RESEARCH AND EDUCATION
Understanding phenomenology:
the lived experience
By Taniya Mapp
Abstract
This article details the use of Phenomenology as a research
method which is to fully describe a person’s lived experience
of an event or experience. It stresses that only those that have
experienced phenomena can communicate them to the outside
world. It therefore provides an understanding of an experience
from those who have lived it.
The two schools of phenomenology which are described are
utilized in both midwifery and nursing research. These are
Husserlian and Heideggerian (Hermeneutics) phenomenology.
The main focus in this article, however, is on the Husserlian
approach, its background, data collection, data analysis methods
and its application to midwifery research.
P
henomenology as a research method, I believe has so
much to offer both from the researchers and partici-
pants perspectives, but it can be confusing to under-
stand if you are new to it. Therefore the intention of this
article is to introduce you to the concept of phenomenology,
particularly the Husserlian approach, its background and its
application to midwifery research
Phenomenology
Phenomenology is derived from philosophy and provides
a framework for a method of research. It is based within
the Humanistic research paradigm and follows a qualitative
approach (Denscombe, 2003). The goal of phenomeno-
logical enquiry is to fully describe a lived experience. It
stresses that only those that have experienced phenomena
can communicate them to the outside world (Todres and
Holloway, 2004). It therefore answers questions of mean-
ing in understanding an experience from those who have
experienced it.
Phenomenology as a philosophical method of inquiry
was developed by the German philosopher Edmond Husserl
(1859–1938). He is acknowledged as the founder of the phe-
nomenological movement (Koch, 1995). The phenomenolog-
ical term ‘lived experience’ is synonomous with this research
approach. Husserl’s drive for phenomenological enquiry was
derived from the belief that experimental scientific research
Taniya Mapp is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Midwifery
and Reproductive Health, Faculty of Health and Social Care,
University of Chester
E-mail: t.mapp@chester.ac.uk
308
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could not be used to study all human phenomena and had
become so detached from the fabric of the human experience,
that it was in fact obstructing our understanding of ourselves
(Crotty, 1996). He felt driven to establish a rigorous science
that found truth in the lived experience (LoBiondo-Wood
and Haber, 2002). Phenomenology therefore aims to develop
insights from the perspectives of those involved by them
detailing their lived experience of a particular time in their
lives (Clark, 2000). It is about searching for meanings and
essences of the experience. It obtains descriptions of experi-
ences through first-person accounts during informal one-to-
one interviews. These are then transcribed and analyzed for
themes and meanings (Moustakas, 1994) allowing the experi-
ence to be understood.
Background
Although Husserl founded the phenomenological approach
(Polit et al, 2001) it is not the single phenomenologi-
cal method. Other phenomenologists who have shaped
this philosophy and research method into an existential
approach are Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973), Jean-Paul Sartre
(1905–1980) and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961).
According to Cohen (2000) they are referred to as the
French phase of phenomenology, whereas Husserl and
Martin Heidegger (who was mentored by the former) are
the German phase.
Heidegger developed another phenomenological approach
known as Hermeneutics meaning interpretation (Annells,
1996). It differs to Husserlian phenomenology, in that the
researchers bring their own understanding and experiences
to the research process, whereas the former advocates ‘brack-
eting’ (Walters, 1995). Bracketing is the suspension of the
researcher’s own preconceptions, beliefs or prejudices so that
they do not influence the interpretation of the respondents’
experience (Parahoo, 2006).
Husserlian phenomenology therefore requires the
researcher to suspend personal beliefs about the research
phenomena, while seeking to describe the participants’ expe-
riences. Conversely, Heideggerian phenomenology suggests
that researchers interpret the data collected in terms of their
own experiences and knowledge.
There are three Schools of Phenomenology (Polit et al,
2001) and the first two are the focus for midwifery and
nursing research. The first school follows the Husserlian
approach. Its main focus is on description and it has been
further developed by the Duquesne school of researchers
of Van Kaam (1966), Colaizzi (1978) and Giorgi (1985).
The second school is guided by the Heideggerian approach,
utilizing interpretive Hermeneutics as its basis. The third
BRITISH JOURNAL OF MIDWIFERY, MAY 2008, VOL 16, NO 5

school is referred to as the Dutch or Utrecht school, its
approach combines the characteristics of descriptive and
interpretive phenomenology and its application to social sci-
ence has been promoted by Van Manen (1984) (Holloway
and Wheeler, 2002).
