EE313-Experiment#4: Sensors and basic sensing applications

7.1 Objectives

In this experiment you will learn:

1. Basic principles of LDRs and thermistors.

2. How to use them in a light and temperature sensing circuit.

7.2 Equipment List

1. Multimeters

2. Breadboard

3. Resistors: 1 k, 220 , 10 k, 10 k (potentiometer), LDR and thermistor.

4. DC sources

5. OPAMP (LM 358)

7.3 Preliminary Work (consider ideal OPAMPS!)

1. Study the OPAMP circuits from your notes and textbooks.

2. Sketch an OPAMP comparator circuit and express its output voltage in terms of input voltages.

3. Study the fundamental principles of LDR and RTD from the internet sources and learn the followings:

LDRs (Light Dependent Resistors): They are also called as photoresistors and photocells. As their
names say, they are light dependent (controlled) resistors. The resistance of an LDR decreases with
increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be
used in a light-sensitive detector circuit, and we will use them in light and dark-activated switching
circuits by using an OPAMP comparator circuit.

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An LDR is made up of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark it can have a resistance as high as a
few megaohms (MΩ), while in the light, it can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If
incident light on an LDR exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound
electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole
partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a
photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique LDRs may react
substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands. In some certain light frequencies,
resistance of an LDR inversely changes with the light intensity on it. White light (WL), similar to daylight
(DL), can be thought as a combination of all visible and some invisible light frequencies. We will use this
inverse relation in a mixture of DL and WL medium to sense the reference light intensity by using the
OPAMP comparator circuit.

Thermistors:

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature, more than in
standard resistors. Thermistors are widely used as temperature controlled current limiters, temperature
sensors, overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements. Thermistors differ from Resistance
Temperature Detectors (RTDs) in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or
polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. Moreover, the temperature responses are also different; RTDs are
useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a
limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130 °C.

Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between resistance and temperature is
linear, then:

∆𝑅 = 𝑘∆𝑇

where ∆𝑅 is change in resistance, ∆𝑇 is change in temperature, and 𝑘 is the first-order temperature

coefficient of resistance. Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the classification of
k. If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If k is negative, the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature, and the device is called a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k value as close to 0 as possible, so that their
resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature range. Instead of the temperature coefficient k,
sometimes the temperature coefficient of resistance 𝛼 𝑇 is used. It is defined as follows:

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 1 ∆𝑇
𝛼𝑇 = (Ω−1 )
𝑇 ∆𝑅

4. Analyze the circuit given in Fig. 3.1 by assuming that VA= 4.5 V in a certain potentiometer position.
Determine the output voltage VC for 0<R4<10k Ω. (Note that, since the small resistor R2 is used for short
circuit protection, it can be taken as zero when relatively much higher R1 values are used in our
experiment).

7.4 Experimental Work

1. Place the LDR you are given in a position such that the distance from it to the white light (WL) on your
desk is about 1 cm and measure its resistance. Then repeat it by the distances of about 10 cm, 20 cm, 30
cm, and 40 cm. Light intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the point source
to the point at which its intensity is measured (on the LDR). The light intensity on the LDR can be
thought as a combination of weak DL (in the laboratory) emerging from all directions and stronger WL
with different intensities in each step. Since the resistance value of an LDR increases with decreasing
light intensity, the light intensities and corresponding resistances, when named as position 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
for each position, have the following relations:

Position 1: WL to LDR distance=1 cmI1RLDR1

Position 2: WL to LDR distance=10 cmI2RLDR2

Position 3: WL to LDR distance=20 cmI3RLDR3

Position 4: WL to LDR distance=30 cmI4RLDR4

Position 5: WL to LDR distance=40 cmI5RLDR5

𝐼1 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼3 > 𝐼4 > 𝐼5 ⟺ 𝑅LDR1 < 𝑅LDR2 < 𝑅LDR3 < 𝑅LDR4 < 𝑅LDR5

Here, I1 is maximum (the brightest) on the LDR, so the resistance R1 is minimum. Similarly, I5 is
minimum (the darkest), so the resistance R5 is maximum in our measurement. Record your measurements
in Table 7.1.

