In English regressive voicing or devoicing is found only in a few cases of
historical assimilation within a compound word when the semantic independence of
the first component is lost.
e.g. fivepence [ faIfpqns], cf. five [faIv]
gooseberry [ guzbqrI], cf. goose [gu:s]

60
 Regressive voicing or devoicing may also take place in closely connected pairs
of words.
e.g. I have to [aI hxft]
She has to [SI hxѕt]
I used to [aI ju:stt]
Does she [ dAS SJ]
In English word sequences word final voiced consonants are not fully devoiced
under the influence of the immediately following voiceless consonants.
e.g. good chap [ gd tSxp], big case [ bIg keIs]
Neither are the word final voiceless consonants voiced under the influence of
the immediately following voiced consonants.
e.g. white dress [ waIt dres], this book [ DIs bk]
Typical mistakes of Russian learners lie in devoicing voiced consonants before voiceless ones and voicing
voiceless consonants before voiced ones.

e.g. correct wrong

pronunciation pronunciation
anecdote [ xnIkdqut] [xnIgdqut]
birthday [ bз:deI] [ bз:DdeI]
obstinate [ ObstInIt] [ OpstInIt]
medicine [ medsIn] [ metsIn]
this book [ DIs bk] [ DIz bk]
let's go [ lets gqu] [ letz gqu]
like that [ laIk Dxt] [ laIg Dxt]
this way [ DIs weI] [ DIz weI]
what's the time? [ wOts Dq [ wOtz Dq
taIm] taIm]
Changes in the Lip Position.
Consonants followed by the sonorant [w] change their lip position. They
become lip-rounded in anticipation of [w].
e.g. twinkle, quite, swan, language.
Changes in the Position of the Soft Palate.
Nasal consonants may influence the adjacent plosives. Sometimes [d] changes
into [n] under the influence of the preceding [n].
e.g. handsome [ hxndsqm]  [ hxnnsqm]  [ hxnsm]
handmade [ hxnnmeId]
Nasalisation affects mainly the alveolar consonants, especially adjacent to the
negative [n't], and is characteristic of very rapid speech.
e.g. [d]  [n] She wouldn't do it. [Si wnnt du: It]
[d]  [b]  [m] Good morning. [gb mLnIN]  [gm mLnIN]
Changes in the Manner of the Release of Plosive Consonants.
The main variants are:
1) Incomplete plosion.

61
 In the clusters of two plosives [pp, pb, bb, bp, tt, td, dd, dt, ttS, dG, dC,
kk, kg, gg, gk] where the plosion of the organs of speech is the same for both
consonants, there is no separation of the organs of speech between the two plosives.
The hold stage is prolonged from the beginning of the first consonant until the release
of the second. The effect is that of a single plosive pronounced with very long hold.
In such clusters the first stop has no plosion.
e.g. within a word: accommodation, attraction, bookcase
at word boundaries: lamp post, what time, went down, that child, that joke, big cat,
good chance
In a cluster of two plosives or of a plosive and an affricate theclosure of the
organs of speech for the second plosive is made before the release of the first. So
there is only one explosion for the two plosives. The first plosive is incomplete.
e.g. within a word: talked, object, lecture
at word boundaries: good girl, hot bottle
If you do make two explosions in English it will not cause misunderstanding,
but it will sound un-English.
2) Nasal plosion.
When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [n] or [m] it has no release of its
own, the so-called "nasal" plosion is produced. In such sequences the closure for the
plosive is made normally, but the release is produced not by a removal of the oral
closure, which is retained, but by the lowering of the soft palate, which allows the
compressed air to escape through the nasal cavity to form the nasal consonant.
e.g. within a word: happen, shipmate, submarine, button, subnormal
at word boundaries: stop moaning, escape noisily, sub man, sob noisily
3) Lateral plosion.
In the sequences of a plosive immediately followed by [l] the closure produced
for the plosive is not released till after [l]. Before [l] the release is made by a sudden
lowering of the sides of the tongue with lateral plosion.
e.g. please, cattle, black, candle

3.5. The Reduction of Consonants Clusters

(Elision)
The reduction of some consonant clusters was established long ago.
1) The initial [w, k, g] may be dropped.
e.g. write [raIt], know [nqu], gnat [nxt]
2) The medial [t] or [d] are dropped in a cluster of three consonants.
e.g. listen [ lIsn], soften [ sOfn], Wednesday [ wenzdI]
3) The final [b] is dropped in the cluster [mb].
e.g. lamb [lxm], dumb [dAm]
In other cases of recent formation the elided forms are typical only of rapid
colloquial speech. In the following examples the elided sound is still pronounced in
careful, precise speech, cf. often [Ofn] or [ Oftqn].
In present-day English the reduction of clusters continues to take place.

