Characteristics of bone ingrowth and
interface mechanics of a new porous
tantalum biomaterial
J. D. Bobyn, G. J. Stackpool, S. A. Hacking, M. Tanzer, J. J. Krygier
From the Montreal General Hospital and McGill University, Montreal, Canada
e have studied the characteristics of bone
W ingrowth of a new porous tantalum biomaterial
in a simple transcortical canine model using
cylindrical implants 5
10 mm in size. The material
was 75% to 80% porous by volume and had a
repeating arrangement of slender interconnecting
struts which formed a regular array of
dodecahedron-shaped pores. We performed
histological studies on two types of material, one with
a smaller pore size averaging 430 µm at 4, 16 and 52
weeks and the other with a larger pore size averaging
650 µm at 2, 3, 4, 16 and 52 weeks. Mechanical
push-out tests at 4 and 16 weeks were used to assess
the shear strength of the bone-implant interface on
implants of the smaller pore size.
The extent of filling of the pores of the tantalum
material with new bone increased from 13% at two
weeks to between 42% and 53% at four weeks. By 16
and 52 weeks the average extent of bone ingrowth
ranged from 63% to 80%. The tissue response to the
small and large pore sizes was similar, with regions of
contact between bone and implant increasing with
time and with evidence of Haversian remodelling
within the pores at later periods. Mechanical tests at
four weeks indicated a minimum shear fixation
strength of 18.5 MPa, substantially higher than has
been obtained with other porous materials with less
volumetric porosity.
J. D. Bobyn, PhD, Associate Professor
Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Engineering, Montreal General
Hospital, Rm A2-156, 1650 Cedar Avenue, Montréal, Québec, Canada
H3G 1A4.
G. J. Stackpool, MD
S. A. Hacking, MEng
J. J. Krygier, CET
Jo Miller Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Montreal General Hospital
Research Institute, RMLs 1-409, 1650 Cedar Avenue, Montréal, Québec,
Canada H3G 1A4.
M. Tanzer, MD, FRCS C, Clinical Associate Professor
Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Montreal General Hospital, Rm A2-144,
1650 Cedar Avenue, Montreal, Québec, Canada H3G 1A4.
Correspondence should be sent to Dr J. D. Bobyn.
©1999 British Editorial Society of Bone and Joint Surgery
0301-620X/99/59283 $2.00
VOL. 81-B, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1999
This porous tantalum biomaterial has desirable
characteristics for bone ingrowth; further studies are
warranted to ascertain its potential for clinical
reconstructive orthopaedics.
J Bone Joint Surg [Br] 1999;81-B:907-14.
Received 9 July 1998; Accepted after revision 5 March 1999
In the last 20 years a variety of porous surfaces and
materials has been used to obtain fixation of bone ingrowth
in total hip and knee prostheses. The most common include
titanium and cobalt-chrome-alloy sintered beads, diffusion-
1-8
bonded titanium, fibre metal, and titanium plasma spray.
Based on the clinical outcome and histological evidence
from retrieved implants, it is clear that porous surfaces
support tissue ingrowth or ongrowth and are generally
effective for supplementing the stability of the implant by
9-15
biological fixation.
Nevertheless, conventional porous materials each have
certain deficiencies or weaknesses. For instance, sintered
beaded and fibre metal coatings have a porosity which is
limited to 30% to 50% by volume, a factor which directly
limits the maximum interfacial strength that can develop by
bone ingrowth. Conventional metallic porous materials are
best suited for use as coatings on implants since they do not
readily have the required mechanical and processing char-
acteristics which would allow them to be used as bulk
structural materials for implants, bone augmentation, or
substitutes for bone graft.
A new porous biomaterial made of tantalum has recently
been developed for potential application in reconstructive
16-18
orthopaedics and other surgical disciplines. The materi-
al has an unusually high and interconnecting porosity with
a very regular pore shape and size. It can be made into
complex shapes and used either as a bulk implant or as a
surface coating. Our aim in this study was to characterise
this porous tantalum material in terms of the extent and rate
of bone ingrowth as well as the strength of fixation at the
interface.
Materials and Methods
Implants. The manufacture of the porous tantalum begins
with the pyrolysis of a thermosetting polymer foam pre-
907
908 J. D. BOBYN, G. J. STACKPOOL, S. A. HACKING, M. TANZER, J. J. KRYGIER