However, understanding phenomenology can be complicat-
ed and confusing when first embarking on its use as a research
approach. This is realized by discovering that some authors
and researchers put forward phenomenological enquiry as a
single approach (Oiler, 1982; Jasper, 1994; Rowan, 2003),
when in essence midwifery and nursing research literature
concentrates on the two methods of Husserl and Heidegger
(Hermeneutics) (Beck, 1994; Walters, 1995; Somer-Smith,
2001; Lawler and Sinclair, 2003). This suggests that there are
two main phenomenological approaches which are used in
midwifery and nursing research. Confusion however persists
in trying to understand these approaches, particularly when
midwifery and nursing authors do not always attribute phe-
nomenology to its philosophical school of either descriptive
or interpretive phenomenology.
Phenomenology has different applications dependent on
the authors who have founded and developed it. This should
therefore be recognized in midwifery research to increase
knowledge and the use of the most appropriate phenomeno-
logical research approach for the phenomenon to be studied.
Following a Husserlian approach the researcher will aim to
‘bracket’ her beliefs to describe the experience people have
had, as opposed to using a Heiderggerian approach, whereby
the experiences are interpreted and analyzed through the
researcher’s own knowledge and experience. While either
approach is acceptable in midwifery research, I tend to
favour Husserlian phenomenology. This is because it does
not have the constraints of the Heiderggerian approach
whereby the researcher is required to have detailed first-
hand knowledge on the subject matter in order to provide
an interpretation. Husserlian phenomenology can provide a
greater degree of flexibility as the researcher is not required
to have in-depth knowledge of the data under scrutiny, but
is still able to provide a very vivid descriptive account of the
lived experience from the perspectives of those who have
experienced them. Box 1 gives examples of midwifery studies
that have used the Husserlian approach.
Sampling
The type of sampling used in phenomenology is purposive
sampling because it selects individuals who will have knowl-
Box 1. Examples of research studies using
Husserlian phenomenology
n You cope by breaking down in private: fathers and
PTSD following childbirth (White, 2007)
n Feelings & fears during obstetric emergencies Part 1
(Mapp and Hudson, 2005)
n Women’s expectations and experiences of childbirth
(Gibbins and Thomson, 2001)
n Women’s experiences of pain during childbirth
(Lundgren and Dahlberg, 1998)
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RESEARCH AND EDUCATION
‘
The practice of midwifer y
is grounded in the holistic
belief system that cares for
mind, body and spirit (Tiran,
’
1999) ...
edge of the phenomena concerned (Clifford, 1997) and this
therefore allows an understanding of the lived experience.
The sample can represent participants who are living the
experience or those that have lived the experience in their
past (Cohen, 2002), for example, ‘Women’s experiences of
obstetric emergencies’ (Mapp and Hudson, 2005).
It is suggested by Carpenter (1999) that the sample size
in phenomenological research should be small, so that each
experience can be examined in depth. Its aim is not to gener-
alize the findings, therefore large numbers of participants are
not required. However, it can be difficult to predict sample
size using this research method because sampling should
continue until saturation is achieved, i.e. no new categories
occur during data collection (Macnee, 2004). Once the
participants are selected the following procedures must be
achieved prior to data collection. Informed consent must be
obtained, confidentiality is ensured, permission is obtained
to audiotape the interviews and to publish the results, and a
time and place is agreed for data collection.
Data collection
In both Husserlian and Heidergerrian phenomenology
research the optimum method for data collection is by
unstructured one-to-one interviews (van Teijlingen and
Ireland, 2003).The following researchers Beck (1992);
Berg and Dahlberg (1998); Ng and Sinclair (2002); and
Thornburg (2002) used an unstructured approach for their
interview format. They initiated the interview with a ques-
tion such as ‘tell me about your experience’. These experi-
ences are then transcribed and analyzed for themes and
meanings allowing the experience to be understood.
However the technique of phenomenological inter-
viewing following a Husserlian approach differs to the
Heidegerrian approach in that it requires the researcher to
put aside her preconceived ideas regarding the subject of the
interview prior to data collection. Therefore the researcher
is required to follow the process of ‘bracketing’, i.e. setting
aside pre-judgment.
The advantages to using interviews are that they draw
from the interviewee a vivid picture of the experience,
which leads to understanding of shared meanings (Sorrell
and Redmond, 1995). This fulfills the aim of Husserlian
phenomenology, which is to describe peoples’ experiences
of phenomena and how they understand it. This, however,
can only be achieved if the participants are not influenced
by the researcher.