62
 The plosives [t] or [d] in the clusters [st, ft, St, nd, ld, rd, Dd, vd] in final
position when followed by a word with an initial consonant are often reduced in rapid
speech.
e.g. last time [ la:s taIm], mashed potatoes [ mxSt pqteItqP, next day [ neks
deI], old man [ qul mxn]
Word final clusters of plosives or affricates + [t] or [d], [pt, kt, Ct, bd, gd,
dG] may lose the final alveolar plosive when the following word begins with a
consonant.
e.g. kept quiet [ kep kwaIqt], lagged behind [ lxg bIhaInd]
The alveolar [t] of the negative -n’t is often reduced before a consonant.
e.g. You mustn’t do it. [ju mAsn du: It]
When [t] or [d] occur between two other plosives they are never heard.
e.g. locked gate [ lOk geIt], strict teacher [ strIk ti:tSq]
[h] may be dropped in the following monosyllabes when non-initial and
unstressed: have, has, had; he, him, his, her; who.
e.g. Tell him he is wanted. [ tel Im Iz wOntId]
but: He's wanted. [hIz wOntId]

3.6. Exercises

Weak Forms
Each of the following examples contains one or more of the words which often have weak forms. Transcribe the
examples phonetically, showing the stressed syllables and the weak (or strong!) forms of those words:

They came to the door. There were two of them.

What are you surprised at? She is as old as the hills.
She has an uncle and a cousin. I shall be angry.
Who will meet him at the airport? I will.
What is her phone number? What does that matter?
I would like some tea. Well, make some.
What has John come for? For his saw that you borrowed.
What can I do? More than I can.
He was pleased, wasn't he? Of course he was.
When am I going to get it? I am not sure.
I have taken it from the shelf. Yes, I thought you had.
They had already read it. But so had I.

Rhythm Units
Practise the following examples, beating the rhythm of the stressed syllables as you
go and varying the lengths of the syllables so as to keep the stress groups equal in
length. Mark a stress group with a straight line and a rhythm unit with a wavy line
first acccording to semantic tendency and then according to enclitic tendency:
Take it home. Take it to John. Take it to Johnson.
Light the fire. Lighting the fire. He was lighting the fire.
He was most amusing. He was very amusing.

63
John was late. Jenny was late. Jennifer was late.
He's just ten. He's just seven. He's just seventy.
It's a hard job. It's a tricky job. It's a difficult job.
It was a really good meal. It was a really pleasant meal. It was a really excellent meal.
He plays very well. He's playing very well. He's playing it very well.
You did it rather well. You did it rather better. You did it rather cleverly.

3. Assimilation
I. Practise saying the following:

Before [p, b, m]
[p] replaces [t]: right place raIp pleIs
white bird waIp bз:d
not me nOp mi:
[b] replaces [d]: hard path ha:b pa:
good boy gb bOI
good morning gb mO:nIN
[m] replaces [n]: gone past gOm pa:st
gone back gOm bxk
ten men tem men
Before [k, g]
[k] replaces [t]: white coat waIk kqut
that girl Dxk gз:l
[g] replaces [d]: bad cold bxg kquld
red gate reg geIt
[N] replaces [n]: one cup wAN kAp
main gate meIN geIt
Before [S, j]
[S] replaces [s]: nice shoes naIS Su:z
this year DIS jIq
[Z] replaces [z]: those shops DquZ SOps
where’s yours wFqZ jO:z
[st] + stop: last time la:s taIm
fast bus fa:s bAs
+ nasal: best man bes mxn
first night fз:s naIt
+ friction: West side wes saId
best friend bes frend
[ft] + stop: lift boy lIf bOI
stuffed chicken stAf tSIkIn
+ nasal: soft mattress sOf mxtrqs
left knee lef ni:
+ friction: left shoe lef Su:
soft snow sOf snqu
[nd] + nasal: blind man blaIn mxn
kind nurse kaIn nWs

64
 + weak stop: tinned beans tIn bi:nz
stand guard stxn ga:d
[md] + nasal: skimmed milk skIm mIlk
he seemed nice hi: si:m naIs
+ weak stop: it seemed good It si:m gd
he climbed back hi: klaIm bxk
II. Transcribe the following passage phonetically and find the words which might
have assimilation.
I have needed some new bookshelves for a long time. So during my holiday I
decided to tackle the job myself. Not that I am very clever with my hands but it did
not seem too difficult and as I had already said that we could not afford to go away I
thought it would be prudent not to spend money having it done professionally. I
bought the wood at the local handicraft shop and I had plenty of screws, but I found
that my old saw, which had been left behind by the previous owner of the house, was
not good enough and I decided to buy a new one. That was my first mistake, my
second was to go to the biggest ironmonger in London and ask for a saw. You would
think it was simple, wouldn’t you, to buy a saw. But it is not. I said to the man behind
the counter, “I want a saw.” He was a nice man and did his best for me. “Yes, sir,
what kind of saw?” “Oh, a saw for cutting wood.” “Yes, sir, but we have fifteen
different kinds for different jobs. What did you want it for?” I explained about my
bookshelves and felt like an ignorant fool in a world of experts, which was true. He
saw that I was a novice and was very kind. He told me what I should need and
advised me to have a ladies’ size. “Easier to manage for the beginner, sir.” He was not
being nasty just helpful and I was grateful to him. He also sold me a book on
woodwork for schoolboys and I've been reading it with great interest. The next time I
am on holiday I shall start on the shelves.
III. Find the place of assimilation in the following words and word clusters and state
the type of assimilation and what it affects.
Small; twenty; did you; give me; handkerchief; does she; swop; could you;
about them; I have to; kind man; last time.
Elision
I. Practise saying the following examples:
friends just now
Westminster next day
sounds last chance
exactly just one
mostly cold lunch
kindness first light
friendship cold smile
last night old man
next stop