Fig. 1a Fig. 1b

Figure 1a – Scanning electron micrograph of porous tantalum showing the cellular

structure formed by the tantalum struts. There is the occasional smaller opening or portal
which interconnects with the larger pores or cells. Figure 1b – Higher power scanning
electron micrograph of a single pore illustrating the surface microtexture on the struts
caused by crystal growth during the process of tantalum deposition. Figure 1c –
Photographs showing transcortical implants with small and large pore sizes.

Fig. 1c

cursor to obtain a low-density vitreous carbon skeleton
which has a repeating dodecahedron array of pores inter-
connected by smaller openings or portals. Commercially
pure tantalum is deposited into and about the carbon skele-
ton using chemical vapour deposition/infiltration (CVD/
CVI) to create a porous metal construct. Because of the
crystallographic growth and orientation of the tantalum
during deposition, the process results in a surface with a
distinct microtexture as shown in Figure 1. Thin CVD/CVI
films of 10 to 100 µm can impart very high mechanical
properties because the deposit is typically 100% dense,
with grain sizes of less than 1 to 5 µm and impurities of
<0.05%. The typical thickness of the tantalum coating is
approximately 50 µm. An increase in thickness of the
tantalum deposition can affect the pore size and mechanical
properties.
Cylindrical implants 5 mm in diameter and 10 mm in
length were made from porous tantalum (Implex Corpora-
tion, Allendale, New Jersey) for use in a canine model as a
transcortical implant (Fig. 1). They had two different pore
sizes. The mean pore size was determined using two tech-
niques in each of which the data were expressed as a mean
with 95% confidence intervals (CI). The first involved
measuring the diameter of 100 dodecahedron-shaped pores,
excluding the smaller connecting portals, based on second-
ary electron SEM images of the two pore sizes. This
method gave a mean pore diameter of 547 µm (95% CI 537
to 557) for implants of smaller pore size and 710 µm (95%
CI 696 to 724) for those of the larger. The second technique
used the line intercept method based on the digital meas-
urement of 1000 pore openings on SEM images of ten
19
different implants. It included all pore lengths inter-
cepting the grid lines, not just the full diameters of the
pores, and therefore gave smaller mean pore sizes with
larger CIs. By this method the mean pore size was found to
be 430 µm (95% CI 413 to 447) in implants with the small
THE JOURNAL OF BONE AND JOINT SURGERY
 CHARACTERISTICS OF BONE INGROWTH AND INTERFACE MECHANICS OF A NEW POROUS TANTALUM BIOMATERIAL
pore size and 650 µm (95% CI 629 to 679) in those with
the larger size. The volume porosity of all implants ranged
from 75% to 80%.
Experimental study. We used skeletally mature mongrel
dogs weighing between 25 and 35 kg. Under standard
aseptic surgical techniques a lateral approach was made to
the femoral diaphysis. A specially designed C-shaped
adjustable jig was clamped to the femur to ensure accurate
and reproducible alignment and sizing of perpendicular
20
drill holes. Bushings which fitted into the jig were used to
guide pilot (2.5 mm) and final (4.95 mm) drills. All the
implant sites were prepared using slow drill speeds and
copious saline irrigation to minimise mechanical and ther-
mal trauma to cortical bone. The final drill hole gave a
slight press-fit of the transcortical implants which were
inserted into the holes with 2 to 3 mm left proud of the
periosteal surface. Four implants were inserted into each
femur of each animal. After surgery the animals were
allowed to recover without limitation of diet or activity.
Implants with a large pore size were the first to be
manufactured and supplied for evaluation. This precluded a
direct comparison of the two pore sizes in the same ani-
mals. Three animals with implants of large pore size (24
implants) were studied at each period of 2, 3, 4, 16 and 52
weeks and three (24 implants) with implants of small pore
size at 4, 16 and 52 weeks. At the end of each study, the
femora were removed and prepared for either undecalcified
thin-section histology or mechanical testing.
Histological examination. Histological preparation includ-
1,20
ed dehydrating, defatting, and embedding in acrylic.
The implants were sectioned either longitudinally through
the centre or transversely. All sections were polished and
sputter-coated for analysis by backscattered SEM. The
longitudinal sections were created as close to the centre of
the implant as possible because only central sections gave a
true impression of the extent of penetration of the ingrowth
of new bone across the full diameter of the implant. We
used computerised image analysis on the longitudinal sec-
tions to determine the extent of bone ingrowth, which was
defined as the percentage of available porosity filled with
new bone. Some sections were subsequently mounted on
slides, ground, polished, and stained with paragon for
qualitative examination by transmitted light microscopy.
Mechanical testing. We performed mechanical testing only
on implants of small pore size. Twelve specimens from the
four-week and six from the 16-week periods had a push-out
test. Femora from each of the three animals in each group
were randomly selected for mechanical testing. They were
stripped of soft tissue and the proximal and distal femoral
metaphyses excised, thus leaving the diaphyseal segment
containing the implants. This was divided longitudinally
into two halves with a band saw to give access to the
implant inside the intramedullary canal. Each implant was
pushed out of the femur with a cylindrical plunger of
4.8 mm diameter attached to the cross-head of a servo-
hydraulic Instron test apparatus (Canton, Massachusetts).
VOL. 81-B, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1999
909
Fig. 2
Diagram of the test arrangement used for the mechanical
push-out tests.
The end of the plunger was brought into contact and
aligned with the intramedullary end of the implant. The
bone was supported in a metal cradle with the implant
centred over a hole 5.5 mm in diameter to provide room for
push-out (Fig. 2). Gaps in the curvature between the femora
and the metal cradle were filled with cold-curing dental
acrylic cement to give uniform support during mechanical
testing. The cradle was mounted to a support on a universal
joint which allowed alignment of the plunger with the
implant. Load was applied to the implant at a cross-head
speed of 0.05 cm/min, a rate which was selected based on
1
previous studies. Load was applied until the bone-implant
interface ruptured or there was compressive collapse of the
implant as defined from the peak on the load-deformation
curve.
1
Following the design of a previous study, after comple-
tion of each push-out test, the remaining femur was divided
into halves through the implant site to allow measurement
of the cortical thickness. This was done at four equidistant
locations to obtain a mean thickness which was used for
calculation of the bone interfacial area. The shear strength
of fixation was calculated by dividing the peak load by this
area. In instances when the implant underwent compressive
failure before rupture of the bone-implant interface, a value
for shear strength could not be calculated but it was
assumed to be at least as great as those obtained from
implants which were successfully tested.
Statistical analysis. Each implant in each femur was trea-
ted independently for statistical analysis. Sample independ-
ence was not verified in separate experiments since in
previous studies this has always been presumed for the
1-7,20
transcortical implant model. The data from all
implants of a given pore size at a given time were tested for
normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and the Marti-
nez-Iglewicz tests. For each data set the mean and 95% CI
were calculated. When data were normally distributed,
differences in the extent of bone ingrowth between the two
types of implant at various times were compared using
910 J. D. BOBYN, G. J. STACKPOOL, S. A. HACKING, M. TANZER, J. J. KRYGIER

Table I. Extent of mean bone ingrowth (%) as a function of pore size and time
Bone ingrowth
Time 95% CI
(weeks) Small pore Large pore for difference p value
2* - 13.3 (n = 24) - -
(95% CI 10.8 to 15.8)
3* - 23.0 (n = 24) - -
(95% CI 20.0 to 26.0)
4 41.5 (n = 12) 52.9 (n = 23)† 6.9 to 15.9 0.00003
(95% CI 37.3 to 45.8) (95% CI 50.4 to 55.4)
16 63.1 (n = 18) 69.2 (n = 24) 1.5 to 10.8 0.01
(95% CI 58.2 to 68.0) (95% CI 67.0 to 71.5)
52 79.7 (n = 24) 70.6 (n = 23)† -12.9 to -5.4 0.000008
(95% CI 76.9 to 82.5) (95% CI 68.3 to 73.0)
* implants of small pore size were not studied at two and three weeks
† 1 implant at four and 52 weeks was not included because of a sectioning error

unpaired Student’s t-tests at the 95% CI to assess sig-
nificance. Data for shear strength from the successful
mechanical tests at four weeks were expressed as a mean
with 95% CI. An unpaired Student’s t-test was used to
compare these with data from an earlier four-week mechan-
ical study in which the dimensions of the implant, the
animal model, surgical technique, mechanical test protocol,
1
and sample size were virtually identical.
Results
Histological analysis. All the groups of data from the
histological analyses were found to have a normal distribu-
tion and were evaluated by Student’s t-tests. Table I gives
details of bone ingrowth and the results of statistical analy-
sis on differences between means. In implants of large pore
size, the mean extent of ingrowth at two and three weeks
was 13.3% and 23.0%, respectively. At four weeks, the
extent of bone ingrowth increased to a mean of 52.9% for
the large pore size compared with 41.5% for the small pore
size, a difference which was statistically significant. At 16
weeks, the difference in mean ingrowth between the large
pore size (69.2%) and the small pore size (63.1%) was also
significant. By 52 weeks, the mean extent of ingrowth of
implants with a small pore size (79.7%) was significantly
greater than that of those with the large size (70.6%).
Backscattered SEM showed a clear pattern of formation
of new bone within the porous tantalum material. At two
weeks, the primary source of the initial formation of bone
was the intramedullary canal and the edges of the drill hole
(Fig. 3). Ingrowth was generally scant and only small
regions of close apposition of bone to the struts of the
porous tantalum were observed. At three weeks it appeared
that more new bone arose from, or was continuous with, the
drilled edges of the cortex (Fig. 4). In some sections there
was a slight periosteal reaction and new bone seemed to be

Fig. 3
Backscattered scanning electron micrograph of a two-week implant with a
large pore size showing bone growth of 13%. New bone appears to arise
from the intramedullary canal and the edges of the drill hole, with little
bone on the periosteal surface. The bony trabeculae are immature and
slender.
Fig. 4
Backscattered scanning electron micrograph of a three-week implant with
a large pore size showing bone ingrowth of 21%. Compared with the
implant at two weeks (Fig. 3) there is increased continuity of new bone
with the drilled cortical edges, additional new bone arising from the
periosteal surface and a general thickening of the bony trabeculae.

THE JOURNAL OF BONE AND JOINT SURGERY

 CHARACTERISTICS OF BONE INGROWTH AND INTERFACE MECHANICS OF A NEW POROUS TANTALUM BIOMATERIAL 911

Fig. 5 Fig. 6

Figure 5 – Transmitted light photomicrograph of an interface region of a four-week implant with a small pore size. The reversal line from
the original drill hole is evident and the microtexture of the tantalum struts is apparent (paragon
15). Figure 6 – Backscattered scanning
electron micrograph of a 16-week implant of small pore size showing ingrowth of 76%. There are many regions of contact between new
bone and the tantalum struts. A pronounced periosteal reaction has resulted in additional incorporation of the implant by new bone.
Haversian remodelling is evident within the porous network.

there was very dense ingrowth and extensive bone-implant

Fig. 7
Backscattered scanning electron micrograph of a transverse section
through a 52-week implant with a small pore size with ingrowth of 84%.
There is some residual porosity around the tantalum struts but relatively
complete incorporation of the implant.
partly generated from the periosteal surface. Overall, there
was more ingrowth than at two weeks and hence more
regions of apparent contact of bone with tantalum struts.
The four-week implants showed more complete ingrowth
and many regions of apparent contact between new bone
and the porous material in all histological sections (Fig. 5).
Ingrowth of bone across the full diameter of the implant
was common. At 16 (Fig. 6) and 52 weeks (Figs 7 and 8)
VOL. 81-B, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1999
apposition although there were regions of porosity that
were not filled with bone and tantalum struts which
remained incompletely surrounded by new bone. The
ingrowth often extended abundantly above the periosteal
aspect of the femur and showed cortical remodelling within
the pores into Haversian systems. In some sections, partic-
ularly at four and 16 weeks, there was noticeable intra-
cortical porosity adjacent to the implants, suggestive of a
remodelling phenomenon associated with increased blood
flow and bone turnover during the repair process (Figs 5
and 6).
Mechanical testing. Six of the four-week implants with
small pore sizes were successfully tested mechanically in
that the interface ruptured before mechanical collapse of
the implant. The mechanical test data were found to have a
normal distribution. The mean shear strength was calcu-
lated to be 18.5 MPa (95% CI 17.4 to 19.6). The remaining
six implants at four weeks and all six implants tested at 16
weeks had compressive failure before rupture of the bone-
implant interface. For both time periods, this suggested that
the values of shear strength were higher than those calcu-
lated from the successful tests at four weeks.
Discussion
Our study has given an initial characterisation of the
response of bone to a new porous tantalum biomaterial in a
canine transcortical model. Substantial filling of the pores
with new bone to 40% to 50% occurred by four weeks with
912 J. D. BOBYN, G. J. STACKPOOL, S. A. HACKING, M. TANZER, J. J. KRYGIER
Fig. 8a
Transmitted light micrographs of a transverse section through a 52-week implant with small pore size. There are multiple regions of intimate bone-strut
contact and evidence of a vascular supply throughout the ingrown bone (paragon; a)
11, b)
27).
implants of both pore sizes. This resulted in a mean shear
fixation strength of at least 18.5 MPa (
2700 PSI). Com-
pared with previous studies using porous-coated trans-
cortical implants, high fixation strength occurred much
earlier with porous tantalum. The data from this investiga-
tion are best compared with those of an earlier study in
which sintered, beaded cobalt-chrome transcortical
implants spanning similar pore sizes were used because
1
both had equivalent protocols. The maximum mean shear
strength obtained at four weeks with the beaded cobalt-
chrome implants was 9.3 MPa (95% CI 8.3 to 10.3), a
difference of 9.2 MPa (95% CI 7.8 to 10.6) which was
significant (Student’s t-test; p=0.004). Studies using other
porous metals and different implants and testing techniques
have reported fixation strengths to cortical bone at four
3,21
weeks ranging from 1.2 MPa to 13.1 MPa.
The increased rate of development of the interfacial
shear strength with porous tantalum can best be attributed
to the higher volume fraction available for ingrowth. While
fibre metal coatings have a porosity of 40% to 50% and
sintered-beaded coatings of the type studied by Bobyn et
1
al of only 30% to 35%, the porous tantalum material
examined in this study had a substantially higher porosity
of 75% to 80%. This meant that for any given percentage
filling, a greater volume of bone was present within the
porous tantalum, thus giving a proportionate increase in
interface strength. The end result was a faster rate of
development of strength. The higher porosity of the porous
tantalum also theoretically allowed a higher ultimate
strength to develop. Clinically, however, the rate of fixation
may be more important since the time required for second-
ary stabilisation of an implant by bone ingrowth can influ-
ence the load-bearing after operation.
The measured strength of the interface probably repre-
sents a lower bond since half of the implants at four weeks
and all at 16 weeks failed in compression before rupture of
the interface. The compressive failure indicated a certain
reduction in mechanical properties associated with the high
Fig. 8b
porosity of porous tantalum. The latter, however, has a high
strength:weight ratio and overall mechanical properties
17
which would be adequate for most clinical applications.
The bulk properties of the porous tantalum can be con-
trolled by the manufacturing process; additional strength
can be obtained simply by additional deposition of tantalum
on to the struts. This indicates the need for supplementary
characterisation of the mechanical properties of the materi-
al with different processing parameters.
The pore sizes of both types of implant which we