Moustakas (1994) suggests that the interview begins with
a social conversation aimed at creating a relaxed and trust-
309
 RESEARCH AND EDUCATION
ing atmosphere. Then for the researcher to suggest that the
interviewee takes a few moments to focus on the experience
fully, prior to the start of the interview. By revealing to the
participants that the researcher is supportive and trustwor-
thy, this allows them to describe their experiences without
bias until data saturation is achieved.
The length of a phenomenological interview is guided
by the process of saturation i.e. when the narratives become
repetitive and no new data is revealed. When data satura-
tion is reached, then sampling will stop. Data saturation in
Berg and Dahlberg’s (1998) study was reached between 30
and 120 minutes, whereas Lunqvist and colleagues’ (2002)
interviews achieved saturation between 60 and 90 minutes.
The majority of phenomenological interviews are audio-
taped to provide a rich source of data, which can be analyzed
after the interview. Nuances of description may be missed
if the interviewer is handwriting the notes of the interview
while it is occurring. In addition Robinson (2006) would
suggest that the researcher should have the facility to make
notes once the tape recording has finished, because at this
time it is not unusual for participants to provide rich data.
There are disadvantages to using this data collection
method. It can be time consuming, labour intensive
(Carpenter, 1999), costly and requires interviewers to be
highly skilled in this technique (Polit et al, 2001; Parahoo,
2006). However, Robinson (2000) would suggest that
midwives are equipped with the appropriate communica-
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tion skills to conduct interviews using a phenomenological
approach. As to where the location for the interview should
be, it is usually in an environment where a participant
spends their time.
Data analysis
In trying to identify the most appropriate method of data
analysis, there appears to be three mainstay methods of analy-
sis using a Husserlian phenomenological approach. These
data analysis methods belong to the Duquesne school of phe-
nomenology (Polit et al, 2001). These are namely the meth-
ods devised by Colaizzi (1978), Giorgi (1985) and Van Kaam
(von Eckartsberg, 1998). Holloway and Wheeler (2002)
believe that once the researcher has decided on which school
of phenomenology to follow, i.e. Husserlian or Hermeneutics,
she will be guided on using the most appropriate steps in data
analysis, which is advocated by the approach.
The three data analysis methods of Van Kaam (von
Eckartsberg, 1998), Colaizzi (1978), and Giorgi (1985)
share common features of interpretation; they all transcribe
the data and this is then coded into themes. Key words
are noticed in the transcripts which identify the themes
(Robinson, 2006). Yet there are differences between these
methods. Giorgi’s method would appear to differ from
Colaizzi’s in that the former synthesises the grouped state-
ments. Van Kaam’s method differs to both the Colaizzi and
Giorgi methods in that a hypothetical identification of the
BRITISH JOURNAL OF MIDWIFERY, MAY 2008, VOL 16, NO 5

phenomenon is formulated and tested against random cho-
sen samples. It is revised following testing on other cases and
finally the description is identified (Crotty, 1996). Colaizzi’s
method differs to both Giorgi and Van Kaam in that final
validation of the study is provided by the participants who
are given the description of the experience to verify. This
would suggest that data analysis using a phenomenological
approach is complicated. However Robinson (2006) believes
that Colaizzi’s data analysis method is the most user-friendly
and can be applied by a novice or experienced researcher to
provide a clear description of the phenomenon.
Conclusion
The practice of midwifery is grounded in the holistic belief
system that cares for mind, body and spirit (Tiran, 1999) and
relates well to the Humanistic research paradigm in which
phenomenology is based. Caring for or researching only one
part as in the quantitative approach is inconsistent with mid-
wifery practice. Phenomenology requires the exploration of
the whole person and is, therefore, seen as a suitable method
to study phenomena important to midwifery. Husserlian
phenomenology can enable midwives to study experiences of
the childbirth process in depth, within the context of those
experiencing it. It provides a window to view women’s unique
experiences of childbirth, which would otherwise not be
known and can facilitate improvement in practice. BJM
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Key Points
n Phenomenology is derived from philosophy and provides a
framework for a method of research.
n There are two main phenomenological approaches which
are used in midwifery and nursing research: Husserlian and
Heideggerian (Hermeneutics).
n Phenomenology is seen as a suitable method to study
phenomena important to midwifery practice.
n Husserlian phenomenology can enable midwives to study
experiences of the childbirth process in depth, within the
context of those experiencing it.
311