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 Table 7.1 Resistance measurements at different light intensities (𝐼1 > 𝐼2 > 𝐼3 > 𝐼4 > 𝐼5 )

Position 1 (I1) Position 2 (I2) Position 3 (I3) Position 4 (I4) Position 5 (I5)

RLDR1=……… Ω RLDR2=……… Ω RLDR3=……… Ω RLDR4=……… Ω RLDR5=……… Ω

2) Measure the room temperature and the resistance value of the thermistor you are given by using the
multimeter. Record them in Table 7.2. You should use the correct measurement probes in correct polarity
insertion and in correct commutator position for the temperature measurements by the multimeter.

3) Now, heat up the thermistor on a piece of copper sheet by the soldiering iron gradually as your
instructor has shown how to do it. As the temperature gradually increases, read the temperature values
and corresponding resistance values to fill in Table 7.2. Then, plot the T-R graph of the thermistor at
home. From Table 7.2, determine the type of it (PTC or NTC): It is a ……….. thermistor.

Table 7.2 Resistance-temperature measurements of the thermistor.

T (°C) R (Ω) T (°C) R (Ω) T (°C) R (Ω)

Troom=……… Rroom=……… 42 60

27 45 63

30 48 66

33 51 69

36 54 72

39 57 75

4) Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1 and place the LDR on an edge of the breadboard in such a way that
the distance between the WL source to the LDR is about 30 cm, which means in position 4 with light
intensity I4 corresponding the LDR resistance of RLDR4 in step 1. Measure the voltage at point B, it should
give nearly:

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 9 × 𝑅LDR4
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉
10000 + 𝑅LDR4

Then measure the potential at point A by adjusting the potentiometer to the following value:

𝑉𝐴 = (𝑉𝐵 + 1) 𝑉

5. Now decrease the light intensity on the LDR by inserting your open hand between the WL and the
LDR perpendicularly and write “ON” or “OFF” for the related LEDs status in Table 7.3. Fill in Table 7.3
by your related measurements.

Table 7.3 Measurements for lightness-darkness sensing

Before lowering the light intensity After lowering the light intensity

VA Status of LED 1 Status of LED 1

……….. ……….
VB
Status of LED2 Status of LED 2
VC
……….. ……….

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6. Suppose you want to use this circuit to lighten your garden at nights automatically. Which LED should
be removed from the circuit? Explain it in your reports.

7. Remove the LDR from the circuit and replace it by the thermistor you used in step 2. Measure the VB
potential and verify it theoretically from:

9 × 𝑅𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉
10000 + 𝑅𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚

Now, adjust the potentiometer so that

𝑉𝐴 = (𝑉𝐵 − 1) 𝑉

8. Now bring the hot soldiering iron near the thermistor and bring the thermometer probe in contact with
the resistor while observing the change in LEDs activation, which might take about a few seconds.
Measure the temperature value at the instant that LEDs activities change and fill in Table 7.4 to determine
the temperature being sensed approximately. Verify this temperature value in your report by the circuit
analysis and using the temperature-resistance graph you obtained in step 3. Explain also the reasons of the
error in your reports

Table 7.4

At room temperature: At the instant that LEDs status change:

Troom=……….., Rroom=………… Tsense=…………, Rsense=………..(from T-R graph)

Status of LED 1=…………. Status of LED 1=………….

Status of LED 2=…………. Status of LED 2=………….

9. Repeat step 8 by adjusting the potentiometer so that

𝑉𝐴 = (𝑉𝐵 − 2) 𝑉

and fill in Table 7.5. (Note: It will take longer to sense the higher temperature during the heating process)

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 Table 7.5

At room temperature: At the instant that LEDs status change:

Troom=……….., Rroom=………… Tsense=…………, Rsense=………..(from T-R graph)

Status of LED 1=…………. Status of LED 1=………….

Status of LED 2=…………. Status of LED 2=………….

10. What is the function of the potentiometer in the circuit in Fig. 7.1 Explain it in your reports.

11. Suppose you want to use this circuit to keep warm by the radiation of a LED at cold temperatures
automatically (you might replace it by a resistive heater). Which LED (or resistive heater) should be
removed from the circuit? Explain it in your reports.

CONCLUSION: