GAS PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Flow-Assurance Challenges in Gas-Storage
Schemes in Depleted Reservoirs
Injection or production of dry gas into
or from a depleted gas reservoir could
result in serious flow-assurance chal-
lenges. Parameters involved in water
evaporation/production and in salt pre-
cipitation for a gas-production/-injec-
tion well are described quantitatively.
The terms of formation damage (skin)
were evaluated, and some recommen-
dations for prediction and mitigation
are proposed. Water in the produced
gas is a major flow-assurance threat
because of the possibility of gas-hydrate
formation in the production system.
Mitigation methods are presented.
Introduction
Gas injected into the depleted reser-
voir normally is a processed/dried gas.
However, after injection, the gas is in
contact with hydrocarbon and aqueous
phases in the reservoir. Therefore, the
composition of the produced gas may
differ from that of the injected gas. More
importantly, the produced gas will have
some water (mainly in the form of vapor
at reservoir conditions) because of the
contact with water in the formation.
During production, the water is produced
with the gas. The net result is evaporation
of water from formation brines, result-
ing in an increased formation-water salt
concentration in the reservoir and salt
formation/deposition. Also, the produced
water may condense in the wellbore and/
This article, written by Senior Technology
Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights
of paper SPE 146239, “Flow-Assurance
Challenges in Gas-Storage Schemes
in Depleted Reservoirs,” by Alireza
Kazemi, SPE, and Bahman Tohidi,
SPE, Hydrafact Ltd., and Emile Bakala
Nyounary, Heriot-Watt University, pre-
pared for the 2011 SPE Offshore Europe
Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition,
Aberdeen, 6–8 September. The paper has
not been peer reviewed.
For a limited time, the full-length paper is available free to SPE members at www.jptonline.org.
JPT • NOVEMBER 2011
or surface facilities, resulting in corro-
sion, hydrate, and/or ice formation.
Background
The study model was a 3D, Cartesian-
grid-type block containing one well.
The model was intended to represent
a portion of a gas field (i.e., drainage
area) with its corresponding producer/
injector. A seasonal natural-gas storage/
production scheme was modeled. First,
production from the reservoir lasted
30 months with a maximum daily gas-
production rate of 45×106 m3/d. Then,
injection was modeled for 3 months at
10×106 m3/d, followed by 4 months of
soaking (i.e., shut-in). Then, for 5 years
the following injection/production cycle
was used: 2 months of production, 3
months of soaking, 3 months of injec-
tion, 4 months of soaking, and 2 months
of production, for each calendar year.
The following properties were
assumed: Reservoir temperature=
104°C, initial reservoir pressure=
250 bar, average porosity=10%, hori-
zontal permeability in x- and y-direc-
tion=100 md, vertical permeability=
10 md, reservoir thickness=110 m, and
reservoir dimensions of 900×900 m.
Connate-water saturation was
assumed to be 10%, with a gas/water
contact at 1005-m depth. The reservoir
gas was assumed to comprise four
main components: methane (highest
concentration), ethane, carbon diox-
ide, and water. The injected dry gas
was assumed to have no water (i.e., 0%
humidity). A modified Peng-Robinson
equation of state was used in the simu-
lation calculations.
Water Production. As pressure declines
during initial field production, gas
expands, rock is compacted, and water
solubility in the gas increases, resulting
in more connate water being evapo-
rated to satisfy thermodynamic equilib-
rium. Generally, producing this amount
of water from the reservoir results in
an increase in the salt concentration
(hence, a reduction in water-vapor pres-
sure and in water evaporation/produc-
tion). However, it is challenging to
model this salt-deposition phenomenon
with commercial simulators.
During injection/production cycles, a
constant water-production-rate increase
was observed that corresponded to
the constant-rate-vaporization period.
During this period, it is assumed that
gas is in contact with connate water
and that the rock surface is saturated;
therefore, vaporization continued until
the falling-rate period occurred. During
the falling-rate period, the rock surface
was no longer saturated; therefore, the
evaporation rate and water-production
rate decreased.
Salinity. Constant salinity was con-
sidered throughout the entire produc-
tion period to predict the maximum
water production for hydrates preven-
tion and to determine inhibitor dosage.
During gas injection/production, a por-
tion of connate water is evaporated for
thermodynamics equilibrium, which
increases with increasing gas rate and
with pressure decline. Higher forma-
tion-water salt concentration tends to
slow the rate of evaporation; therefore,
less water is produced.
Capillary Pressure. Assuming a water-
wet system, if an aquifer is in contact
with the reservoir, the capillary pres-
sure effect will increase the amount
of liquid water produced because the
water moves through small pores hav-
ing the highest capillary pressure. The
higher the capillary pressure, the high-
er the produced-water rate.
Gas Velocity (Gas Rate). An increase
in gas injection/production from
95
10×106 to 15×106 std m3/d results in
a 10% increase in the total water pro-
duced at the end of 91 months of the
injection/production cycle (2550 m3 vs.
2315 m3). This observation indicates
that a higher evaporation rate will occur
in the vicinity of the well and near per-
forations, where the highest gas velocity
will be encountered (resulting in higher
pressure drops). Nevertheless, a higher
gas velocity leaves less time for equi-
librium; thus, there will be less water
evaporation. Further, this higher evapo-
ration rate is likely to occur locally, in
the pore throats, where some reduction
in permeability has happened because
of salt precipitation.
Salt-Induced Skin
By examining the total-water-produc-
tion graphs from previous studies, if no
or a weak aquifer exists, then most of
the produced water could be assumed
to be from evaporation. This situation
could be similar to a well completed far
from the aquifer or in a large gas res-
ervoir during the early gas-production
stage during which no water influx
occurs in the reservoir. These situations
could lead to salt deposition and forma-
tion damage. However, if a large aquifer
support does exist, then the produced
water will be water from evaporation
plus liquid water from water influx.
When considering capillary pressure
in the model, with or without existence
of an aquifer, water is produced along
with gas at each gas-production period
during the five injection/production
cycles. The total amount of water evap-
orated and produced, resulting in salt
transport in the near wellbore region,
will depend strongly on the magnitude
of capillary pressure.
Near-Wellbore Effects
A realistic option is to assume that
most of the water evaporation is likely
to occur in the near-wellbore region,
which will experience maximum for-
mation damage. As water is produced
(evaporated) the deposited salt reduces
the permeability in the evaporation
area. It was observed that because the
zone of evaporation is close to the
wellbore (e.g., 150 m from wellbore),
the effect on gas productivity was more
severe (i.e., 25% less gas production
for the 150-m zone). However, when
considering a radius of approximately
200 m, the effect on gas production and
water production was negligible.
Dynamic Flow
Natural-Depletion Phase. As the pres-
sure decreases while gas is produced
by natural depletion, the molar fraction
of water in the gas phase increases.
Also, the increase in evaporation will
cause salt deposition in the formation,
and the salt precipitation will partially
reduce the pore-throat cross-section-
al flow area, increasing the local gas
velocity and, consequently, the evapo-
ration rate. In radial flow toward the
wellbore, these phenomena combine,
leading to a more-severe halite deposi-
tion near the wellbore and perforations.
Dry-Gas-Injection Phase. As dry gas is
injected into the formation, it contacts
connate water. The result is evapora-
tion of some of the connate water. This
process is driven mainly by the velocity
of the gas and its relative humidity.
Soak Phase (Shut-In). When the well
is shut in for a prolonged period of time
after gas injection, some of the gas will
dissolve in the water, and the molar water