65
II. Drop [t], [d] in consonant clusters and [h] from unstressed pronouns and
auxiliaries within an utterance:
1. He looks too old for his age.
2. Did he lift his handbag by himself?
3. When I just saw him he was a handsome man.
4. What did he take for breakfast?
5. I’ll cut some sandwiches for us.
6. How long did it take him to reach the station?
7. What did his wife do when he entered the kitchen?
8. His wife gave him his breakfast.
9. Is he going with us?
10. Don’t you think she might have gone home?
11. Both her father and mother are teachers.
12. The landscape doesn’t change much in winter.
13. I saw her grandmother last night.
14. The old man is keen on gardening.
15. I rang him up last night but there wasn’t anyone in.

4. INTONATION
Every language has melody in it; no language is spoken on the same musical
note all the time. The voice goes up and down and the different notes of the voice
combine to make tunes. In English the tune belongs to the word group. We can say a
word group definitely or we can say it hesitantly, we can say it angrily or kindly, we
can say it with interest or without interest, and these differences are largely made by
the tunes we use: the words do not change their meaning but the tune we use adds
something to the words, and what it adds is the speaker’s feelings at that moment;
this way of using tunes is called intonation.
Intonation is a complex unity of speech melody, sentence-stress, voice quality
(timbre), speech tempo, rhythm.
These features vary in their relevance. Speech melody remains the most central
component of intonation but all the other components are included into the definition
of intonation too.
English intonation is English; it is not the same as the intonation of any other
language. Some people imagine that intonation is the same for all languages, but this
is not true. You must learn the shapes of the English tunes, and these may be quite
different from the normal tunes of your own language; and you must learn the
meanings of the English tunes too, because they are important.

4.1. Graphical Representation of Intonation and Basic Notions

The information conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by its lexical
and grammatical structure but also by intonation.
The term ‘intonation’ implies:
1) variations in pitch;
2) utterance stress;

66
 3) tempo;
4) rhythm;
5) pausation;
6) timbre.
Intonation may be shown in the line of text and on the scales (staves).
a) To mark the intonation in the line of text we use Roger Kingdon’s stress-
mark system, which consists of vertical stress marks to indicate stressed syllables and
slant marks (\ /) above and below the line of print to show the final tones.
b) We use Lily Armstrong’s system of dots for unstressed syllables, dashes for
stressed syllables and slant marks (curves) for final tones to indicate intonation on the
scales. A downward curve represents the final fall and an upward curve represents the
final rise.
Each tone group has its own pitch-and-stress pattern. Generally three pitch
levels are distinguished: low, medium, high.
h ig h le v e l

m e d iu m le v e l

lo w le v e l
The pitch range is the interval between two pitch levels. Pitch ranges may be
normal, wide and narrow.
We distinguish certain elements in the pitch-and-stress pattern of every
intonation group.

p re -h e a d head n u c le u s ta il
s c a le
A pre-head. It is initial unstressed syllables. It may be low and high. A low pre-
head consists of unstressed syllables pronounced at a low pitch. It is used frequently
and considered neutral. A high pre-head is pronounced at a high pitch and makes the
utterance sound emotional.
A head. It is the first stressed syllable in the utterance. It may be low and high.
A low head introduces ascending scale and a high head introduces descending scale.
A scale. It is a series of stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with the
first stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable.
Scales may be a) according to their general pitch direction level, descending
(the stressed syllables are gradually descending) and ascending (the stressed syllables
are gradually ascending);
b) according to the direction of pitch movement within and between syllables
descending scales may be falling, stepping, gliding (sliding) and scandent.
Study the diagram.

67
1 . 1. falling scale
2 . 2. stepping scale
3 . 3. gliding (sliding) scale
4 . 4. scandent scale

Look at the examples:

1. Falling scale:
The year is di'vided into 'four seasons.
2. Stepping scale:
Pity 'Peter 'couldn’t come.

3. Sliding (gliding) scale.

Don’t 'speak 'too soon.
4. Scandent scale.
What a 'pretty 'little house.
Ascending scales may be stepping, sliding and scandent.
Study the diagram.
1. 1. stepping scale
2. 2. sliding scale
3. 3. scandent scale
Look at the examples:
1. Stepping scale.
I could hardly be'lieve my eyes.
2. Sliding scale.
It’s such a 'pity that you 'can’t come.
3. Scandent scale.
Why 'haven’t you ar'rived in time?
Level scales may be high, mid, low.
Study the diagram.
1. 1 . h ig h le v e l s c a le

2. 2 . m id le v e l s c a le

3. 3 . lo w le v e l s c a le
Look at the example:
High level scale.
What 'fine weather !
Descending scales. Utterances pronounced with the descending scale express
interest, they sound friendly. The descending scale is the commonest scale used with
all the English tones.
Look at the example :
How do you pro'nounce this word ?