evaluated were at the upper limit of the characteristics of
pore size of conventional porous materials. Nevertheless,
the rates of bone ingrowth and the overall extent of filling
of the porosities with new bone were very high. There were
statistical differences in the mean extent of bone ingrowth
between the two pore sizes at the different time periods.
Implants with the large pore size initially had greater
ingrowth, but by 52 weeks those with the small pore size
were more completely ingrown. These differences may
have resulted from the slight inherent variations in pore
characteristics between the two types of implant or from
interanimal variability in the healing response. In any case,
the relative differences were not large and unlikely to result
in any practical or meaningful clinical consequence. The
material of small pore size, by virtue of its higher density of
struts per unit volume, inherently has stronger mechanical
properties and hence would probably be preferred for most
clinical applications.
It is possible that the surface microtexture of the struts
forming the porous material contributed to the overall
osteogenic response. Cell-culture studies and studies in
animals with both unloaded and dynamically loaded
implants have shown that microtextured surfaces such as
those produced by grit blasting or acid etching are highly
22-25
osteophilic. The histological studies clearly showed
that the porous tantalum served as an effective scaffold for
relatively complete incorporation with new bone by 16
weeks, with little change after 52 weeks of implantation.
THE JOURNAL OF BONE AND JOINT SURGERY
 CHARACTERISTICS OF BONE INGROWTH AND INTERFACE MECHANICS OF A NEW POROUS TANTALUM BIOMATERIAL
Although not as realistic as a fully-functional load-
bearing model, the transcortical model is very useful for the
initial characterisation of new porous biomaterials. It
allows control of several parameters which influence the
bone-healing response. Using the appropriate instruments,
holes can be drilled with accuracy and reproducibility, thus
ensuring a uniform initial fit of the implant. The density of
the peri-implant bone is consistent and thus allows equita-
ble comparison of data within and between animals.
Although implants for joint replacement are primarily sur-
rounded by cancellous bone, retrieval analyses have shown
that the most consistent and abundant source of bone
ingrowth in hip prostheses is from cortical regions. The
model has also been used in many previous studies of
porous materials and therefore allows comparison with
1,3-6,8,20
historical controls.
From a manufacturing standpoint, tantalum is partic-
ularly well suited to the complex CVD/CVI process used
for deposition on to the vitreous carbon substrate. It is a
strong, ductile metal with excellent corrosion resistance.
More than 50 years ago its potential in regard to human
implants was studied in animal and human experi-
26-29 30
ments. It has been used for a wide variety of implants
31 32
including pacemaker electrodes, cranioplasty plates,
33 34
ligation clips, femoral endoprostheses, as wire, foil and
35
mesh for nerve repair, contrast media for airwave radio-
36
graphic studies, and as a radiopaque marker for following
37
bone growth and implant migration. Osseointegration has
previously been demonstrated using non-porous tantalum
implants in dental and orthopaedic applications for periods
38-41
of up to 8 to 12 years. Its superb biocompatibility and
suitable mechanical properties have led to its standardisa-
30,42
tion as a surgical implant material.
The tantalum construct which we have evaluated repre-
sents a departure from conventional porous materials in
many respects. Because of its high porosity, its structural
stiffness is in the relatively low range of about 2.5 to
17
4.0 GPa, similar to subchondral bone, which could be
advantageous in bone remodelling. The material could be
used as a backing for direct compression moulding of
polyethylene-bearing components or as a fixation surface
on an implant substrate. Unlike sintered beads, fibre metal
or porous materials used with plasma spray, its structural
integrity allows it to be readily formed in bulk parts for the
filling of bone defects or other reconstructive applications
requiring standard or customised shapes and sizes of the
implant. Its porous geometry may also be advantageous for
combination with agents which favour osteoconduction or
osteoinduction. Based on the results of our study we
conclude that it offers interesting potential for orthopaedic
reconstructive procedures and that further studies are
warranted.
The authors are grateful for support from Implex Corporation, Allendale,
New Jersey in the form of the transcortical implants and partial funding
for the study. Financial support was also provided by the Medical
Research Council of Canada. Technical assistance was provided by A.
Kay, MSc, DDs, J. L. McGowan, BA, and K.-K. Toh, MD.
VOL. 81-B, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 1999
913
One or more of the authors have received or will receive benefits for
personal or professional use from a commercial party related directly or
indirectly to the subject of this article.
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