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96 JPT • NOVEMBER 2011

content in the gaseous phase will be at a Economic Implications. Assuming an a significant role with respect to water
maximum. After pressure/temperature arbitrary hydrate-inhibitor dosage of 1% production and amount of inhibitor
stabilization, some of the water in the of the produced-water volume, hydrate- required to prevent hydrate formation.
gas phase may recondense, increasing control-cost comparisons were carried out • Salt precipitation will reduce pore-
the water saturation in the near-wellbore for different water-production scenarios. throat size, resulting in less gas and
region. This recondensation could redis- • An increase of formation salinity water being produced.
solve some of the deposited salt. When from fresh water to brine resulted in Comparing systems with and with-
production is resumed after the soak- 7.5% reduction in hydrate-control cost. out salt precipitation showed a 19%
ing period, salt precipitation will occur • The inhibitor cost when consider- reduction in water production in the
because of pressure drop and water evap- ing moderate capillary pressure was case with salt precipitation and, conse-
oration in the near-wellbore region. 10 times that for the zero-capillary- quently, a hydrate-inhibitor-cost reduc-
pressure case. Capillary pressure plays tion of 19%. JPT
Production-After-Soaking Phase.
Generally, the same production phe-
nomenon occurs in this stage. But
the produced water is a combination
of water in gaseous phase from previ-
ous evaporation (dry-gas injection) and
water evaporated because of pressure
drop. However, as gas is produced, the
salt saturation increases in the near-well-
bore region because of evaporation. This
process could result in water migration
to the near-wellbore region because of
the concentration difference. This ten-
dency is greater when a communicating
aquifer exists.

Reducing Halite Deposition. To reduce

salt precipitation during dry-gas injec-
tion/production, freshwater stimulation
on regular basis is recommended because
salt is highly soluble in water. Regular
water washing will help dissolve salt pre-
cipitates in the near-wellbore region and
perforations. Also, the use of long perfo-
ration intervals rather than deep perfora-
tions is recommended. This method will
increase the interface between formation
and wellbore and, therefore, lessen the
flow restriction. Reducing the pressure
drop in the near-wellbore region by any
means is the main objective.
Formation fracturing could be used to
bypass the damaged zone. The fracture
would provide wider flow paths that
would reduce the gas velocity to the well-
bore and provide a larger well/formation
interface. Consequently, the water-evap-
oration rate and salt precipitation could
be reduced in the near-wellbore region.
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JPT • NOVEMBER 2011 97