68
 The ascending scale is regarded as a feature of emotional speech. It is used in
many cases to express a negative attitude, irritation, indignation and anger. It is also
used to express surprise, interest, protest.
Look at the examples:
Don’t 'stand by 'that window .

I could hardly be'lieve my eyes .

Why 'haven’t you ar'rived in time .

The nucleus. It is the last stressed syllable in the pattern pronounced with a
tone. At present we operate with nine tones in the system of O’Connor and Arnold.
Study the diagram.

L-F H-F R-F L-R H-R F-R

All falling tones sound complete, categoric, laconic. Rise-Fall makes the
utterance rather expressive. It exists in a kind of mocking or envious remarks. High
Fall expresses liveliness, polite and friendly interest, personal involvement and
sometimes mild surprise. Rising tones sound non-final and incomplete. Something is
left unsaid. These tones mean continuation. The Low Rise is used in ordinary speech.
The Low Rise and Fall Rise are synonymous, but Fall Rise is more emotional and it
shows contrast and contradiction.
Look at the examples:
As far as I know
As far as I know

The High Rise is used in echoing questions.

What ?

Level tones are presented by Low Level, Mid Level and High Level tones.

69
 4.2. How to Use the Tunes
Study table 4.
Table 4
Attitude Tune shape Example
Statements
Cool, calm, Low Level H + Yes, Mom. Twenty.
phlegmatic, + LF It’s mine.
absence of interest or LF It’s Susan’s.
Considered, weighty, Descending I stayed in 'bed until 'nearly lunch
neutral Scale + LF time.
I stayed at 'home and 'worked at my
book.
Personal participation Descending It was quite good.
Scale + HF I liked it 'very much.
I wouldn’t 'mind 'seeing it a gain.
Soothing, reassuring, Descending I shan’t be long.
encouraging Scale + LR John’ll be here soon.
I won’t 'drive 'too fast (so don’t
worry).
I’ll see.
Since he’s 'keen to do so why 'not
let him.
Grumble, disgruntled 1) Ascending I’ve been trying to 'get 'hold of you
effect, reprovingly Scale + HF all day, but your wretched 'line has
critical 2) Low Level H + been 'out of order.
+ LR I didn’t hurt you // (so why make all that fuss?)
the take off
1)If the statement is Descending I looked at him // (and recognized him at
not complete but Scale + FR once).
leading to a following or FR She took the car // (and drove to London).
word group it implies Whenever he 'comes to visit us // (he tries
continuation to borrow money).
2) If the statement has two
parts, of which the first is more
FR spread over the whole
sentence
I went to London on Monday.
important than the second You can keep it if you really want it.
He was very well when I last saw
him.
I’m very comfortable, thank you.
If a statement is Descending You like it?
intended as a question Scale + LR You can’t go?
He doesn’t 'want to lend you it?
70
 Continuation of table 4
1 2 3
For statements which Descending He’s generous // (but I don’t trust
show reservations on Scale + FR him).
the part of the speaker He’s handsome // (you must admit).
and which might be I could take you there tomorrow //
followed by but or by (but not today).
You must admit or I I like your hat // (I must admit).
must admit It wasn’t a very 'nice thing to do //
(you must admit).
Correction, Descending (He’s forty-five) // Forty six.
contradiction Scale + FR (I like him a lot) // You used to like him.
(I can’t do it) // You can’t 'do it that
way.
Warning Descending You’ll be late.
Scale + FR I shan’t 'tell you a gain.
You mustn’t shake it too much.
A wide range of RF A marvellous time.
emotions from being Descending It’s a charming spot.
self-satisfied, smug, Scale + RF What a treat.
complacent to real I simply hated it.
enthusiasm
Surprise HR Wide/ LR/ (It seems I’ve lost my passport.) —
FR You’ve lost it.
Descending (I’ve already seen this film.) — You’ve
Scale + LR seen it? In a night club? Last night?
Questions
I. Wh-questions
(containing Which,
What, Who, etc.)
1. business-like Descending What was his name?
neutral Scale + LF
2. a) interest in the Descending Why did you 'change your mind? //
subject Scale + HF Who on 'earth was that? Which?
and for one-word
questions
b) interest in the Descending How’s your daughter?
other person as well as Scale + LR When are you 'coming to see us?
in the subject

Continuation of table 4
71
 1 2 3
3. repetition LR (It took me 2 hours.)// How long?
(John told me to do it.) // Who told
you to do it?
II. Yes-No questions
1. for short questions LF (John’s on holiday.) // Is he?
used as responses (I went to the theatre last night.)// Did
you?
2. for all other Yes-No LR Have you seen him yet?
questions Did John post that letter?
Can I see it?
3. for repetition LR (Will you help me?) — Will I help
questions of this type you?
III. Tag-questions
1. after commands LR Come over here, / will you?
Let’s have some music, / shall we?
Hold this for me, / would you?
2. if neither the LR You liked it, / did you?
statement nor the tag- They’d like some more, / would
question have the word they?
not in them
3. where the word not
occurs in either the
statement or the tag-
question and you want
the other person
a) to agree with you LF It’s cold today, / isn’t it? (forcing the
answer ‘yes’)
It was a very good film, / wasn’t it?
You won’t worry, / will you? (No)
b) to give his opinion LR You’re coming to tea with us, /
aren’t you?
You weren’t here on Wednesday,/
were you?
He didn’t look ill, / did he?

End of table 3
1 2 3

72
 Exclamations
Strong exclamations HF Good Heavens!
How extr aordinary!
What a 'very 'pretty dress!
Nonsense!
Splendid!
Real gratitude LF/HF Thank you.
Thank you very much.
Greeting and saying good- LR Good morning.
bye Hu llo.
Good night.
Questioning exclamation HR Oh?
Really?
Well?
Exclamations refer to LR Thank you.
something not very Good.
exciting or unexpected All right.
Good luck.
Commands
Strong commands LF/ HF Don’t be a 'stupid idiot.
Descending Scale + Take your 'feet off the chair.
LF/HF Come and 'have dinner with
us.
Have some cheese.
Pleading, soothing, FR spread over the Shut the window.
reassuring (more a request whole sentence Do have some more tea?
than an order) Send it as soon as you can.
Don’t make me angry.
Commands with only one FR Try.
important word Take it.
Lend it to them.
Encouraging commands Scandant Head + LR Don’t 'forget your scarf.
often used in speaking to
children

73
 4.3. Exercises
I.Transcribe the following conversation phonetically and mark the intonation in the
line of text and on the staves.
— Can you recommend somewhere for a holiday?
— What an odd coincidence! I was just going to tell you about our holiday!
— Really? Where did you go? The South of France again?
— No, this time we went to Ireland.
— Oh, you went to Ireland, did you? You were thinking about it the last time we met.
— Oh, yes, I mentioned it to you, didn’t I?
— You were thinking of Belfast, weren’t you?
— Dublin. But we didn’t go there in the end.
— Didn’t you? Where did you go?
— Where? To Galway.
— That’s on the West coast, isn’t it? Was the weather good?
— Reasonably good.
— Tell me about the prices there, would you?
— They weren’t too bad. You should go there and try it. But you ought to go soon.
Summer’s nearly over!
— It isn’t over yet. But thank you very much for your advice.
— Good luck. Have a good time.
— Thank you. Goodbye.
II. A Test on How to Use the Tunes
1. I liked it a lot. (personal participation)
2. He’s just arrived. (considered) — Fine!
3. He’s only thirty-five. — Is he?
4. I’ve been waiting for you for ages. Where on earth have you been? (disgruntled
effect)
5. Who knows the way? (interest in the subject)
6. You’ll get into trouble unless you stop it. (worrying)
7. Ann is throwing a party tonight. (personal participation) — Really? (surprise)
Let’s go there, shall we?
8. He’s really rather handsome. (neutral) — Handsome! (smug)
III. Use the following lengthening word groups for practising fluency:
I don’t know - how - long - I need - to wait - for John - to come - home.
It was near the end - of the week - before - I arrived - back - from - Scotland.
Who was that - awful woman - you talked to - all evening - at the party?
I can't understand - how you did it - so quickly - and efficiently, - Mr Southwood.
When did you hear - that story - about John - and the girl - next door?
Come and have dinner - with us - on Thursday - the twenty-third - of this month.
IV. Use the following for practise in smoothness with initial vowels:
I was better off on my own.
Don’t argue with anyone as old as I am.
How awful it is to be ill when everyone else is all right.
74
The hungrier I am, the more I eat.
Is there any flaw in my argument, Oscar?
Have you ever asked Ann about Arthur and Amy?
I owe everything I am to my uncle and aunt.
Come over to our house for an evening.
I haven’t set eyes on Alec for ages and ages.
I ended up owing eighty-eight pounds.
You always ought to earn an honest living.
He’s got absolutely no idea how I organize things.
It’s my free evening, but my husband’s gone to the opera.
We aren’t going to hurry off to the zoo now after all.
Henry and I agree that you are to inherit the antique hatstand.
They admire Hugh a lot. He’s a handsome boy and so intelligent too.
We’re going to Edinburgh.
I could be selling a packet of these, or I could be selling an idea.
...are there any special techniques or methods that you can use to achieve that?
...we’ve established who they are and where they are.
...what they’re already buying vis-a-vis the product that we are trying to sell them...
... the sort of people who are going to watch american football...

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 5. PHONOSTYLISTICS
5.1. Its subject matter and basic notions
Phonostylistics is concerned with the study of phonetic phenomena and
processes from the stylistic point of view. Intonation (prosody) plays a central role in
stylistic differentiation of oral texts and one of the objectives of phonostylistics is the
study of intonational styles. An intonational style can be defined as a system of
interrelated intonational means which are used in a certain social sphere and serves a
definite aim of communication.
It might be generally assumed that there are five intonational styles singled out
mainly according to the purpose of communication and to which we could refer all the
main varieties of the texts generated in everyday communication of a modern man.
They are as follows:
1. Informational style.
2. Academic style (scientific).
3. Publicistic style (oratorial).
4. Declamatory style (artistic).
5. Conversational style (familiar).

5.2. Intonational Peculiarities of Conversational Style

It is the most useful and least artificial kind of English to teach foreign students
as a means of everyday communication. This style allows the occurence of the entire
range of intonation patterns existing in English. This is due to the fact that there seem
to be no social restrictions on the range of emotions and attitudes.
Sentence length is relatively short and the structure is predominantly simple.
Conversational style is characterized by:
1) a great proportion of parenthetic compound types of sentences introduced by
“you see”, “you know”, “I mean”, “I say” etc.;
2) frequent use of interrogative sentences;
3) common use of vocatives;
4) a great number of question tags;
5) all sorts of repetition;
6) one-member sentences of nominal type (exclamations);
7) overlappings;
8) elliptical sentences;
9) contracted verbal forms (I’ll, I’ve).

Phonostylistic characteristics Conversation

timbre interested and involved
loudness varied
levels and ranges varied. The pitch-range tends to be mid. It’s widened
in excited situations
tempo very varied. Generally is quite fast, but it depends on
the fluency of the speaker, on his familiarity with the
topic

76
pauses hesitation pauses both filled and non-filled (hesitant
drawls); breath-taking pauses varied;
non-predictable
rhythm uneven and varied. Perfect fluency tends to produce
wrong effect
terminal tones falling and rising tones; High Fall produces the
effect of personal participation.
pre-nuclear patterns level or falling heads
5.3. Social English
Saying the right thing
Discussion Have you ever been to an English-speaking country? Were there any
situations in which you found yourself unable to think of an
appropriate response quickly? Were there any situations in which you
committed a faux pas (said the wrong thing)?
If your were to teach a foreigner five key phrases in your language that
are unlikely to be in a standard phrase book, what would these be?
Vocabulary You will be given some cards, some of which have statements or
questions addressed to someone on them (marked A) and others which
have short responses to these (marked B).
Find two or three responses for each statement or question.
Listening and You are going to hear ten situations in which you might find yourself.
Speaking After each one you will be given a short time in which to respond.
Say what it seems natural to say. Use any of the phrases you have just
seen that seem appropriate.
Speaking You will be given a card on which there is a description of an everyday
situation.
Work in pairs to act out the situation. Don’t write it down. When you
have finished pass your card on to the next pair.
5.4. Hesitation Phenomena
a) hesitation pauses, comprising unfilled (silent, voiceless), filled (voiced) and mixed
varieties;
b) hesitation drawls, i.e. lengthening of sounds, syllables and words;
c) repetition of syllables and words;
d) false starts to words followed by self-corrections;
e) re-starting a construction or a sentence to conform more to what the speaker wants
to say;
f) unfinished intonation groups, often accompanied by reduced loudness of the voice;
g) fillers-in, such as “well”, “and”, “you see”, “you know”, “in fact”, “I mean”,
“mind you”, “but”, etc.
h) random vocalisations and such “phonetic oddities” as clicks, trills, intakes of
breath etc.

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 5.5.Fillers
In English a lot of phrases are used as “fillers”, to allow time for thought or to
involve the listener in the way the speaker’s mind is working.
I. Look at sentences 1-7 and work out the function of each filler, using clues a-e
below.
1. Well, I did learn Japanese on my own...
2. I mean, my grammar was probably appalling...
3. ... I just remember learning tables in Latin... and in French, you know, the same.
4. ... it was in fact direct method...
5. ... I literally learnt it through learning words, and, in fact, it worked quite well.
6. ... at the same time I felt sort of guilty...
7. ... it was interesting because I actually felt, you know, the most communicative
things... were really exciting and interesting.

a This adds explanation for the listener. ___

b This is a qualifier, often used with adjectives. ___
c This emphasises or adds surprising details. ___
d This usually introduces or continues a sentence. ___
e This often includes the listeners by assuming
that they have certain knowledge. ___

II. Use fillers to complete this dialogue, then check your answers with the tape.
A: Didn’t you learn one of your languages through a very interesting method?
B: Mm, yes, I did. I learnt Turkish here, in London, through a, a (1) ... humanistic
method.
A: Humanistic? What’s that?
B: It’s, mm, (2) ..., a method which is intended to be pleasant, and to give the learners
total involvement and control.
A: Oh, I see. (3) ..., what exactly was it?
B: Ah, (4) ..., it’s called Community Language Learning and it can only really be
done with a teacher who’s totally bilingual. It’s, em, (5) ... translation-based. (6) ...
oral translation, there’s no written translation.
A: So what happens exactly?
B: (7) ..., the learners all sit in a group and decide on a topic they want to talk about,
usually keeping it fairly simple (8) ... asking simple questions about each other.
Someone asks a question, in the foreign language or in their native language if
necessary and the teacher provides any new language, but into the learner’s ear, so
he or she then asks the question in the group.
A: But surely the other learners won’t understand the question?
B: No, (9) ... understanding is easy. That’s the funny thing. I think it’s because of
body language and certain expectations. (10) ..., if you’re talking about work, the
obvious question is “What do you do?”, isn’t it?

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 5.6. Exercises
I. Build up a conversation centred round the following line.
Men can’t be good teachers.
A good teacher must be a real artist.
Teaching a foreign language in school is pointless.
Schoolchildren should be allowed to choose the subjects they want to study.
Things went downhill in education.
You should have a healthy lifestyle and keep to a balanced diet to keep fit.
You were laid up with flu last week, I believe.
Public health care should go hand in hand with private health care.
One should master relaxation techniques to be able to overcome stress.
Alternative medicine has come of age.
Have you heard that traffic in Britain keeps to the left?
The Tower of London has a rich history.
Westminster stands for Parliament.
One of the special joys of London is the amount of space given over to parks,
gardens, squares and open areas.
London museums enjoy a great popularity with London visitors.
The UK has a turbulent history going back some 2000 years.
London is the city of great contrasts.
II. Develop a line into a free conversation.
In my opinion it is preferable to study at a state university than at a private one.
The most interesting and bizarre time of the year to visit Cambridge is during May
Week.
I say at the age of 16 schoolchildren in Great Britain take their GCSE examinations
and then...
My cherished dream is to enter the Teachers’ Training University and to become a
teacher of English.
The most popular spectator sport is football, of course.
If the ball hadn’t been invented, there would have been no sport.
Sport should be competetive otherwise I wouldn’t call it sport take aerobics or body-
building for example.
If you don’t get the exercise that your body wants, then things can go badly wrong.
Britain is a smallish country, but there is hardly a country in the world where such a
variety of scenery can be found in such a small compass.
No wonder the English race is a sea-loving one.
The Highlands of Scotland boast their outstanding beauty with romantic past.
Personally I hate seeing people off.
Travelling by air you have comfort, speed and pleasure combined.

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 5.7. Informational Style
How to hold an audience
The speech should be enjoyed both by audience and speaker...
It should be the aim of the man who wishes to speak in public to arrange and to
express his ideas in such a way that people cannot help listening to what he has to
say...
Your voice shows not only your character but also your mood. Your voice is
you: listen therefore to the voices of other people, and work to improve your own... It
is only with proper preparation that delivery can be spontaneous and that you can
give your whole attention to the audience. The successful speech is the result of
constant, patient practice. Memory, judgement, imagination all play part. Properly
prepared you can concentrate on what you are actually saying. Preparation is a
training in arranging ideas in logical order and in proportion.
Before ever you face your audience you must think long and seriously on the
subject on which you intend to speak.
Distinct speech is possible for everyone provided he takes the trouble to
develop the habit of clear speaking: monotony in the voice may indicate a feeling of
inadequacy. Many people talk habitually with their mouths half-closed. How much
pleasanter it would be to listen to many speakers we know if they had once developed
the habit of opening their mouths.
Speak out as if addressing those at the back. Talk slowly, deliberately,
particularly when you introduce a new idea or an unusual word or phrase...
Be absolutely clear as to what you want to say and say it as simply and as
definitely as possible. Don’t be afraid of opposition.
Use gestures, the only purpose of which is to arrange the communication.

Intonational Peculiarities of Informational Texts

This intonational style is sometimes qualified as “formal”, “neutral”, since in
an ideal setting, in its pure manifestation it is least of all influenced by extralinguistic
factors.
First of all, it happens in the written variety of an informational narrative read
aloud. As is widely known, spoken speech is less imperial, the spoken variety of such
texts expresses more personal concern and involvement. Press reporting and
broadcasting is very close in the manner to reading aloud informational narrative as
the news reader tends to sound impartial when reporting routine news or weather
forecasts, for example.
In this manual we’ll be dealing with an informational narrative read aloud and
its spoken variety since they seem to be most applicable to teaching profession.
Study table 6.

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 Table 6

Phonostylistic Varieties of the language

characteristics Reading Speaking
timbre impartial, neutral, dispassionate neutral, dispassionate,
occasionally conveying a fair
degree of personal involvement,
interested
loudness normal throughout the text, varied (varying from loud to low)
varied at the phonopassage
boundaries
levels and medium levels; ranges are wide mid; a bit narrower than in
ranges reading
tempo normal; even or slow varied; faster than in reading;
slower on emphatic centres
pauses not greatly varied, longer at the varied from long to short;
phonopassage boundaries, hesitation pauses non-predictable
syntactically and semantically
predictable
rhythm even varied
terminal tones falls falls on semantic centres;
Fall-Rise or Low Rise may be in Low Rises, Mid Levels and Fall-
non-final tone group Rises in non-final groups
pre-nuclear descending and level heads varied; common use of level
patterns heads and broken scales

Scientific Style
Lectures and Speeches
Classroom lectures are generally formal in style, but the manner of delivery
may differ (markedly) from one lecture to another. In a university class the size of the
audience has a great deal of influence on the style of the lecture. If the audience of a
small group — up to about 10, for example — the speaker is likely to become rather
informal; in large lecture halls with a hundred or more students present, he will speak
quite differently. If the professor expects the students to make notes, he will speak
more slowly and leave more pauses.
Speeches (orations, public addresses) are quite formal in style even though here
and there they may use slang or other informal speech patterns for special effect. The
delivery of speeches is quite distinctive. The pitch of the speaker’s voice tends to be
higher than his normal speaking range, and the regular intonation patterns of the
language are sometimes exaggerated and even distorted.
These devices were developed originally, of course, so that the speaker could
be understood by large numbers of people who might be some distance away from
him. With modern amplification devices, these speech patterns are no longer as

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necessary as they used to be, but public speakers still use them, probably because
they feel that the audience expects them to. The speech would not seem very
important if it was read without extra emphasis, without unusual pitches and
intonation patterns, without the pauses and other devices that are characteristic of the
oratorial style.
Lectures
1. You should notice the large amount of attention which the lecturer pays to
the organization and presentation of his material. He spends a considerable amount of
time on telling his audience what he is going to say, and how he is going to say it, and
also reminding them of where he has got to, how he wishes them to take some of his
points.
2. Lecturers have the choice of reading the whole of what they wish to say
from the script, or of speaking with the aid of a set of notes. They may in addition to
these two possibilities abandon any kind of written form whatsoever and speak
entirely without notes.
3. No public speech is ever completely spontaneous, in the manner of
conversation, since all such speeches, even those in which no notes are used, will
have been to some extent prepared in advance.
4. Another common influence on public speakers comes from the fact that, if
they are to do their job properly, they must take into account what they sound like to
the audience. Certain requirements of clarity and audibility are difficult to escape, and
the need to quite understanding by means of careful use of pause and intonation —
what is usually called “timing” and “phrasing” — nearly always has some effects on
the language use.
5. This attempt to control sound may be seen as a result of trying also to
control the audience — or at least their attention. Another result of audience control is
to be seen in the tendency to adopt “rhetorical” forms of speech, in which the
listeners are addressed or questioned directly so as to persuade them that they are in
contact with the speakers and to get them more readily round to his way of thinking.
Another effective tool of controling the audience is the use of direct address.
6. The language of public speaking is often a language of addition. Extra facts
and extra arguments are tagged on to those that have gone before — frequently in a
similar grammatical form — so that a speaker may make point clearer by adding
detail or more emphatic or persuasive by repeating it in a slightly different way.

The Intonational Peculiarities of Scientific Style

Attention is focused here on a lecture on a scientific subject and reading aloud
a scientific prose. That is the type of speech that occurs in the written variety of
language in prepared, public, formal discourse.
This style is usually used by university lecturers, school teachers or by
scientists, it is manifested in academic and educational lectures, scientific
discussions, at the conferences, seminars and in classes.
The lecturer’s purpose is:
1) to get the message of the lecture to the audience;

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 2) to attract and guide the attention of the audience;
3) to establish contact with the audience.
This aim is achieved with the help of intonational means.
Table 7

Phonostylistic A lecture
characteristics
timbre authoritative, imposing, instructive, self-assured
loudness increased, sometimes very loud
levels and ranges remarkably varied, either diminished or increased
tempo normal, slow on the most important parts of the lecture (rules,
conclusions, examples). It is as flexible as the lecturer wishes
it to be.
pauses rather long, especially between phonopassages; hesitation
pauses and breath-taking pauses are possible; are not always
semantically predictable
rhythm properly organized; alterating
terminal tones High Fall + Low Rise; Fall-Rise; a great number of high
categoric falls
pre-nuclear patterns stepping and falling heads; alteration of ascending and
descending scales
Phrases used at lessons, lectures:
1. for this reason, emphasis is (should be) given to...
2. In other words...
3. It is no wonder...
4. In addition...
5. It may be said that...
6. In the case of (English)...
7. If we are to examine...
8. Our primary concern will be...
9. It’s true to say...
10. It is well to remember...
11. The lecture is primarily concerned with...
12. It should be remembered...
13. I’d like to remind you first of all, listeners, about...
14. Well, now, today we are going...
15. And we must leave because our time is up...
16. In our next talk we shall have...
17. Is that quite clear, listeners?
18. Well, today we want to start talking about...
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19. I expect some of the listeners are asking themselves what happens...
20. Last time, you may remember, listeners, we spoke about...
21. Listen closely...
22. There’s quite a lot more to say about the... but we shall leave it until next time.
23. I hope you understand...
24. I think we should explain a little more fully about... which is so important in, and
rather difficult to understand.
25. And now our time is up. In our next talk we shall show you some of the ways
which... Good-bye until then...
26. There are three points I’d like to make...
27. ...And another thing.
28. I propose to divide this course of lectures into three main sectors.
29. I could just point out, right at the beginning...
30. Now by the way of introduction, I’d like to try and give some indication of how...
31. Now in my next lecture I hope to demonstrate in detail... as we might call it...
32. But for the moment all I want you to do is to keep the fact of this (double...) in
mind and to consider in a fairly general way what...
33. Well, the first consequence, I suppose, is that the importance of...
34. But in addition to this...
35. But now, before mentioning some of the other consequences — and there were
many of them, some very important and some much less so — now I’d like you
to consider what...
36. But it’s not (the...) that I’m concerned with just now — I shall go into this in
greater detail later in the course...
37. So let me concentrate on the...

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